Timeline of computing 1990–1999

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History of computing

Hardware

* Hardware before 1960
* Hardware 1960s to present

Software

* Software
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* Free software and open-source software

Computer science

* Artificial intelligence
* Compiler construction
* Computer science
* Operating systems
* Programming languages
* Prominent pioneers
* Software engineering

Modern concepts

* General-purpose CPUs
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* Internet
* Laptops
* Personal computers
* Video games
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By country

* Bulgaria
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Timeline of computing

* before 1950
* 1950–1979
* 1980–1989
* 1990–1999
* 2000–2009
* 2010–2019
* more timelines ...

Glossary of computer science

* Category

* v
* t
* e

This article presents a detailed timeline of events in the history of computing from 1990 to 1999. For narratives explaining the overall developments, see the History of computing.

## Contents

* 1 1990
* 2 1991
* 3 1992
* 4 1993
* 5 1994
* 6 1995
* 7 1996
* 8 1997
* 9 1998
* 10 1999
* 11 References
* 12 External links

## 1990

Date  | Event

|

1990  | Motorola releases the 68040 capable of 35 MIPS and integrated a far superior FPU. The 68040 was included in some of the Apple Macintosh and Commodore Amiga lineup.
March 19  | Macintosh IIfx released. Based on a 40 MHz version of the 68030 it achieved 10 MIPS. It also had a faster SCSI adapter, which could transfer 3.0 Mbit/s.
May 22  | Introduction of Windows 3.0 by Microsoft.[1] It is a multitasking system that maintains compatibility with MS-DOS, allowing several MS-DOS tasks to be run at once on an 80386 or above. This created a real threat to the Macintosh and despite a similar product, IBM's OS/2, it was very successful.
June  | Commodore releases the Amiga 3000, the first 32-bit Amiga. It used a Motorola 68030 processor and the upgraded ECS chipset. Amiga OS 2.0 was released with the launch of the A3000, which exploited its 32-bit architecture. Later variants included the Amiga 3000UX, launched as a low end UNIX workstation, running UNIX System V. The A3000T was the first Amiga to use a tower form factor, which increased expansion potential.
October 1  | Microsoft Office released.[2]
October 15  | Macintosh Classic released,[3] an identical replacement to the Macintosh Plus of January 1986. Also came the Macintosh IIsi which ran a 68030 processor at 20 MHz to achieve 5.0 MIPS, and also a 256 colour video adapter.
November 12
November  | Macintosh LC released. This ran a 68020 processor at 16 MHz to achieve 2.6 MIPS, it had a slightly improved SCSI adapter and a 256 colour video adapter.
1990  | Multimedia PC (MPC) Level 1 specification published by a council of companies including Microsoft and Creative Labs. This specified the minimum standards for a Multimedia IBM PC. The MPC level 1 specification originally required a 12 MHz 80286 microprocessor, but this was later revised to require a 16 MHz 80386SX microprocessor as the 80286 was realised to be inadequate. It also required a CD-ROM drive capable of 150 kB/s (single speed) and also of Audio CD output. Companies can, after paying a fee, use the MPC logo on their product.

## 1991

Date  | Event

|

1991  | Borland acquires Ashton-Tate Corporation and the Dbase program.
1991  | Phil Zimmermann releases the public key encryption program PGP along with its source code, which quickly appears on the Internet.
March  | Commodore release the CDTV, an Amiga multimedia appliance with CD-ROM drive but no floppy drive.
April 22  | The Intel 80486 SX is released as a cheaper alternative to 80486 DX, with the key difference being the lack of an integrated FPU.
May  | Creative Labs introduces the Sound Blaster Pro sound card.
June  | To promote OS/2, Bill Gates took every opportunity after its release to say 'DOS is dead'; however, the development of DOS 5.0 led to the permanent dropping of OS/2 development.

Unlike version 4, this version was properly tested through the distribution of beta versions to over 7,500 users. This version included the ability to load device drivers and TSR programs above the 640 KiB boundary (into UMBs and the HMA), freeing more RAM for programs. This version marked the end of collaboration between Microsoft and IBM on DOS.

August  | The Linux kernel is born with the following post to the Usenet Newsgroup comp.os.minix by Linus Torvalds, a Finnish college student:
"Hello everybody out there using minix- I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones."[4]

Linux has become one of the most widely used Unix-like operating system kernels in the world today. It originally only ran on Intel 386 processors, but years later added many different types of computers (now includes complete range from small to supercomputers and IBM mainframes), including Sun SPARC, DEC/Compaq Alpha, and many ARM, MIPS, PowerPC, and Motorola 68000 based computers.

In 1992, the GNU project adopted the Linux kernel for use with GNU systems while they waited for the development of their own kernel, GNU Hurd, to be completed. The GNU project's aim is to provide a complete and free Unix-like operating system, combining the Hurd or Linux kernel with a complete suite of free software to run on it. Torvalds changed the licence of the Linux kernel from one prohibiting commercial use to the GNU General Public License on February 1, 1992.

## 1992

Date  | Event

|

1992  | First 64-bit microprocessors; the first 64-bit variant of MIPS, the MIPS R4000 was introduced in 1992 (announced October 1, 1991) and another major RISC microprocessor, DEC Alpha (no longer produced), was also introduced in 1992. Intel had introduced the Intel i860 RISC microprocessor in 1989, marketed as a "64-bit microprocessor", while it had essentially a 32-bit architecture (non-pure "32/64-bit"), enhanced with a 3D graphics unit capable of 64-bit. Computers with 64-bit registers (but not addressing, and not microprocessors) had appeared decades earlier, as far back as IBM 7030 Stretch (considered a failure) in 1962, and in the Cray-1 supercomputer installed at Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1976.
1992  |

> Windows NT addresses 2 gigabytes of RAM which is more than any application will ever need

— Microsoft on the development of Windows NT.[citation needed][context needed]

|- valign="top"  | ?  | Introduction of CD-i launched by Philips.[5]
1992  | The PowerPC 601, developed by IBM, Motorola and Apple Computer, was released. This was the first generation of PowerPC processors.
1992  | The last "luggable" computer of the Compaq Portable series, the Compaq Portable 486, was released.
1992  | IBM ThinkPad 700C laptop created. It was lightweight compared to its predecessors.[6]
March  | First release of 386BSD: the first fully operational Unix operating system to be completely free and open source, and to be able to ran on PC-compatible computer systems based on the 32-bit Intel 80386 ("i386").
April  | Introduction of Windows 3.1[7]
May  | Wolfenstein 3D released by id Software[8]
June  | Sound Blaster 16 ASP introduced by Creative Labs.
October  | Commodore International releases the Amiga 1200 and Amiga 4000. Both machines included the improved Advanced Graphics Architecture chipset. The 1200 had a 14 MHz 68020 processor; the 4000 had a 25 MHz 68040.
November 10  | Digital Equipment Corporation introduces the Alpha AXP architecture and the Alpha-based DEC 3000 AXP workstations, DEC 4000 AXP departmental servers and the DEC 7000 AXP enterprise servers.

## 1993

Date  | Event

|

January 23  | Mosaic graphical web browser launched.[9][10]
1993  | Commercial providers were allowed to sell Internet connections to individuals. Many people began using the Internet, especially with the new interface provided by the World-Wide Web (see 1989) and NCSA Mosaic.
1993  | Release of the first version of ELOQUENS, a text-to-speech commercial software, from CSELT.[11]
1993  | The first web magazine, The Virtual Journal, is published but fails commercially.
1993  | Novell purchases Digital Research; DR DOS becomes Novell DOS.
1993  | The MP3 file format was published. This sound format later became the most common standard for music on PCs and later digital audio players.[12]
March  | Microsoft introduces MS-DOS 6.0, including DoubleSpace disk compression.
March 22  | Intel releases the P5-based Pentium processor, 60 and 66 MHz versions. It has over 3.1 million transistors and can achieve up to 100 MIPS. John H. Crawford co-managed the design of the P5;[13] Donald Alpert managed the architectural team;[14] and Vinod K. Dham headed the P5 group.[15]
May  | MPC Level 2 specification introduced (see November 1990). This was designed to allow playback of a 15 frames per second video in a 320x240 pixel window. The key difference from MPC level 1 is the requirement of a CD-ROM drive capable of 300 kB/s (double speed). Products are also required to be tested by the MPC council, making MPC Level 2 compatibility a stamp of certification.
June  | Severe Tire Damage made the first live music performance on the Internet, using MBone technology.
July 27  | Microsoft released the Windows NT 3.1 operating system that supported 32-bit programs.
December 10  | Doom was released by id Software.
The PC began to be considered as a serious games-playing machine, reinforced by the earlier release in November of Sam & Max Hit the Road.

## 1994

Date  | Event

|

1994  | Several major PC games are released, such as Command & Conquer, Alone in the Dark 2, Theme Park, Magic Carpet, Descent and Little Big Adventure. Other, less significant releases for the PC included Star Trek: The Next Generation: A Final Unity, Full Throttle and Terminal Velocity.
This success of the PC as a games platform was partly due to and partly a cause of significantly increased PC ownership among the general public during the early–mid 1990s. This also reflected the rapidly increasing quality of games available for the PC.
1994  | Peter Shor devises an algorithm which lets quantum computers determine the factorization of large integers quickly. This is the first interesting problem for which quantum computers promise a significant speed-up, and it therefore generates a lot of interest in quantum computers.
1994  | DNA computing proof of concept on toy travelling salesman problem; a method for input/output still to be determined.[16]
1994  | Motorola released the 68060 processor.
1994
June  | Microsoft releases MS-DOS 6.22, containing disk compression under the name DriveSpace after settling a dispute with Stac over their compression program, Stacker. Microsoft had removed DoubleSpace from MS-DOS 6.21 in February after a jury found them guilty of patent infringement, and a judge later ordered Microsoft to recall all unsold infringing products worldwide. MS-DOS 6.22 was the last standalone version of MS-DOS released.
March 7  | Intel released Pentium processor, 90 and 100 MHz versions.
March 14  | Linus Torvalds released version 1.0 of the Linux kernel.
April 29  | Commodore International declares bankruptcy. Commodore's assets were eventually sold to German PC manufacturer ESCOM in 1995.
August  | IBM releases the IBM Simon a forerunner to the smartphone.
September  | PC DOS 6.3 is released, essentially the same as version 5.0; this release by IBM included more bundled software, such as Stacker and anti-virus software.
October 10  | Intel releases the Pentium processor, 75 MHz version.[17]
December 1994  | Netscape Navigator 1.0 web browser released.[6] It was written as an alternative to NCSA Mosaic.
December 3  | Sony releases its first PlayStation console in Japan; to date, over 100 million units have been sold.

## 1995

Date  | Event

|

?  | Zip drive removable floppy disk storage introduced.[18]
March 1995  | Linus released Linux Kernel v1.2.0 (Linux 95).
March 27, 1995  | Intel released Pentium processor, 120 MHz version.
May 23, 1995  | Sun Microsystems first announces Java at the SunWorld conference.
June 1, 1995  | Intel released Pentium processor, 133 MHz version.
August 24, 1995  | Microsoft releases Windows 95, replacing Windows 3.1 with a pre-emptively multitasked 32-bit operating system that integrated MS-DOS and Windows.
October 3, 1995  | Be Inc. launch the BeBox, featuring two PowerPC 603 processors running at 66 MHz, and running their new operating system BeOS.
November 1, 1995  | Intel released Pentium Pro, 150, 166, 180, and 200 MHz versions, on one day. It was the first product based on the P6 microarchitecture, later used in the Pentium II, III, M, and Core processors. It achieves 440 MIPS and contains 5.5 million transistors; this is nearly 2,400 times as many as the first microprocessor, the 4004; and capable of 70,000 times as many instructions per second.
November 6, 1995  | 3dfx releases Voodoo, the first consumer 3D accelerator, able to render scenes in real time and in high resolution. GLQuake (an OpenGL port of Quake) is the first popular game using this new technology. Other games soon follow, including Tomb Raider.
December 1995  | JavaScript development announced by Netscape.
December 21, 1995  | First public release of the Ruby programming language (version 0.95)
December 28, 1995  | CompuServe blocked access to over 200 sexually explicit Usenet newsgroups, partly to avoid confrontation with the German government. Access to all but five groups was restored on February 13, 1996.

## 1996

Date  | Event

|

1996  | Nokia released the Nokia 9000, the first of Nokia's smartphones.[19]
1996  | Quake released – representing the dramatic increases in both software and hardware technology since Doom, of three years prior.[20] Other notable releases included Civilization 2, Tomb Raider,[21] Software:Command & Conquer: Red Alert[22] and Grand Prix Manager 2.[23] On the more controversial front Battlecruiser 3000AD was also released, but its advertising had to be censored.
January  | Netscape Navigator 2.0 released. First browser to support JavaScript.
Windows 95 OSR2 (OEM System Release 2) was released - partly to fix bugs found in release 1 - but only to computer retailers for sale with new systems. There were actually two separate releases of Windows 95 OSR2 before the introduction of Windows 98, the second of which contained both USB and FAT32 support - the main selling points of Windows 98. FAT32 is a new filing system that provides support for disk partitions bigger than 2.1 GB and is better at coping with large disks (especially in terms of wasted space).
January 4  | Intel released Pentium processor, 150 and 166 MHz versions.
April 17  | Toshiba released the Libretto sub-notebook. With a volume of 821.1 cm3 and a weight of just 840 g, it was the smallest PC compatible computer to be released at that time.
June 9  | Linux 2.0 released and it was a significant improvement over the earlier versions: it was the first to support multiple architectures (originally developed for the Intel 386 processor, it now supported Digital's Alpha architecture and would very soon support the SPARC architecture, and many others). It was also the first stable kernel to support SMP, kernel modules, and much more.
July 4  | Hotmail, founded by Sabeer Bhatia and Jack Smith, is commercially launched on Independence Day in the United States, symbolically representing freedom from Internet service providers. (Hotmail is now owned and operated by Microsoft; it is rebranded as Outlook.com in 2013.)
July 14  | The first public release of Opera, version 2.1 for Windows.[24]
September 23  | Audio Highway announced the Listen Up player, the first MP3 digital audio player.[25] It was later released in September 1997.
October 6  | Intel releases a 200 MHz version of the Pentium processor.
November  | Telecom Italia released TIM Card, the first prepaid card for cellular phones in the world; designed by CSELT.
December  | id Software releases QuakeWorld, a version of Quake designed for Internet multiplayer games. Several innovative features such as movement prediction make the game playable even over low-speed and high-latency Internet connections.

## 1997

Date  | Event

|

?  | Tim Berners-Lee awarded the Institute of Physics' 1997 Duddell Medal for inventing the World Wide Web (see 1989).
?  | Grand Theft Auto and Quake 2 were released while Lara Croft returned in Tomb Raider II. As standards for graphics kept increasing, 3D graphics cards were beginning to become mandatory for game players.
January 8  | Intel released Pentium MMX, 166 and 200 MHz versions. Its MMX instruction set is designed to increase performance when running multimedia applications.
May 7  | Intel releases the Pentium II processor, 233, 266, and 300 MHz versions. It has a larger on-chip cache and expanded instruction set.
May 11  | IBM's Deep Blue became the first computer to beat a reigning World Chess Champion, Garry Kasparov, in a full chess match. The computer had played him before, losing 5/6 games in February 1996.
June 2  | Intel released Pentium MMX, 233 MHz version.
August 6  | After 18 months of losses Apple Computer was in serious financial trouble. Microsoft invested in Apple, buying 100,000 non-voting shares worth $150 million; many Apple owners disapproved. One condition was that Apple would drop the long-running court case; attempting to sue Microsoft for copying the look and feel of their operating system when designing Windows.
September  | Internet Explorer 4.0 was released.

## 1998

Date  | Event

|

January  | Compaq Computer Corporation announces pending acquisition of Digital Equipment Corporation for $9.6 billion.
February  | Intel released the 333 MHz Pentium II processor. Code-named Deschutes, they used the new 0.25 micrometre manufacturing process, so they can run faster and generate less heat.
March  | Be Inc. released BeOS R3. This was the first BeOS version available for x86 PCs and Power Macs.
May
June 25  | Microsoft released Windows 98.[26] Some U.S. attorneys tried to block its release since the new OS interfaces with other programs, such as Microsoft Internet Explorer, and so effectively closes the market of such software to other companies. Microsoft has fought back with a letter to the White House suggesting that 26 of its industry allies say that a delay in the release of the new OS could damage the U.S. economy. The main selling points of Windows 98 were its support for USB and its support for disk partitions greater than 2 GB with FAT32 (although FAT32 was actually released with Windows 95 OSR2).
September  | Upstart eMachines announces two home PCs priced at $399 and $499, creating the sub-$600 market and launching a price war. Within four months, the new company becomes the No. 5 computer maker at retail.

## 1999

Date  | Event

|

January 25  | Linux Kernel 2.2.0 is released. The number of people running Linux is estimated at over 10 million, making it an important operating system in the Unix market, and increasingly so in the PC market.
February 22  | AMD releases a K6-III clocked at 400 MHz and a 450 MHz version for OEMs. It contains about 23 million transistors, and requires motherboards using a Super Socket 7. It supports a 100 MHz front side bus (FSB), an improvement over AMD's prior chips that used a 66 MHz FSB. The use of a 100 MHz FSB brought technical equivalence with the 100 MHz FSB used on the Intel Pentium II.
August 31  | Apple releases the Power Mac G4.[27] It is powered by the PowerPC G4 chip from Motorola. Available in 400 MHz, 450 MHz and 500 MHz versions, Apple claimed it as the first personal computer to be capable of over one billion floating-point operations per second.
October 11  | Nvidia releases Geforce 256, claiming to be the first consumer level Graphics Processor Unit with Transform and Lighting Engine.  |
November 29  | AMD releases an Athlon clocked at 750 MHz.

## References

1. ↑ "Vision for the Future". The Making of Microsoft: How Bill Gates and His Team Created the World's Most Successful Software Company. Prima Publishing. 1991. p. 239. ISBN 1-55958-071-2. https://archive.org/details/makingofmicrosof00ichb/. Retrieved January 14, 2020.
2. ↑ The History of Microsoft - 1990. Archived from the original on October 3, 2021. Retrieved February 14, 2025.
3. ↑ "Macintosh Classic: Technical Specifications". July 26, 2017. http://support.apple.com/kb/SP198.
4. ↑ "Redirecting to Google Groups". https://groups.google.com/forum/#!msg/comp.os.minix/dlNtH7RRrGA/SwRavCzVE7gJ.
5. ↑ "Philipscdi.com :: History". https://www.philipscdi.com/history.htm.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `null2007`
7. ↑ Bajpai, S. K. (2007) (in en). Introduction To Computers And C Programming. New Age International. p. 96. ISBN 9788122413793. https://books.google.com/books?id=4hpKj29LPuAC&pg=PA96.
8. ↑ Sanglard, Fabien (2017) (in en). Game Engine Black Book: Wolfenstein 3D. Sanglard Publishing. p. 71. https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq4yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71.
9. ↑ Kirschenbaum, Matthew (July 2013), "10 Most Influential Software Programs Ever", Slate (USA), http://www.slate.com/blogs/browbeat/2013/07/30/_10_most_influential_software_programs_of_all_time_from_sabre_to_minecraft.html
10. ↑ Stewart, William. "Mosaic – The First Global Web Browser". http://www.livinginternet.com/w/wi_mosaic.htm.
11. ↑ Balestri, Marcello; Lazzaretto, Stefano; Salza, Pier Luigi; Sandri, Stefano (22 September 1993). "The CSELT system for Italian text-to-speech synthesis". 3rd European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology (Eurospeech 1993). pp. 2091–2094. doi:10.21437/Eurospeech.1993-468.
12. ↑ "Performance of a software MPEG video decoder". Proceedings of the first ACM international conference on Multimedia - MULTIMEDIA '93. ACM Multimedia. New York City: Association for Computing Machinery. 1993-09-01. pp. 75–82. doi:10.1145/166266.166274. ISBN 978-0-89791-596-0. https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/166266.166274. Retrieved 15 December 2021. Reference 3 in the paper is to Committee Draft of Standard ISO/IEC 11172, December 6, 1991.
13. ↑ p. 54, "Intel Turns 35: Now What?", David L. Margulius, InfoWorld, July 21, 2003, ISSN 0199-6649.
14. ↑ p. 21, "Architecture of the Pentium microprocessor", D. Alpert and D. Avnon, IEEE Micro, 13, #3 (June 1993), pp. 11–21, doi:10.1109/40.216745.
15. ↑ p. 90, "Inside Intel", Business Week, #3268, June 1, 1992.
16. ↑ Adleman, L. M. (1994). "Molecular computation of solutions to combinatorial problems". Science 266 (5187): 1021–1024. doi:10.1126/science.7973651. PMID 7973651. Bibcode: 1994Sci...266.1021A. — The first DNA computing paper. Describes a solution for the directed Hamiltonian path problem. Also available here: "Archived copy". http://www.usc.edu/dept/molecular-science/papers/fp-sci94.pdf.
17. ↑ "Intel Microprocessor Quick Reference Guide - Year". http://www.intel.com/pressroom/kits/quickrefyr.htm#1994.
18. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `CornellTimeline`
19. ↑ "Nokia 8 hopes to beat Apple and Samsung with 'bothie', a new version of the selfie". 16 August 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/aug/16/nokia-8-bothie-flagship-android-smartphone-apple-samsung.
20. ↑ "How 'Quake' Changed Video Games Forever". Rolling Stone. June 22, 2016. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/news/how-quake-changed-video-games-forever-20160622. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
21. ↑ Berger, Arthur Asa (2017) (in en). Video Games: A Popular Culture Phenomenon. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 9781351299947. https://books.google.com/books?id=JJsuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT58.
22. ↑ "How 'Command & Conquer: Red Alert' Changed Strategy Games Forever". Rolling Stone. https://www.rollingstone.com/glixel/news/how-command-conquer-red-alert-changed-strategy-games-w448186. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
23. ↑ "Grand Prix Manager 2 for Windows (1996)". http://www.mobygames.com/game/grand-prix-manager-2.
24. ↑ "Affiliated Organization of Firefox and Mozilla". Mozilla Foundation. 2006. http://www.foxkeh.com/downloads/history/history-original.pdf.
25. ↑ "Audio Highway Announces the Listen UP Player -- A New Device that Delivers Personalized Audio Content to Information-Hungry, On-the-Go Consumers - Free Online Library". http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Audio+Highway+Announces+the+Listen+UP+Player+--+A+New+Device+that...-a018696161.
26. ↑ Paul Thurrott (March 11, 1998). "Windows 98 release date set: June 25". WinInfo. http://windowsitpro.com/article/articleid/17693/windows-98-release-date-set-june-25.html.
27. ↑ "Apple steps up to G4 Macs". ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/apple-steps-up-to-g4-macs-5000095960/.

## External links

* A Brief History of Computing, by Stephen White. The present article is a modified version of his timeline, used with permission.

* v
* t
* e

Timelines of computing

Computing|

* before 1950
* 1950–1979
* 1980s
* 1990s
* 2000s
* 2010s

Software|

| Open-source software|

* 1970s
* 1980s
* 1990s
* 2000s
* 2010s
* 2020s

|

Programming languages|

Hypertext technology|

Operating systems|

* DOS family
* Windows
* Linux

Virtualization development|

Malware|

Computer science|

* Artificial intelligence
* Quantum computing

Internet|

* Web browsers
* Internet conflicts

Men in computing|

* John Vincent Atanasoff
* Charles Babbage
* John Backus
* George Boole
* Vint Cerf
* John Cocke
* Stephen Cook
* J. Presper Eckert
* David A. Huffman
* Bob Kahn
* Brian Kernighan
* Andrew Koenig
* Donald Knuth
* Joseph Kruskal
* Douglas McIlroy
* John von Neumann
* Dennis Ritchie
* Guido van Rossum
* Bjarne Stroustrup
* Ken Thompson
* Linus Torvalds
* Alan Turing
* Paul Vixie
* Larry Wall
* Stephen Wolfram
* Steve Wozniak

Women in computing|

* Kathleen Antonelli
* Jean Bartik
* Adele Goldstine
* Lois Haibt
* Betty Holberton
* Ada Lovelace
* Margaret Hamilton
* Grace Hopper
* Nancy Leveson
* Marlyn Meltzer
* Klara Dan von Neumann
* Frances Spence
* Ruth Teitelbaum

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