Occupational safety and health

Short description: Field concerned with the safety, health and welfare of people at work

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Template:Labour Template:Public health sidebar Occupational safety and health (OSH) or occupational health and safety (OHS) is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people at work (i.e., while performing duties required by one's occupation). OSH is related to the fields of occupational medicine and occupational hygiene[lower-alpha 1] and aligns with workplace health promotion initiatives. OSH also protects all the general public who may be affected by the occupational environment.[4]

According to the official estimates of the United Nations, the WHO/ILO Joint Estimate of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury, almost 2 million people die each year due to exposure to occupational risk factors.[5] Globally, more than 2.78 million people die annually as a result of workplace-related accidents or diseases, corresponding to one death every fifteen seconds. There are an additional 374 million non-fatal work-related injuries annually. It is estimated that the economic burden of occupational-related injury and death is nearly four per cent of the global gross domestic product each year. The human cost of this adversity is enormous.[6]

In common-law jurisdictions, employers have the common law duty (also called duty of care) to take reasonable care of the safety of their employees.[7] Statute law may, in addition, impose other general duties, introduce specific duties, and create government bodies with powers to regulate occupational safety issues. Details of this vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.

Prevention of workplace incidents and occupational diseases is addressed through the implementation of occupational safety and health programs at company level.[8]

## Contents

* 1 Definitions
* 2 History
* 2.1 Beginnings
* 2.2 The Industrial Revolution in Britain
* 2.3 Continental Europe
* 2.4 United States
* 3 Workplace hazards
* 4 By industry
* 4.1 Primary sector
* 4.1.1 Agriculture
* 4.1.2 Mining and oil and gas extraction
* 4.2 Secondary sector
* 4.2.1 Construction
* 4.3 Tertiary sector
* 4.3.1 Healthcare and social assistance
* 4.3.2 Transportation
* 4.3.2.1 Bus drivers
* 4.3.2.2 Auto mechanics
* 5 Workplace fatality and injury statistics
* 5.1 Worldwide
* 5.2 European Union
* 5.3 Russia
* 5.4 United Kingdom
* 5.5 United States
* 6 Management systems
* 6.1 Standards
* 6.1.1 International
* 6.1.2 National
* 7 Identifying OSH hazards and assessing risk
* 7.1 Hazards, risks, outcomes
* 7.2 Hazard identification
* 7.3 Risk assessment
* 8 National legislation and public organizations
* 8.1 Australia
* 8.2 Canada
* 8.3 China
* 8.4 European Union
* 8.4.1 Denmark
* 8.4.2 Netherlands
* 8.4.3 Ireland
* 8.4.4 Spain
* 8.4.5 Sweden
* 8.5 India
* 8.6 Indonesia
* 8.7 Japan
* 8.8 Malaysia
* 8.9 Saudi Arabia
* 8.10 Singapore
* 8.11 South Africa
* 8.12 Syria
* 8.13 Taiwan
* 8.14 United Arab Emirates
* 8.15 United Kingdom
* 8.16 United States
* 9 Professional roles and responsibilities
* 9.1 The Netherlands
* 9.2 Norway
* 10 Education and training
* 10.1 Formal education
* 10.2 Informal training
* 10.3 Workplace Injury Prevention
* 10.4 Use of virtual reality
* 11 Contemporary developments
* 11.1 Artificial intelligence
* 11.2 Coronavirus
* 11.3 Nanotechnology
* 11.4 Occupational health inequalities
* 11.5 Transnational and immigrant worker populations
* 12 See also
* 12.1 Regulations
* 12.2 Related fields
* 13 Notes
* 14 References
* 14.1 Sources
* 15 Further reading
* 16 External links
* 16.1 International agencies
* 16.2 National bodies
* 16.3 Legislation
* 16.4 Publications
* 16.5 Education

## Definitions

The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) share a common definition of occupational health.[lower-alpha 2] It was first adopted by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its first session in 1950:[10][11]

> Occupational health should aim at the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations; the prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychological capabilities and; to summarize: the adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job.

— Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health, 1st Session (1950)

In 1995, a consensus statement was added:[10][11]

> The main focus in occupational health is on three different objectives: (i) the maintenance and promotion of workers' health and working capacity; (ii) the improvement of working environment and work to become conducive to safety and health and (iii) development of work organizations and working cultures in a direction which supports health and safety at work and in doing so also promotes a positive social climate and smooth operation and may enhance productivity of the undertakings. The concept of working culture is intended in this context to mean a reflection of the essential value systems adopted by the undertaking concerned. Such a culture is reflected in practice in the managerial systems, personnel policy, principles for participation, training policies and quality management of the undertaking.

— Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health, 12th session (1995)

An alternative definition for occupational health given by the WHO is: "occupational health deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention of hazards."[12]

The expression "occupational health", as originally adopted by the WHO and the ILO, refers to both short- and long-term adverse health effects. In more recent times, the expressions "occupational safety and health" and "occupational health and safety" have come into use (and have also been adopted in works by the ILO),[13] based on the general understanding that occupational health refers to hazards associated to disease and long-term effects, while occupational safety hazards are those associated to work accidents causing injury and sudden severe conditions.[14]

## History

Research and regulation of occupational safety and health are a relatively recent phenomenon. As labor movements arose in response to worker concerns in the wake of the industrial revolution, workers' safety and health entered consideration as a labor-related issue.[15]

### Beginnings

File:Ramazzini.jpgBernardino Ramazzini

Written works on occupational diseases began to appear by the end of the 15th century, when demand for gold and silver was rising due to the increase in trade and iron, copper, and lead were also in demand from the nascent firearms market. Deeper mining became common as a consequence. In 1473, Ulrich Ellenbog [de; de], a German physician, wrote a short treatise On the Poisonous Wicked Fumes and Smokes, focused on coal, nitric acid, lead, and mercury fumes encountered by metal workers and goldsmiths. In 1587, Paracelsus (1493–1541) published the first work on the mine and smelter workers diseases. In it, he gave accounts of miners' "lung sickness". In 1526, Georgius Agricola's (1494–1553) De re metallica, a treaty on metallurgy, described accidents and diseases prevalent among miners and recommended practices to prevent them. Like Paracelsus, Agricola mentioned the dust that "eats away the lungs, and implants consumption."[16]

The seeds of state intervention to correct social ills were sown during the reign of Elizabeth I by the Poor Laws, which originated in attempts to alleviate hardship arising from widespread poverty. While they were perhaps more to do with a need to contain unrest than morally motivated, they were significant in transferring responsibility for helping the needy from private hands to the state.[15]

In 1713, Bernardino Ramazzini (1633–1714), often described as the father of occupational medicine and a precursor to occupational health, published his De morbis artificum diatriba (Dissertation on Workers' Diseases), which outlined the health hazards of chemicals, dust, metals, repetitive or violent motions, odd postures, and other disease-causative agents encountered by workers in more than fifty occupations. It was the first broad-ranging presentation of occupational diseases.[16][17][18]

Percivall Pott (1714–1788), an English surgeon, described cancer in chimney sweeps (chimney sweeps' carcinoma), the first recognition of an occupational cancer in history.[16]

### The Industrial Revolution in Britain

File:Robert Peel - Project Gutenberg etext 13103.jpgSir Robert Peel

The United Kingdom was the first nation to industrialize. Soon shocking evidence emerged of serious physical and moral harm suffered by children and young persons in the cotton textile mills, as a result of exploitation of cheap labor in the factory system. Responding to calls for remedial action from philanthropists and some of the more enlightened employers, in 1802 Sir Robert Peel, himself a mill owner, introduced a bill to Parliament with the aim of improving their conditions. This would engender the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802, generally believed to be the first attempt to regulate conditions of work in the United Kingdom. The act applied only to cotton textile mills and required employers to keep premises clean and healthy by twice yearly washings with quicklime, to ensure there were sufficient windows to admit fresh air, and to supply "apprentices" (i.e., pauper and orphan employees) with "sufficient and suitable" clothing and accommodation for sleeping.[15] It was the first of the 19th century Factory Acts.

Charles Thackrah (1795–1833), another pioneer of occupational medicine, wrote a report on The State of Children Employed in Cotton Factories, which was sent to the Parliament in 1818. Thackrah recognized issues of inequalities of health in the workplace, with manufacturing in towns causing higher mortality than agriculture.[16]

The Factory Act 1833 created a dedicated professional Factory Inspectorate.[19] The initial remit of the Inspectorate was to police restrictions on the working hours in the textile industry of children and young persons (introduced to prevent chronic overwork, identified as leading directly to ill-health and deformation, and indirectly to a high accident rate).[15]

In 1840 a royal commission published its findings on the state of conditions for the workers of the mining industry that documented the appallingly dangerous environment that they had to work in and the high frequency of accidents. The commission sparked public outrage which resulted in the Mines and Collieries Act 1842. The act set up an inspectorate for mines and collieries which resulted in many prosecutions and safety improvements, and by 1850, inspectors were able to enter and inspect premises at their discretion.[20]

On the urging of the Factory Inspectorate, a further Factory Act 1844 giving similar restrictions on working hours for women in the textile industry introduced a requirement for machinery guarding (but only in the textile industry, and only in areas that might be accessed by women or children).[21] The latter act was the first to take a significant step toward improvement of workers' safety, as the former focused on health aspects alone.[15]

The first decennial British Registrar-General's mortality report was issued in 1851. Deaths were categorized by social classes, with class I corresponding to professionals and executives and class V representing unskilled workers. The report showed that mortality rates increased with the class number.[16]

### Continental Europe

Otto von Bismarck inaugurated the first social insurance legislation in 1883 and the first worker's compensation law in 1884 – the first of their kind in the Western world. Similar acts followed in other countries, partly in response to labor unrest.[16]

### United States

Harry McShane, age 16, 1908. Pulled into machinery in a factory in Cincinnati and had his arm ripped off and his leg broken without any compensation.[22]

The United States is responsible for the first health program focusing on workplace conditions. This was the Marine Hospital Service, inaugurated in 1798 and providing care for merchant seamen. This was the beginning of what would become the US Public Health Service (USPHS).[16]

The first worker compensation acts in the United States were passed in New York in 1910 and in Washington and Wisconsin in 1911. Later rulings included occupational diseases in the scope of the compensation, which was initially restricted to accidents.[16]

In 1914 the USPHS set up the Office of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation, the ancestor of the current National Institute for Safety and Health (NIOSH). In the early 20th century, workplace disasters were still common. For example, in 1911 a fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York killed 146 workers, mostly women and immigrants. Most died trying to open exits that had been locked. Radium dial painter cancers, "phossy jaw", mercury and lead poisonings, silicosis, and other pneumoconioses were extremely common.[16]

The enactment of the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 was quickly followed by the 1970 Occupational Safety and Health Act, which established the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and NIOSH in their current form.[16]

## Workplace hazards

Various health and safety warning campaigns have sought to reduce workplace hazards, such as this one about ladder safety.

A wide array of workplace hazards can damage the health and safety of people at work. These include but are not limited to, "chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse ergonomic conditions, allergens, a complex network of safety risks," as well a broad range of psychosocial risk factors.[23] Personal protective equipment can help protect against many of these hazards.[24] A landmark study conducted by the World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization found that exposure to long working hours is the occupational risk factor with the largest attributable burden of disease, i.e. an estimated 745,000 fatalities from ischemic heart disease and stroke events in 2016.[25] This makes overwork the globally leading occupational health risk factor.[26]

Physical hazards affect many people in the workplace. Occupational hearing loss is the most common work-related injury in the United States, with 22 million workers exposed to hazardous occupational noise levels at work and an estimated $242 million spent annually on worker's compensation for hearing loss disability.[27] Falls are also a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and maintenance.[28] Machines have moving parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards with the potential to crush, burn, cut, shear, stab or otherwise strike or wound workers if used unsafely.[29]

Biological hazards (biohazards) include infectious microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria and toxins produced by those organisms such as anthrax. Biohazards affect workers in many industries; influenza, for example, affects a broad population of workers.[30] Outdoor workers, including farmers, landscapers, and construction workers, risk exposure to numerous biohazards, including animal bites and stings,[31][32][33] urushiol from poisonous plants,[34] and diseases transmitted through animals such as the West Nile virus and Lyme disease.[35][36] Health care workers, including veterinary health workers, risk exposure to blood-borne pathogens and various infectious diseases,[37][38] especially those that are emerging.[39]

Dangerous chemicals can pose a chemical hazard in the workplace. There are many classifications of hazardous chemicals, including neurotoxins, immune agents, dermatologic agents, carcinogens, reproductive toxins, systemic toxins, asthmagens, pneumoconiotic agents, and sensitizers.[40] Authorities such as regulatory agencies set occupational exposure limits to mitigate the risk of chemical hazards.[41] International investigations are ongoing into the health effects of mixtures of chemicals, given that toxins can interact synergistically instead of merely additively. For example, there is some evidence that certain chemicals are harmful at low levels when mixed with one or more other chemicals. Such synergistic effects may be particularly important in causing cancer. Additionally, some substances (such as heavy metals and organohalogens) can accumulate in the body over time, thereby enabling small incremental daily exposures to eventually add up to dangerous levels with little overt warning.[42]

Psychosocial hazards include risks to the mental and emotional well-being of workers, such as feelings of job insecurity, long work hours, and poor work-life balance.[43] Psychological abuse has been found present within the workplace as evidenced by previous research. A study by Gary Namie on workplace emotional abuse found that 31% of women and 21% of men who reported workplace emotional abuse exhibited three key symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (hypervigilance, intrusive imagery, and avoidance behaviors).[44] Sexual harassment is a serious hazard that can be found in workplaces.[45]

## By industry

Specific occupational safety and health risk factors vary depending on the specific sector and industry. Construction workers might be particularly at risk of falls, for instance, whereas fishermen might be particularly at risk of drowning. Similarly psychosocial risks such as workplace violence are more pronounced for certain occupational groups such as health care employees, police, correctional officers and teachers.[46]

### Primary sector

#### Agriculture

Rollover protection bar on a Fordson tractor Beekeeper wearing protective clothing

Agriculture workers are often at risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin disease, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use or prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms, injuries frequently involve the use of agricultural machinery. The most common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in the United States is tractor rollovers, which can be prevented by the use of roll over protection structures which limit the risk of injury in case a tractor rolls over.[47] Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health,[48] and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illnesses or birth defects.[49] As an industry in which families, including children, commonly work alongside their families, agriculture is a common source of occupational injuries and illnesses among younger workers.[50] Common causes of fatal injuries among young farm worker include drowning, machinery and motor vehicle-related accidents.[51]

The 2010 NHIS-OHS found elevated prevalence rates of several occupational exposures in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector which may negatively impact health. These workers often worked long hours. The prevalence rate of working more than 48 hours a week among workers employed in these industries was 37%, and 24% worked more than 60 hours a week.[52] Of all workers in these industries, 85% frequently worked outdoors compared to 25% of all US workers. Additionally, 53% were frequently exposed to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes, compared to 25% of all US workers.[53]

#### Mining and oil and gas extraction

The mining industry still has one of the highest rates of fatalities of any industry.[54] There are a range of hazards present in surface and underground mining operations. In surface mining, leading hazards include such issues as geological instability,[55] contact with plant and equipment, rock blasting, thermal environments (heat and cold), respiratory health (black lung), etc.[56] In underground mining, operational hazards include respiratory health, explosions and gas (particularly in coal mine operations), geological instability, electrical equipment, contact with plant and equipment, heat stress, inrush of bodies of water, falls from height, confined spaces, ionising radiation, etc.[57]

According to data from the 2010 NHIS-OHS, workers employed in mining and oil and gas extraction industries had high prevalence rates of exposure to potentially harmful work organization characteristics and hazardous chemicals. Many of these workers worked long hours: 50% worked more than 48 hours a week and 25% worked more than 60 hours a week in 2010. Additionally, 42% worked non-standard shifts (not a regular day shift). These workers also had high prevalence of exposure to physical/chemical hazards. In 2010, 39% had frequent skin contact with chemicals. Among nonsmoking workers, 28% of those in mining and oil and gas extraction industries had frequent exposure to secondhand smoke at work. About two-thirds were frequently exposed to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes at work.[58]

### Secondary sector

#### Construction

Construction workers not wearing fall protection equipment Workplace safety notices at the entrance of a Chinese construction site Leather craftsman gloves, safety goggles, and a properly fitted hard hat are crucial for proper safety in a construction environment

Construction is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European Union.[59][60] In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among construction workers in the United States was nearly three times that for all workers.[59] Falls are one of the most common causes of fatal and non-fatal injuries among construction workers.[59] Proper safety equipment such as harnesses and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail the risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry.[61] Due to the fact that accidents may have disastrous consequences for employees as well as organizations, it is of utmost importance to ensure health and safety of workers and compliance with HSE construction requirements. Health and safety legislation in the construction industry involves many rules and regulations. For example, the role of the Construction Design Management (CDM) Coordinator as a requirement has been aimed at improving health and safety on-site.[62]

The 2010 National Health Interview Survey Occupational Health Supplement (NHIS-OHS) identified work organization factors and occupational psychosocial and chemical/physical exposures which may increase some health risks. Among all US workers in the construction sector, 44% had non-standard work arrangements (were not regular permanent employees) compared to 19% of all US workers, 15% had temporary employment compared to 7% of all US workers, and 55% experienced job insecurity compared to 32% of all US workers. Prevalence rates for exposure to physical/chemical hazards were especially high for the construction sector. Among nonsmoking workers, 24% of construction workers were exposed to secondhand smoke while only 10% of all US workers were exposed. Other physical/chemical hazards with high prevalence rates in the construction industry were frequently working outdoors (73%) and frequent exposure to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes (51%).[63]

### Tertiary sector

The service sector comprises diverse workplaces. Each type of workplace has its own health risks. While some occupations have become mobile, others still require desk work. As the number of service sector jobs has risen in developed countries, many jobs have turned sedentary, presenting an array of health problems that differ from previous health concerns associated with manufacturing and the primary sector. Contemporary health problems include obesity. Some working conditions, such as occupational stress, workplace bullying, and overwork, have negative consequences for physical and mental health.[64][65]

Tipped wage workers are at a higher risk of negative mental health outcomes like addiction or depression. The higher rates of mental health issues may be attributed to the precarious nature of their employment, characterized by low and unpredictable incomes, inadequate access to benefits, wage exploitation, and minimal control over work schedules and assigned shifts.[66] Close to 70% of tipped wage workers are women.[67] Additionally, "almost 40 percent of people who work for tips are people of color: 18 percent are Latino, 10 percent are African American, and 9 percent are Asian. Immigrants are also overrepresented in the tipped workforce."[68] According to data from the 2010 NHIS-OHS, hazardous physical and chemical exposures in the service sector were lower than national averages. However, harmful organizational practices and psychosocial risks were fairly prevalent in this sector. Among all workers in the service industry, 30% experienced job insecurity in 2010, 27% worked non-standard shifts (not a regular day shift), 21% had non-standard work arrangements (were not regular permanent employees).[69]

In addition to these organizational risks, some industries pose significant physical dangers due to the manual labor involved. For instance, on a per employee basis, the US Postal Service, UPS and FedEx are the 4th, 5th and 7th most dangerous companies to work for in the United States, respectively.[70]

#### Healthcare and social assistance

See also: Medicine:Occupational hazards in dentistry

In general, healthcare workers are exposed to many hazards that can adversely affect their health and well-being.[71] Long hours, changing shifts, physically demanding tasks, violence, and exposures to infectious diseases and harmful chemicals are examples of hazards that put these workers at risk for illness and injury. Musculoskeletal injury (MSI) is the most common health hazard in for healthcare workers and in workplaces overall.[72] Injuries can be prevented by using proper body mechanics.[73]

According to the Bureau of Labor statistics, US hospitals recorded 253,700 work-related injuries and illnesses in 2011, which is 6.8 work-related injuries and illnesses for every 100 full-time employees.[74] The injury and illness rate in hospitals is higher than the rates in construction and manufacturing – two industries that are traditionally thought to be relatively hazardous.[75]

#### Transportation

##### Bus drivers

Transportation jobs can provide examples on how hazardous their workplaces can be.[76][77] Bus drivers are often dealing with the uncertainty of how safe they are and how safe they keep their passengers. Violence is unpredictable which makes it one of the most hazardous parts of being a bus driver. From 2003 to 2012, "100 urban transit systems workers have died on the job, including workers from both private and public entities".[78] The occupational hazards of bus drivers are common across countries. Major symptoms include fatigue and stress.[79][80][81] A sleepy and stressed bus driver not only puts themselves at risk, but also their passengers that they have devoted their day to take care of. Researchers noted that, "bus driver sleepiness is commonplace but often goes unreported within the industry."[79] Several studies have shown that bus drivers are at risk of ergonomic challenges.[82] Ekechukwu's team in Nigeria conducted assessments and studies to understand the work-related musculoskeletal disorders caused from poor posture and work environments and reported high prevalences of work-related musculoskeletal disorders, with the most common symptoms being lower and upper back pain.[83]

##### Auto mechanics

Automotive repair is an occupation where the workers face a diverse range of risks, from physical injury to chemical exposures to ergonomic hazards.[84][85][86] Common injuries include strains and tears, eye injuries, chemical burns, loss of limbs, and slips or falls.[87] The best way for automotive technicians to deal with injury or illness is to do all they can to avoid it in the first place.[87][88] Effective prevention among automotive technicians, like with many other professions, begins with employee training and consistent safety protocols.[89] It also requires the company to be communicative with workers about the importance of working as a team and following the safety guidelines. Training overall is the most important aspect of injury prevention in this work setting because a proper and up-to-date understanding of the risks associated with the automotive industry and how to reduce those risks will help prevent injuries the most. Integrating OSH training and knowledge into the training of current and new automotive technicians should be a focus of schools and workplaces [88].

## Workplace fatality and injury statistics

### Worldwide

File:Proportion of disease-specific work-related mortality in 2019.pngProportion of disease-specific work-related mortality in 2019, globally, with 95% confidence intervals[90]

An estimated 2.90 million work-related deaths occurred in 2019, increased from 2.78 million death from 2015. About, one-third of the total work-related deaths (31%) were due to circulatory diseases, while cancer contributed 29%, respiratory diseases 17%, and occupational injuries contributed 11% (or about 319,000 fatalities). Other diseases such as work-related communicable diseases contributed 6%, while neuropsychiatric conditions contributed 3% and work-related digestive disease and genitourinary diseases contributed 1% each. The contribution of cancers and circulatory diseases to total work-related deaths increased from 2015, while deaths due to occupational injuries decreased. Although work-related injury deaths and non-fatal injuries rates were on a decreasing trend, the total deaths and non-fatal outcomes were on the rise. Cancers represented the most significant cause of mortality in high-income countries. The number of non-fatal occupational injuries for 2019 was estimated to be 402 million.[90]

Deaths due to long working hours per 100,000 people (15+), joint study conducted by World Health Organization and International Labour Organization in 2016 Average annual hours actually worked per worker in OECD countries from 1970 to 2020

Mortality rate is unevenly distributed, with male mortality rate (108.3 per 100,000 employed male individuals) being significantly higher than female rate (48.4 per 100,000). 6.7% of all deaths globally are represented by occupational fatalities.[91]

### European Union

Certain EU member states admit to having lacking quality control in occupational safety services, to situations in which risk analysis takes place without any on-site workplace visits and to insufficient implementation of certain EU OSH directives. Disparities between member states result in different impact of occupational hazards on the economy. In the early 2000s, the total societal costs of work-related health problems and accidents varied from 2.6% to 3.8% of the national GDPs across the member states.[92]

In 2021, in the EU-27 as a whole, 93% of deaths due to injury were of males.[93]

### Russia

File:Workplace-conditions-in-RF-from-1993-to-2017 no caption.jpgShare of number of employees engaged in hazardous and/or dangerous working conditions in Russia between 1993 and 2017[94]

One of the decisions taken by the communist regime under Stalin was to reduce the number of accidents and occupational diseases to zero.[95] The tendency to decline remained in the Russian Federation in the early 21st century. However, as in previous years, data reporting and publication was incomplete and manipulated, so that the actual number of work-related diseases and accidents are unknown.[96] The ILO reports that, according to the information provided by the Russian government, there are 190,000 work-related fatalities each year, of which 15,000 due to occupational accidents.[97]

After the demise of the USSR, enterprises became owned by oligarchs who were not interested in upholding safe and healthy conditions in the workplace. Expenditure on equipment modernization was minimal and the share of harmful workplaces increased.[98] The government did not interfere in this, and sometimes it helped employers. At first, the increase in occupational diseases and accidents was slow, due to the fact that in the 1990s it was compensated by mass deindustrialization.{{citation needed|date=September 2018} tion slowed and occupational diseases and injuries started to rise in earnest. Therefore, in the 2010s the Ministry of Labor adopted federal law no. 426-FZ. This piece of legislation has been described as ineffective and based on the superficial assumption that the issuance of personal protective equipment to the employee means real improvement of working conditions. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Health made significant changes in the methods of risk assessment in the workplace.[99] However, specialists from the Izmerov Research Institute of Occupational Health found that the post-2014 apparent decrease in the share of employees engaged in hazardous working conditions is due to the change in definitions consequent to the Ministry of Health's decision, but does not reflect actual improvements. This was most clearly shown in the results for the aluminum industry.[100]

Further problems in the accounting of workplace fatalities arise from the fact that multiple Russian federal entities collect and publish records, a practice that should be avoided. In 2008 alone, 2074 accidents at work may have not been reported in official government sources.[101]

Number of workplace fatalities in Russia[101]

Year | Russian Federal State Statistics Service | Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation | Federal Service for Labor and Employment | Max. discrepancy
2001 | 4368 | 5755 | 6194 | 1826
2002 | 3920 | 5715 | 5865 | 1945
2003 | 3536 | 5180 | 5185 | 1649
2004 | 3292 | 4684 | 4924 | 1632
2005 | 3091 | 4235 | 4604 | 1513
2006 | 2881 | 3591 | 4301 | 1420
2007 | 2966 | 3677 | 4417 | 1451
2008 | 2548 | 3238 | 3931 | 1383
2009 | 1967 | 2598 | 3200 | 1233
2010 | 2004 | 2438 | 3120 | 1116

### United Kingdom

In the UK there were 135 fatal injuries at work in financial year 2022–2023, compared with 651 in 1974 (the year when the Health and Safety at Work Act was promulgated). The fatal injury rate declined from 2.1 fatalities per 100,000 workers in 1981 to 0.41 in financial year 2022–2023.[102] Over recent decades reductions in both fatal and non-fatal workplace injuries have been very significant. However, illnesses statistics have not uniformly improved: while musculoskeletal disorders have diminished, the rate of self-reported work-related stress, depression or anxiety has increased, and the rate of mesothelioma deaths has remained broadly flat (due to past asbestos exposures).[103]

### United States

Number of occupational fatal work injuries in the US from 1992 until 2014 (2001 statistics do not include deaths related to the 11 September terrorist attacks.)

The Occupational Safety and Health Statistics (OSHS) program in the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor compiles information about workplace fatalities and non-fatal injuries in the United States. The OSHS program produces three annual reports:

1. Counts and rates of nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses by detailed industry and case type (SOII summary data)
2. Case circumstances and worker demographic data for nonfatal occupational injuries and illnesses resulting in days away from work (SOII case and demographic data)
3. Counts and rates of fatal occupational injuries (CFOI data)[104]

The Bureau also uses tools like AgInjuryNews.org to identify and compile additional sources of fatality reports for their datasets.[105][106]

Rate of fatal work injuries per 100,000 full-time equivalent workers by employee status, 2006–17. Rate = (fatal work injuries/total hours worked by all workers) × 200,000,000 where 200,000,000 = base for 100,000 full-time equivalent workers (FTEs) working 40 hours per week, 50 weeks per year. Total hours worked are annual average estimates from the Current Population Survey (CPS).

Between 1913 and 2013, workplace fatalities dropped by approximately 80%.[107] In 1970, an estimated 14,000 workers were killed on the job. By 2021, in spite of the workforce having since more than doubled, workplace deaths were down to about 5,190.[108] According to the census of occupational injuries 5,486 people died on the job in 2022, up from the 2021 total of 5,190. The fatal injury rate was 3.7 per 100,000 full-time equivalent workers.[109] The decrease in the mortality rate is only partly (about 10–15%) explained by the deindustrialization of the US in the last 40 years.[110]

2022 number and rate of fatal work injuries for selected occupation groups[109]

Occupation Group | Fatalities per
100,000 employees
Farming, fishing and forestry | 23.5
Transportation and material moving | 14.6
Construction and extraction | 13.0
Protective service | 10.2
Installation, maintenance, and repair | 8.8
Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance | 7.4
All occupations | 3.7
Fatal occupational injuries for selected events or exposures[109]

Cause of injury and illness  | Number
Violence and other injuries by persons or animals  | 849
Transportation incidents  | 2,066
Fire or explosion  | 107
Falls, slips and trips  | 865
Exposure to harmful substances or environments  | 839
Contact with objects and equipment  | 738
All events | 89.4

About 3.5 million nonfatal workplace injuries and illnesses were reported by private industry employers in 2022, occurring at a rate of 3.0 cases per 100 full-time workers.[111][112]

2022 injuries and illnesses[111][112]

Industry  | Rate per 100 full-time

employees

| Number
Private Industry  | 2.7  | 2,804,200
Goods-producing  | 2.9  | 614,400
Natural resources and mining  | 3.1  | 48,000
Agriculture, forestry, fishing and hunting  | 3.5  | 39,500
Mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction  | 1.4  | 8,500
Construction  | 2.4  | 169,600
Manufacturing  | 3.2  | 396,800
Service-providing  | 2.7  | 2,189,800
Trade, transportation, and utilities  | 3.7  | 856,100
Wholesale trade  | 2.6  | 147,600
Retail trade  | 3.7  | 422,700
Transportation and warehousing  | 4.8  | 276,300
Utilities  | 1.7  | 9,500
Information  | 1.0  | 27,200
Finance, insurance, and real estate  | 0.8  | 60,300
Finance and insurance  | 0.3  | 15,900
Real estate and rental and leasing  | 2.2  | 44,400
Professional and business services  | 1.2  | 205,900
Professional, scientific, and technical services  | 0.9  | 81,100
Management of companies and enterprises  | 0.8  | 18,600
Administrative and support etc.  | 1.9  | 88,700
Educational and health services  | 4.2  | 705,600
Educational services  | 2.0  | 40,200
Health care and social assistance  | 4.5  | 665,300
Leisure, entertainment, and hospitality  | 2.9  | 276,100
Arts, entertainment, and recreation  | 4.2  | 55,000
Accommodation and food services  | 2.7  | 221,100
Other services (except public administration)  | 1.8  | 58,600
State and local government  | 4.9  | 700,400
All industries including state and local government | 3.0 | 3,504,600

## Management systems

Companies may adopt a safety and health management system (SMS),[lower-alpha 3] either voluntarily or because required by applicable regulations, to deal in a structured and systematic way with safety and health risks in their workplace. An SMS provides a systematic way to assess and improve prevention of workplace accidents and incidents based on structured management of workplace risks and hazards. It must be adaptable to changes in the organization's business and legislative requirements. It is usually based on the Deming cycle, or plan-do-check-act (PDCA) principle.[113] An effective SMS should:

* Define how the organization is set up to manage risk
* Identify workplace hazards and implement suitable controls
* Implement effective communication across all levels of the organization
* Implement a process to identify and correct non-conformity and non-compliance issues
* Implement a continual improvement process

Management standards across a range of business functions such as environment, quality and safety are now being designed so that these traditionally disparate elements can be integrated and managed within a single business management system and not as separate and stand-alone functions. Therefore, some organizations dovetail other management system functions, such as process safety, environmental resource management or quality management together with safety management to meet both regulatory requirements, industry sector requirements and their own internal and discretionary standard requirements.

### Standards

#### International

The ILO published ILO-OSH 2001 on Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health Management Systems to assist organizations with introducing OSH management systems. These guidelines encouraged continual improvement in employee health and safety, achieved via a constant process of policy; organization; planning and implementation; evaluation; and action for improvement, all supported by constant auditing to determine the success of OSH actions.[114]

From 1999 to 2018, OHSAS 18001 was adopted and widely used internationally. It was developed by a selection of national standards bodies, academic bodies, accreditation bodies, certification bodies and occupational health and safety institutions to address a gap where no third-party certifiable international standard existed.[115] It was designed for integration with ISO 9001 and ISO 14001.[116]

#### National

National management system standards for occupational health and safety include AS/NZS 4801 for Australia and New Zealand (now superseded by ISO 45001),[117][118] CSA Z1000:14 for Canada (which is due to be discontinued in favor of CSA Z45001:19, the Canadian adoption of ISO 45000)[119] and ANSI/ASSP Z10 for the United States.[120] In Germany, the Bavarian state government, in collaboration with trade associations and private companies, issued their OHRIS standard for occupational health and safety management systems. A new revision was issued in 2018.[121] The Taiwan Occupational Safety and Health Management System (TOSHMS) was issued in 1997 under the auspices of Taiwan's Occupational Safety and Health Administration.[122]

## Identifying OSH hazards and assessing risk

### Hazards, risks, outcomes

File:Metallurgical Furnace in Guwahati, Assam.jpgA furnace in operation at a metallurgical foundry. None of the barefoot workers are wearing PPE, and this carries the risk of injury.

The terminology used in OSH varies between countries, but generally speaking:

* A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled.
* The outcome is the harm that results from an uncontrolled hazard.
* A risk is a combination of the probability that a particular outcome may occur and the severity of the harm involved.[123]

### Hazard identification

Hazard identification is an important step in the overall risk assessment and risk management process. It is where individual work hazards are identified, assessed and controlled or eliminated as close to source (location of the hazard) as reasonably practicable. As technology, resources, social expectation or regulatory requirements change, hazard analysis focuses controls more closely toward the source of the hazard. Thus, hazard control is a dynamic program of prevention. Hazard-based programs also have the advantage of not assigning or implying there are "acceptable risks" in the workplace.[124] A hazard-based program may not be able to eliminate all risks, but neither does it accept "satisfactory" – but still risky – outcomes. And as those who calculate and manage the risk are usually managers, while those exposed to the risks are a different group, a hazard-based approach can bypass conflict inherent in a risk-based approach.

### Risk assessment

Main article: Occupational risk assessment

Modern occupational safety and health legislation usually demands that a risk assessment be carried out prior to making an intervention. This assessment should:

* Identify the hazards
* Identify all affected by the hazard and how
* Evaluate the risk

The assessment should be recorded and reviewed periodically and whenever there is a significant change to work practices. The assessment should include practical recommendations to control the risk. Once recommended controls are implemented, the risk should be re-calculated to determine if it has been lowered to an acceptable level. Generally speaking, newly introduced controls should lower risk by one level, i.e., from high to medium or from medium to low.[125]

## National legislation and public organizations

Main article: Organization:List of occupational safety and health agencies

"Health code" redirects here. For the Chinese internal passport system, see Health Codes (Chinese mobile app group).

Occupational safety and health practice vary among nations with different approaches to legislation, regulation, enforcement, and incentives for compliance. In the EU, for example, some member states promote OSH by providing public monies as subsidies, grants or financing, while others have created tax system incentives for OSH investments. A third group of EU member states has experimented with using workplace accident insurance premium discounts for companies or organizations with strong OSH records.[126][127]

### Australia

In Australia, four of the six states and both territories have enacted and administer harmonized work health and safety legislation in accordance with the Intergovernmental Agreement for Regulatory and Operational Reform in Occupational Health and Safety.[128] Each of these jurisdictions has enacted work health and safety legislation and regulations based on the Commonwealth Work Health and Safety Act 2011 and common codes of practice developed by Safe Work Australia.[129] Some jurisdictions have also included mine safety under the model approach. However, most have retained separate legislation for the time being. In August 2019, Western Australia committed to join nearly every other state and territory in implementing the harmonized Model WHS Act, Regulations and other subsidiary legislation.[130] Victoria has retained its own regime, although the Model WHS laws themselves drew heavily on the Victorian approach.

### Canada

In Canada, workers are covered by provincial or federal labor codes depending on the sector in which they work. Workers covered by federal legislation (including those in mining, transportation, and federal employment) are covered by the Canada Labour Code; all other workers are covered by the health and safety legislation of the province in which they work.[131][132] The Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS), an agency of the Government of Canada, was created in 1978 by an act of parliament. CCOHS is mandated to promote safe and healthy workplaces and help prevent work-related injuries and illnesses.[133]

There are significant common elements across relevant provincial OHS legislation. The foundation of each of these legislative frameworks is the belief that all Canadians have "a fundamental right to a healthy and safe working environment." In general, provincial workplace safety laws in Canada are designed to promote shared responsibility, prevent accidents, and ensure accountability at all levels of an organization. Employers, supervisors, and workers are expected to work together to minimize risks. Employers, in particular, are legally obligated to take every reasonable precaution to protect workers. If the workplace has more than a few employees, they are required to develop written health and safety policies and procedures. Employers must also provide and maintain equipment and machinery in a safe working condition. Additionally, employers must inform, instruct, and supervise workers to ensure safe work practices are followed. Employers are also responsible for supplying necessary protective equipment and ensuring it is used correctly, whether it involves machine guards or personal protective equipment (PPE). Supervisors have a duty to ensure that workers use all required safety devices and comply with established procedures. They must also communicate information about existing or potential hazards and provide guidance on how to work safely. Workers also have the right to refuse work if they believe it is unsafe and poses a danger to themselves or others.[134][additional citation(s) needed]

In workplaces with a set minimum number of employees (twenty in the case of workplaces under federal jurisdiction[135]), it is mandatory to have a health and safety committee. This, made up of both worker and management representatives, meets regularly to identify hazards, investigate incidents, and make recommendations to improve workplace safety. These committees are crucial for fostering collaboration and addressing safety concerns in a timely manner.[136]

Law also requires employers to take defined steps to prevent workplace violence and harassment. They must create a workplace violence policy along with a program that identifies risks and outlines procedures for addressing them. A separate workplace harassment policy must explain how complaints should be reported and investigated. Employers are required to train employees on these policies to ensure awareness and compliance. All incidents involving violence, threats, or persistent harassment must be taken seriously and handled appropriately.[137][138]

In severe cases involving serious injury or death due to negligence, organizations and individuals can be prosecuted under the Criminal Code of Canada through the provisions introduced by the Jobs and Growth Act. In some provinces, like Ontario, this introduces serious criminal consequences for safety violations.[139]

Workplaces are also subject to federal regulations under WHMIS, the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System. WHMIS governs the labeling, documentation, and communication of hazardous materials. Employers must ensure that all hazardous substances are properly labeled, that material safety data sheets are readily available, and that workers are trained on how to handle these materials safely.[140]

As an example of arrangements at a provincial level, Ontario's primary workplace safety legislation is the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA). This law sets out the responsibilities of employers, supervisors, and workers to promote a safe and healthy work environment. Ontario's occupational health and safety framework is built around the concept known as the "Internal Responsibility System," which means that everyone in the workplace shares responsibility for recognizing and addressing safety concerns. The OHSA is enforced by Ontario's Ministry of Labour, Immigration, Training and Skills Development. Ministry inspectors have the authority to visit workplaces, investigate complaints, and issue orders. Failure to comply with the law can lead to substantial fines and penalties, and individual supervisors or managers may also be held personally liable.[141][142]

### China

Hardware stores in China specializing in safety equipment

In China, the Ministry of Health is responsible for occupational disease prevention and the State Administration of Work Safety workplace safety issues. The Work Safety Law (安全生产法) was issued on 1 November 2002.[143][144] The Occupational Disease Control Act came into force on 1 May 2002.[145] In 2018, the National Health Commission (NHC) was formally established to formulating national health policies. The NHC formulated the "National Occupational Disease Prevention and Control Plan (2021–2025)" in the context of the activities leading to the "Healthy China 2030" initiative.[143]

### European Union

Number of full-time OSH inspectors

per 10,000 full-time employees[146]

Country  | Value  | Year
Luxembourg  | 2.76  | 2022
Romania  | 1.8  | 2021
Germany  | 1.41  | 2022
Finland  | 1.4  | 2012
Latvia  | 1.3  | 2022
Bulgaria  | 1.13  | 2022
Slovakia  | 1.13  | 2022
Croatia  | 1.1  | 2022
Spain  | 1.07  | 2021
Lithuania  | 1.01  | 2022
Czechia  | 0.95  | 2021
Poland  | 0.92  | 2022
Slovenia  | 0.88  | 2022
File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg Portugal  | 0.87  | 2021
France  | 0.8  | 2019
Austria  | 0.71  | 2022
Estonia  | 0.68  | 2022
Belgium  | 0.58  | 2022
Hungary  | 0.58  | 2022
Sweden  | 0.52  | 2022
Cyprus  | 0.46  | 2021
Ireland  | 0.25  | 2022
Malta  | 0.21  | 2022

#### Denmark

In Denmark, occupational safety and health is regulated by the Danish Act on Working Environment and Cooperation at the Workplace.[147] The Danish Working Environment Authority (Arbejdstilsynet) carries out inspections of companies, draws up more detailed rules on health and safety at work and provides information on health and safety at work.[148] The result of each inspection is made public on the web pages of the Danish Working Environment Authority so that the general public, current and prospective employees, customers and other stakeholders can inform themselves about whether a given organization has passed the inspection.

#### Netherlands

#### Ireland

The Health and Safety Authority, based in Dublin, is responsible for enforcing health and safety at work legislation in Ireland.[149] The main health and safety regulation in Ireland is the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work Act 2005,[149] which replaced earlier legislation from 1989. Under the 2005 Act, companies are legally required to prepare a "safety statement" which sets out the hazards identified in the workplace, the risks arising from those hazards, and the measures in place to mitigate those risks and safeguard employee safety, health and welfare.[150][151]

#### Spain

In Spain, occupational safety and health is regulated by the Spanish Act on Prevention of Labor Risks. The Ministry of Labor is the authority responsible for issues relating to labor environment. The National Institute for Safety and Health at Work (Instituto Nacional de Seguridad y Salud en el Trabajo, INSST) is the government's scientific and technical organization specialized in occupational safety and health.[152]

#### Sweden

In Sweden, occupational safety and health is regulated by the Work Environment Act.[153] The Swedish Work Environment Authority (Arbetsmiljöverket) is the government agency responsible for issues relating to the working environment. The agency works to disseminate information and furnish advice on OSH, has a mandate to carry out inspections, and a right to issue stipulations and injunctions to any non-compliant employer.[154]

### India

In India, the Ministry of Labour and Employment formulates national policies on occupational safety and health in factories and docks with advice and assistance from its Directorate General Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI), and enforces its policies through inspectorates of factories and inspectorates of dock safety. The DGFASLI provides technical support in formulating rules, conducting occupational safety surveys and administering occupational safety training programs.[155]

### Indonesia

In Indonesia, the Ministry of Manpower (Kementerian Ketenagakerjaan, or Kemnaker) is responsible to ensure the safety, health and welfare of workers. Important OHS acts include the Occupational Safety Act 1970 and the Occupational Health Act 1992.[156] Sanctions, however, are still low (with a maximum of 15 million rupiahs fine and/or a maximum of one year in prison) and violations are still very frequent.[157]

### Japan

The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (MHLW) is the governmental agency overseeing occupational safety and health in Japan. The MHLW is responsible for enforcing Industrial Safety and Health Act of 1972 – the key piece of OSH legislation in Japan – setting regulations and guidelines, supervising labor inspectors who monitor workplaces for compliance with safety and health standards, investigating accidents, and issuing orders to improve safety conditions. The Labor Standards Bureau is an arm of MHLW tasked with supervising and guiding businesses, inspecting manufacturing facilities for safety and compliance, investigating accidents, collecting statistics, enforcing regulations and administering fines for safety violations, and paying accident compensation for injured workers.[158][159]

The Japan Industrial Safety and Health Association [jp; jp; 中央労働災害防止協会] (JISHA) is a non-profit organization established under the Industrial Safety and Health Act of 1972. It works closely with MHLW, the regulatory body, to promote workplace safety and health. The responsibilities of JISHA include: Providing education and training on occupational safety and health, conducting research and surveys on workplace safety and health issues, offering technical guidance and consultations to businesses, disseminating information and raising awareness about occupational safety and health, and collaborating with international organizations to share best practices and improve global workplace safety standards.[160]

The Japan National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health [jp; jp; 労働安全衛生総合研究所] (JNIOSH) conducts research to support governmental policies in occupational safety and health. The organization categorizes its research into project studies, cooperative research, fundamental research, and government-requested research. Each category focuses on specific themes, from preventing accidents and ensuring workers' health, to addressing changes in employment structure. The organization sets clear goals, develops road maps, and collaborates with the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare to discuss progress and policy contributions.[161]

### Malaysia

In Malaysia, the Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) under the Ministry of Human Resources is responsible to ensure that the safety, health and welfare of workers in both the public and private sector is upheld. DOSH is responsible to enforce the Factories and Machinery Act 1967 and the Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994. Malaysia has a statutory mechanism for worker involvement through elected health and safety representatives and health and safety committees.[162] This followed a similar approach originally adopted in Scandinavia.

### Saudi Arabia

In Saudi Arabia, the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Development administrates workers' rights and the labor market as a whole, consistent with human rights rules upheld by the Human Rights Commission of the kingdom.[163]

### Singapore

In Singapore, the Ministry of Manpower (MOM) is the government agency in charge of OHS policies and enforcement. The key piece of legislation regulating aspects of OHS is the Workplace Safety and Health Act.[164] The MOM promotes and manages campaigns against unsafe work practices, such as when working at height, operating cranes and in traffic management. Examples include Operation Cormorant and the Falls Prevention Campaign.[165]

### South Africa

In South Africa the Department of Employment and Labour is responsible for occupational health and safety inspection and enforcement in the commercial and industrial sectors, with the exclusion of mining, where the Department of Mineral Resources is responsible.[166][167] The main statutory legislation on health and safety in the jurisdiction of the Department of Employment and Labour is the OHS Act or OHSA (Act No. 85 of 1993: Occupational Health and Safety Act, as amended by the Occupational Health and Safety Amendment Act, No. 181 of 1993).[166] Regulations implementing the OHS Act include:[168]

* General Safety Regulations, 1986[169]
* Environmental Regulations for Workplaces, 1987[170]
* Driven Machinery Regulations, 1988[171]
* General Machinery Regulations, 1988[172]
* Noise Induced Hearing Loss Regulations, 2003[173]
* Pressure Equipment Regulations, 2004
* General Administrative Regulations, 2003[174]
* Diving Regulations, 2009[175]
* Construction Regulations, 2014

### Syria

In Syria, health and safety is the responsibility of the Ministry of Social Affairs and Labor (Arabic: وزارة الشؤون الاجتماعية والعمل, romanized: Wizārat al-Shuʼūn al-ijtimāʻīyah wa-al-ʻamal).[176]

### Taiwan

In Taiwan, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Taiwan) (zh) of the Ministry of Labor is in charge of occupational safety and health.[177] The matter is governed under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (Taiwan) (zh).[178]

### United Arab Emirates

In the United Arab Emirates, national OSH legislation is based on the Federal Law on Labor (1980). Order No. 32 of 1982 on Protection from Hazards and Ministerial Decision No. 37/2 of 1982 are also of importance.[179] The competent authority for safety and health at work at the federal level is the Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation (MoHRE).[180]

### United Kingdom

Health and safety legislation in the UK is drawn up and enforced by the Health and Safety Executive and local authorities under the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 (HASAWA or HSWA).[181][182] HASAWA introduced (section 2) a general duty on an employer to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare at work of all his employees, with the intention of giving a legal framework supporting codes of practice not in themselves having legal force but establishing a strong presumption as to what was reasonably practicable (deviations from them could be justified by appropriate risk assessment). The previous reliance on detailed prescriptive rule-setting was seen as having failed to respond rapidly enough to technological change, leaving new technologies potentially unregulated or inappropriately regulated.[183] HSE has continued to make some regulations giving absolute duties (where something must be done with no "reasonable practicability" test) but in the UK the regulatory trend is away from prescriptive rules, and toward goal setting and risk assessment. Recent major changes to the laws governing asbestos and fire safety management embrace the concept of risk assessment. The other key aspect of the UK legislation is a statutory mechanism for worker involvement through elected health and safety representatives and health and safety committees. This followed a similar approach in Scandinavia, and that approach has since been adopted in countries such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Malaysia. The Health and Safety Executive service dealing with occupational medicine has been the Employment Medical Advisory Service. In 2014 a new occupational health organization, the Health and Work Service, was created to provide advice and assistance to employers in order to get back to work employees on long-term sick-leave.[184] The service, funded by the government, offers medical assessments and treatment plans, on a voluntary basis, to people on long-term absence from their employer; in return, the government no longer foots the bill for statutory sick pay provided by the employer to the individual.

### United States

In the United States, President Richard Nixon signed the Occupational Safety and Health Act into law on 29 December 1970. The act created the three agencies which administer OSH: the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), and the Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission (OSHRC).[185] The act authorized OSHA to regulate private employers in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and territories.[186] It includes a general duty clause (29 U.S.C. §654, 5(a)) requiring an employer to comply with the Act and regulations derived from it, and to provide employees with "employment and a place of employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause [them] death or serious physical harm."[187]

OSHA was established in 1971 under the Department of Labor. It has headquarters in Washington, DC, and ten regional offices, further broken down into districts, each organized into three sections: compliance, training, and assistance. Its stated mission is "to ensure safe and healthful working conditions for workers by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education and assistance."[186] The original plan was for OSHA to oversee 50 state plans with OSHA funding 50% of each plan, but this did not work out that way: As of 2023[update] there are 26 approved state plans (with four covering only public employees) and OSHA manages the plan in the states not participating.[108]

OSHA has strategic partnership and alliance programs to develop guidelines, assist in compliance, share resources, and educate workers in OHS.[108] OSHA manages Susan B. Harwood grants to non-profit organizations to train workers and employers to recognize, avoid, and prevent safety and health hazards in the workplace.[188] Grants focus on small business, hard-to-reach workers and high-hazard industries.[189]

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), also created under the Occupational Safety and Health Act, is the federal agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related injury and illness. NIOSH is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) within the Department of Health and Human Services.[190]

## Professional roles and responsibilities

Those in the field of occupational safety and health come from a wide range of disciplines and professions including medicine, occupational medicine, epidemiology, physiotherapy and rehabilitation, psychology, human factors and ergonomics, and many others. Professionals advise on a broad range of occupational safety and health matters. These include how to avoid particular pre-existing conditions causing a problem in the occupation, correct posture, frequency of rest breaks, preventive actions that can be undertaken, and so forth. The quality of occupational safety is characterized by (1) the indicators reflecting the level of industrial injuries, (2) the average number of days of incapacity for work per employer, (3) employees' satisfaction with their work conditions and (4) employees' motivation to work safely.[191]

The main tasks undertaken by the OSH practitioner include:

* Inspecting, testing and evaluating workplace environments, programs, equipment, and practices to ensure that they follow government safety regulation.
* Designing and implementing workplace programs and procedures that control or prevent chemical, physical, or other risks to workers.
* Educating employers and workers about maintaining workplace safety.
* Demonstrating use of safety equipment and ensuring proper use by workers.
* Investigating incidents to determine the cause and possible prevention.
* Preparing written reports of their findings.

OSH specialists examine worksites for environmental or physical factors that could harm employee health, safety, comfort or performance. They then find ways to improve potential risk factors. For example, they may notice potentially hazardous conditions inside a chemical plant and suggest changes to lighting, equipment, materials, or ventilation. OSH technicians assist specialists by collecting data on work environments and implementing the worksite improvements that specialists plan. Technicians also may check to make sure that workers are using required protective gear, such as masks and hardhats. OSH specialists and technicians may develop and conduct employee training programs. These programs cover a range of topics, such as how to use safety equipment correctly and how to respond in an emergency. In the event of a workplace safety incident, specialists and technicians investigate its cause. They then analyze data from the incident, such as the number of people impacted, and look for trends in occurrence. This evaluation helps them to recommend improvements to prevent future incidents.[192]

Given the high demand in society for health and safety provisions at work based on reliable information, OSH professionals should find their roots in evidence-based practice. A new term is "evidence-informed decision making". Evidence-based practice can be defined as the use of evidence from literature, and other evidence-based sources, for advice and decisions that favor the health, safety, well-being, and work ability of workers. Therefore, evidence-based information must be integrated with professional expertise and the workers' values. Contextual factors must be considered related to legislation, culture, financial, and technical possibilities. Ethical considerations should be heeded.[193]

### The Netherlands

In the Netherlands, the required tasks for health and safety staff are only summarily defined and include:[194]

* Providing voluntary medical examinations.
* Providing a consulting room on the work environment to the workers.
* Providing health assessments (if needed for the job concerned).

Dutch law influences the job of the safety professional mainly through the requirement on employers to use the services of a certified working-conditions service for advice. A certified service must employ sufficient numbers of four types of certified experts to cover the risks in the organizations which use the service:

* A safety professional
* An occupational hygienist
* An occupational physician
* A work and organization specialist.

In 2004, 14% of health and safety practitioners in the Netherlands had an MSc and 63% had a BSc. 23% had training as an OSH technician.[195]

### Norway

In Norway, the main required tasks of an occupational health and safety practitioner include:

* Systematic evaluations of the working environment.
* Endorsing preventive measures which eliminate causes of illnesses in the workplace.
* Providing information on the subject of employees' health.
* Providing information on occupational hygiene, ergonomics, and environmental and safety risks in the workplace.

In 2004, 37% of health and safety practitioners in Norway had an MSc and 44% had a BSc. 19% had training as an OSH technician.[195]

## Education and training

"Safety training" redirects here. For other uses, see Safety Training (disambiguation).

### Formal education

Many OSH generalists focus on undergraduate studies; programs within schools, such as that of the University of North Carolina's online BSc in environmental health and safety, fill a large majority of hygienist needs. However, smaller companies often do not have full-time safety specialists on staff, thus, they appoint a current employee to the responsibility. Individuals finding themselves in positions such as these, or for those enhancing marketability in the job-search and promotion arena, may seek out a credit certificate program. For example, the University of Connecticut's online OSH certificate[196] provides students familiarity with overarching concepts through a 15-credit (5-course) program. Programs such as these are often adequate tools in building a strong educational platform for new safety managers with a minimal outlay of time and money. Further, most hygienists seek certification by organizations that train in specific areas of concentration, focusing on isolated workplace hazards. The American Society of Safety Professionals (ASSP), Board for Global EHS Credentialing (BGC), and American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) offer individual certificates on many different subjects from forklift operation to waste disposal and are the chief facilitators of continuing education in the OSH sector. In the US, the training of safety professionals is supported by NIOSH through their NIOSH Education and Research Centers.

In Australia, training in OSH is available at the vocational education and training level, and at university undergraduate and postgraduate level. Such university courses may be accredited by an accreditation board of the Safety Institute of Australia. The institute has produced a Body of Knowledge which it considers is required by a generalist safety and health professional and offers a professional qualification.[197] The Australian Institute of Health and Safety has instituted the national Eric Wigglesworth OHS Education Medal to recognize achievement in OSH doctorate education.[198]

### Informal training

Informal or field training may be delivered in the workplace or during off-site training sessions. One form of training delivered in the workplace is known as a toolbox talk. According to the UK's Health and Safety Executive, a toolbox talk is a short presentation to the workforce on a single aspect of health and safety.[199] Such talks are often used, especially in the construction industry, by site supervisors, frontline managers and owners of small construction firms to prepare and deliver advice on matters of health, safety and the environment and to obtain feedback from the workforce.[200]

### Workplace Injury Prevention

Workplace injury prevention focuses on preventing workers from getting injured in the first place. It includes a broad range of strategies such as training, proper communication methods, mindful design of tools and workplaces.[201][202] The goal is to identify, control, and eliminate hazards before they result in injury or illness.[203] This requires not only the company to implement safety and health programs but also the involvement of employees at all corporate levels.[204]

### Use of virtual reality

Virtual reality is a novel tool to deliver safety training in many fields. Some applications have been developed and tested especially for fire and construction safety training.[205][206] Preliminary findings seem to support that virtual reality is more effective than traditional training in knowledge retention.[207]

## Contemporary developments

On an international scale, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) have begun focusing on labor environments in developing nations with projects such as Healthy Cities.[208] Many of these developing countries are stuck in a situation in which their relative lack of resources to invest in OSH leads to increased costs due to work-related illnesses and accidents. The ILO estimates that work-related illness and accidents cost up to 10% of GDP in Latin America, compared with just 2.6% to 3.8% in the EU.[209] There is continued use of asbestos, a notorious hazard, in some developing countries. So asbestos-related disease is expected to continue to be a significant problem well into the future.{{citation needed|date=February

### Artificial intelligence

AI-enabled wearable sensor networks may improve worker safety and health through access to real-time, personalized data, but also present psychosocial hazards such as micromanagement, a perception of surveillance, and information security concerns.

There are several broad aspects of artificial intelligence (AI) that may give rise to specific hazards.

Many hazards of AI are psychosocial in nature due to its potential to cause changes in work organization.[210] For example, AI is expected to lead to changes in the skills required of workers, requiring retraining of existing workers, flexibility, and openness to change.[211] Increased monitoring may lead to micromanagement or perception of surveillance, and thus to workplace stress. There is also the risk of people being forced to work at a robot's pace, or to monitor robot performance at nonstandard hours. Additionally, algorithms may show algorithmic bias through being trained on past decisions may mimic undesirable human biases, for example, past discriminatory hiring and firing practices.[212] Some approaches to accident analysis may be biased to safeguard a technological system and its developers by assigning blame to the individual human operator instead.[213]

Automated guided vehicles are examples of cobots. Use of AI to operate these robots may result in physical hazards such as the robot colliding with workers.

Physical hazards in the form of human–robot collisions may arise from robots using AI, especially collaborative robots (cobots). Cobots are intended to operate in close proximity to humans, which makes it impossible to implement the common hazard control of isolating the robot using fences or other barriers, which is widely used for traditional industrial robots. Automated guided vehicles are a type of cobot in common use, often as forklifts or pallet jacks in warehouses or factories.[214]

Both applications and hazards arising from AI can be considered as part of existing frameworks for occupational health and safety risk management. As with all hazards, risk identification is most effective and least costly when done in the design phase.[210] AI, in common with other computational technologies, requires cybersecurity measures to stop software breaches and intrusions,[215] as well as information privacy measures.[216] Communication and transparency with workers about data usage is a control for psychosocial hazards arising from security and privacy issues.[216] Workplace health surveillance, the collection and analysis of health data on workers, is challenging for AI because labor data are often reported in aggregate, does not provide breakdowns between different types of work, and is focused on economic data such as wages and employment rates rather than skill content of jobs.[217]

### Coronavirus

The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) National Occupational Research Agenda Manufacturing Council established an externally-lead COVID-19 workgroup to provide exposure control information specific to working in manufacturing environments. The workgroup identified disseminating information most relevant to manufacturing workplaces as a priority, and that would include providing content in Wikipedia. This includes evidence-based practices for infection control plans,[218] and communication tools.

### Nanotechnology

See also: Physics:Health and safety hazards of nanomaterials

A containment hood protecting workers handling nanomaterials

Nanotechnology is an example of a new, relatively unstudied technology. A Swiss survey of 138 companies using or producing nanoparticulate matter in 2006 resulted in forty completed questionnaires. Sixty-five per cent of respondent companies stated they did not have a formal risk assessment process for dealing with nanoparticulate matter.[219] Nanotechnology already presents new issues for OSH professionals that will only become more difficult as nanostructures become more complex. The size of the particles renders most containment and personal protective equipment ineffective. The toxicology values for macro sized industrial substances are rendered inaccurate due to the unique nature of nanoparticulate matter. As nanoparticulate matter decreases in size its relative surface area increases dramatically, increasing any catalytic effect or chemical reactivity substantially versus the known value for the macro substance. This presents a new set of challenges in the near future to rethink contemporary measures to safeguard the health and welfare of employees against a nanoparticulate substance that most conventional controls have not been designed to manage.[220]

### Occupational health inequalities

Occupational health inequalities refer to differences in occupational injuries and illnesses that are closely linked with demographic, social, cultural, economic, and/or political factors.[221] Although many advances have been made to rectify gaps in occupational health within the past half century, still many persist due to the complex overlapping of occupational health and social factors.[222] There are three main areas of research on occupational health inequities:

1. Identifying which social factors, either individually or in combination, contribute to the inequitable distribution of work-related benefits and risks.[223]
2. Examining how the related structural disadvantages materialize in the lives of workers to put them at greater risk for occupational injury or illness.[224]
3. Translating these findings into intervention research to build an evidence base of effective ways for reducing occupational health inequities.[225]

### Transnational and immigrant worker populations

Immigrant worker populations often are at greater risk for workplace injuries and fatalities. For example within the United States, immigrant Mexican workers have one of the highest rates of fatal workplace injuries out of all of the working population. Statistics like these are explained through a combination of social, structural, and physical aspects of the workplace. These workers struggle to access safety information and resources in their native languages because of lack of social and political inclusion. In addition to linguistically tailored interventions, it is also critical for the interventions to be culturally appropriate.[226]

Those residing in a country to work without a visa or other formal authorization may also not have access to legal resources and recourse that are designed to protect most workers. Health and Safety organizations that rely on whistleblowers instead of their own independent inspections may be especially at risk of having an incomplete picture of worker health.

## See also

{{columns-list|* Finance:Decent work - Employment that respects the fundamental rights of the human person

* Finance:Labor rights - Legal rights and human rights relating to labor relations between workers and employers
* Medicine:Occupational stress - Tensions related to work
* Engineering:Prevention through design - Reduction of occupational hazards by early planning in the design process
* Workers' compensation - Form of insurance
* Finance:Workers' right to access the toilet

### Regulations

* ILO
* Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977
* Malaysia
* Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994
* Singapore
* Workplace Safety and Health Act
* South Africa
* Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993
* United Kingdom
* Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
* United States
* Timeline of major U.S. environmental and occupational health regulation
* Occupational Safety and Health Act

### Related fields

* Earth:Environmental health - Public health branch focused on environmental impacts on human health
* Social:Occupational health psychology - Health and Safety psychology
* Engineering:Human factors and ergonomics - Designing systems to suit their users
* Industrial engineering - Branch of engineering which deals with the optimization of complex processes or systems
* Social:Industrial and organizational psychology - Branch of psychology
* Medicine:Occupational epidemiology - Epidemiology of workplaces diseases
* Chemistry:Process safety - Study, prevention, and management of major hazardous material accidents in process plants
* Engineering:Safety engineering - Engineering discipline
* Chemistry:Toxicology

## Notes

1. ↑ It can be confusing that British English also uses "industrial medicine" to refer to occupational health and safety and uses "occupational health" to refer to occupational medicine. See the Collins Dictionary entries for "industrial medicine",[1] "occupational medicine"[2] and "occupational health".[3]
2. ↑ The WHO's official definition of "health" is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."[9]
3. ↑ Variously initialized as SMS, HSMS, SHMS, OHSMS, OSHMS, etc., depending on its scope and the weight given to health over safety aspect.

## References

1. ↑ "industrial medicine". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/industrial+medicine.
2. ↑ "occupational medicine". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/occupational+medicine.
3. ↑ "occupational health". CollinsDictionary.com. HarperCollins. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/occupational+health.
4. ↑ Fanning, Fred (2003). Basic Safety Administration: A Handbook for the New Safety Specialist. Chicago, Ill.: American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE). ISBN 978-1-885581-43-3.
5. ↑ WHO; ILO (2021). WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury, 2000-2016: Global Monitoring Report. Genève, Switzerland: World Health Organization and International Labour Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-003494-5. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/345242/9789240034945-eng.pdf. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
6. ↑ "Safety and Health at Work". http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/safety-and-health-at-work/lang--en/index.htm.
7. ↑ Commission for Occupational Safety and Health (November 2005). ﻿Guidance Note – General Duty of Care in Western Australian Workplaces﻿ (Report). Perth, WA: Government of Western Australia. p. 7. ISBN 1-920836-15-2. http://www.commerce.wa.gov.au/sites/default/files/atoms/files/general_duty_of_care.pdf. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
8. ↑ "Health and Safety Program – General Elements". 16 March 2021. https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/basic.pdf.
9. ↑ ﻿Constitution of the World Health Organization﻿ (Charter). New York, N.Y.: United Nations. 22 July 1946. https://apps.who.int/gb/bd/PDF/bd47/EN/constitution-en.pdf?ua=1. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Institute of Medicine (IOM) (2014). Advancing Workforce Health at the Department of Homeland Security: Protecting Those Who Protect Us. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-309-29647-2. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK231904/pdf/Bookshelf_NBK231904.pdf. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Coppée, Georges H. (1998). "Occupational Health Services and Practice". in Stellman, Jeanne Mager. Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety. 1 (4th ed.). Genève, Switzerland: International Labour Office. p. 16.19. ISBN 92-2-109203-8. https://www.iloencyclopaedia.org/part-ii-44366/occupational-health-services/item/155-occupational-health-services-and-practice. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
12. ↑ "Occupational Health". World Health Organization (WHO). http://www.wpro.who.int/topics/occupational_health/en/.
13. ↑ International Labour Office (1971). Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety (2nd ed.). New York, N.Y.: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-079555-6.
14. ↑ Goetsch, David L. (2015). Occupational Safety and Health for Technologists, Engineers, and Managers (8th ed., global ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-292-06216-7.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 Eves, David (April 2014). "'Two Steps Forward, One Step Back': A Brief History of the Origins, Development and Implementation of Health and Safety Law in the United Kingdom, 1802–2014". Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). https://www.historyofosh.org.uk/brief/index.html. This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 Abrams, Herbert K. (2001). "A Short History of Occupational Health". Journal of Public Health Policy 22 (1): 34–80. doi:10.2307/3343553. PMID 11382089.
17. ↑ Felton, J.S. (1997). "The Heritage of Bernardino Ramazzini". Occupational Medicine (Oxford University Press) 47 (3): 167–179. doi:10.1093/occmed/47.3.167. ISSN 0962-7480. PMID 9156474.
18. ↑ Araujo-Alvarez, J.M.; Trujillo-Ferrara, J.G. (2002). "De Morbis Artificum Diatriba 1700–2000" (in Spanish). Salud Pública de Mexico 44 (4): 362–370. doi:10.1590/S0036-36342002000400010. ISSN 0036-3634. PMID 12216524. https://scielosp.org/article/ssm/content/raw/?resource_ssm_path=/media/assets/spm/v44n4/14024.pdf. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
19. ↑ Hutchins & Harrison (1911), p. 41.
20. ↑ Edmonds, O.P.; Edmonds, E.L. (July 1963). "An Account of the Founding of H.M. Inspectorate of Mines and the Work of the First Inspector Hugh Seymour Tremenheere". British Journal of Industrial Medicine 20 (3): 210–217. doi:10.1136/oem.20.3.210. ISSN 0007-1072. PMID 14046158.
21. ↑ Hutchins & Harrison (1911), p. 85.
22. ↑ "Harry McShane, 134 B'way [i.e. Broadway, Cin. O. - 16 Yrs. of Age on June 29, 1908. Had His Left Arm Pulled Off Near Shoulder, and Right Leg Broken Through Kneecap, by Being Caught on Belt of a Machine in Spring Factory in May 1908. Had Been Working in Factory More Than 2 Yrs. Was on His Feet for First Time After the Accident, the Day This Photo Was Taken. No Attention Was Paid by Employers to the Boy Either at Hospital or Home According to Statement of Boy's Father. No Compensation Location: Cincinnati, Ohio. Color Digital File From B&W Original Print"]. January 1908. https://www.loc.gov/resource/nclc.01312/.
23. ↑ Concha-Barrientos, MarisolExpression error: Unexpected < operator. (2004). "Selected Occupational Risk Factors". in Ezzati, Majid. Comparative Quantification of Health Risks. 1. Genève, Switzerland: World Health Organization. pp. 1651–1801. ISBN 92-4-158031-3. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42770/9241580313_eng.pdf. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
24. ↑ Ramos, Athena K.; Carlo, Gustavo; Grant, Kahtleen M.; Bendixsen, Casper; Fuentes, Axel; Gamboa, Rodrigo (2 September 2018). "A Preliminary Analysis of Immigrant Cattle Feedyard Worker Perspectives on Job-related Safety Training" (in en). Safety 4 (3): 37. doi:10.3390/safety4030037.
25. ↑ Pega, Frank; Náfrádi, Bálint; Momen, Natalie C.; Ujita, Yuka; Streicher, Kai N.; Prüss-Üstün, Annette M.; Descatha, Alexis; Driscoll, Tim et al. (September 2021). "Global, Regional, and National Burdens of Ischemic Heart Disease and Stroke Attributable to Exposure to Long Working Hours for 194 Countries, 2000-2016: A Systematic Analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury". Environment International 154. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106595. PMID 34011457. Bibcode: 2021EnInt.15406595P.
26. ↑ "Long Working Hours Increasing Deaths from Heart Disease and Stroke: WHO, ILO" (in en). 17 May 2021. https://www.who.int/news/item/17-05-2021-long-working-hours-increasing-deaths-from-heart-disease-and-stroke-who-ilo.
27. ↑ "Noise and Hearing Loss Prevention". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 10 May 2011. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise/.
28. ↑ "Fall Injuries Prevention in the Workplace". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 12 June 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/falls/.
29. ↑ "Machine Safety". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 27 June 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/machine/.
30. ↑ "Seasonal Influenza (Flu) in the Workplace". 4 June 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/flu/guidance.html.
31. ↑ "Insects and Scorpions". 30 July 2015. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/insects/.
32. ↑ "Venomous Snakes". 24 July 2015. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/snakes/.
33. ↑ "Venomous Spiders". 30 July 2015. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/spiders/.
34. ↑ "Poisonous Plants". 24 July 2015. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/plants/.
35. ↑ "Lyme Disease". 21 September 2011. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/lyme/.
36. ↑ "West Nile Virus". 27 August 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/westnile/.
37. ↑ "Veterinary Safety and Health". 28 August 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/veterinary/biological.html.
38. ↑ "Bloodborne Infectious Diseases: HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C". 31 January 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/bbp/.
39. ↑ "Emerging Infectious Diseases". 12 December 2014. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/emerginfectdiseases/default.html.
40. ↑ "Chemical Safety". 27 November 2013. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/chemical-safety/.
41. ↑ "International OEL Issues and Activities". http://www.ioha.net/internationaloelssues.html.
42. ↑ Goodson, William H.; Lowe, Leroy; Carpenter, David O.; Gilbertson, Michael; Manaf Ali, Abdul; Lopez de Cerain Salsamendi, Adela; Lasfar, Ahmed; Carnero, Amancio et al. (June 2015). "Assessing the Carcinogenic Potential of Low-dose Exposures to Chemical Mixtures in the Environment: The Challenge Ahead" (in en). Carcinogenesis 36 (Suppl 1): S254–S296. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgv039. ISSN 0143-3334. PMID 26106142.
43. ↑ Brun, Emmanuelle; Milczarek, Malgorzata; Roskams, Nele; Op De Beek, Rik; Pahkin, Krista; Berthet, Michel; Morvan, Evelyne; Kuhn, Karl et al. (2007). ﻿Expert Forecast on Emerging Psychosocial Risks Related to Occupational Safety and Health﻿ (Report). European Risk Observatory Report no. 5. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. ISBN 978-92-9191-140-0. ISSN 1830-5946. https://osha.europa.eu/sites/default/files/report535_en.pdf. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
44. ↑ Namie, Gary (September 2000). ﻿U.S. Hostile Workplace Survey: 2000﻿ (Report). Paper presented at the New England Conference on Workplace Bullying, Suffolk University Law School, Boston, Mass.. http://www.workplacebullying.org/multi/pdf/N-N-2000.pdf.
45. ↑ Piotrkowski, Chaya S. (1998). "Sexual Harassment". in Stellman, Jeanne Mager. Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety. 2 (4th ed.). Genève, Switzerland: International Labour Office. pp. 34.28–34.29. ISBN 92-2-109203-8. https://www.iloencyclopaedia.org/part-v-77965/psychosocial-and-organizational-factors/interpersonal-factors/item/22-sexual-harassment. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
46. ↑ "Violence and Harassment in the Workplace". Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS). 31 October 2023. https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/psychosocial/violence/violence.html.
47. ↑ "NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agricultural Injuries" (in en). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 13 July 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aginjury/.
48. ↑ Garzia, Nichole A.; Spinelli, John J.; Gotay, Carolyn C.; Teschke, Kay (26 July 2018). "Literature Review: Dermal Monitoring Data for Pesticide Exposure Assessment of Farm Workers". Journal of Agromedicine 23 (3): 187–214. doi:10.1080/1059924x.2018.1448734. ISSN 1059-924X. PMID 30047858.
49. ↑ NIOSH Pesticide Poisoning Monitoring Program Protects Farmworkers. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication no. 2012-108. 6 June 2014. doi:10.26616/NIOSHPUB2012108. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012-108/default.html. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
50. ↑ ﻿NIOSH Alert: Preventing Deaths, Injuries, and Illnesses of Young Workers﻿ (Report). DHHS (NIOSH) Publication no. 2003-128. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). July 2003. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2003-128/pdfs/2003128.PDF. Retrieved 2 March 2024.
51. ↑ "Agriculture". 12 December 2011. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agriculture/.
52. ↑ Kumaraveloo, K. Sakthiaseelan; Lunner Kolstrup, Christina (2018). "Agriculture and Musculoskeletal Disorders in Low- and Middle-income Countries". Journal of Agromedicine 23 (3): 227–248. doi:10.1080/1059924x.2018.1458671. ISSN 1059-924X. PMID 30047854.
53. ↑ "Selected Findings for the Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing Sector from the 2010 National Health Interview Survey – Occupational Health Supplement (NHIS-OHS)". 28 June 2013. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nhis/pdfs/AgFFProfile.pdf.
54. ↑ "Mining" (in en). 25 January 2019. https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/industry_business/mining.
55. ↑ "Mining Alert | Excavator Engulfed After Pit Wall Failure" (in en). 9 July 2019. https://www.amsj.com.au/mining-alert-excavator-engulfed/.
56. ↑ "Every Coal Mine Worker Should Know: Black Lung" (in en). 3 July 2017. https://www.amsj.com.au/every-coal-mine-worker-know-black-lung/.
57. ↑ "Hazard Management" (in en). 15 November 2019. https://www.amsj.com.au/hazard-management/.
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204. ↑ "Safety Management - Worker Participation | Occupational Safety and Health Administration" (in en). https://www.osha.gov/safety-management/worker-participation.
205. ↑ Li, Xiao; Yi, Wen; Chi, Hung-Lin; Wang, Xiangyu; Chan, Albert P.C. (1 February 2018). "A Critical Review of Virtual and Augmented Reality (VR/AR) Applications in Construction Safety". Automation in Construction 86: 150–162. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2017.11.003. ISSN 0926-5805.
206. ↑ Rahouti, Anass; Lovreglio, Ruggiero; Datoussaïd, Sélim; Descamps, Thierry (12 March 2021). "Prototyping and Validating a Non-immersive Virtual Reality Serious Game for Healthcare Fire Safety Training" (in en). Fire Technology 57 (6): 3041–3078. doi:10.1007/s10694-021-01098-x. ISSN 1572-8099.
207. ↑ Scorgie, D.; Feng, Z.; Paes, D.; Parisi, F.; Yiu, T.W.; Lovreglio, R. (18 November 2023). "Virtual Reality for Safety Training: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-analysis". Safety Science 171. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2023.106372. ISSN 0925-7535.
208. ↑ Swuste, Paul; Eijkemans, Gerry (2002). "Occupational Safety, Health, and Hygiene in the Urban Informal Sector of Sub-Saharan Africa: An Application of the Prevention and Control Exchange (PACE) Program to the Informal-sector Workers in Healthy City Projects". International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 8 (2): 113–118. doi:10.1179/107735202800338920. ISSN 1077-3525. PMID 12019677.
209. ↑ "National Economics and Occupational Safety and Health". Facts (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work) (76). 2007. ISSN 1681-2123. https://osha.europa.eu/sites/default/files/Factsheet_76_-_National_economics_and_occupational_safety_and_health.pdf. Retrieved 6 May 2024.
210. ↑ 210.0 210.1 Badri, Adel; Boudreau-Trudel, Bryan; Souissi, Ahmed Saâdeddine (November 2018). "Occupational Health and Safety in the Industry 4.0 Era: A Cause for Major Concern?" (in en). Safety Science 109: 403–411. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2018.06.012. ISSN 0925-7535.
211. ↑ Syed, Ramish Kamal (14 July 2023). "Impact of AI on Jobs: Jobocalypse on the Horizon?". https://capitalandopinions.com/impact-of-ai-on-jobs/.
212. ↑ Moore, Phoebe V. (5 July 2019). ﻿OSH and the Future of Work: Benefits and Risks of Artificial Intelligence Tools in Workplaces﻿ (Discussion paper). pp. 2–10. https://osha.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2021-11/OSH_future_of_work_artificial_intelligence.pdf. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
213. ↑ Howard, John (22 August 2019). "Artificial Intelligence: Implications for the Future of Work" (in en). American Journal of Industrial Medicine 62 (11): 917–926. doi:10.1002/ajim.23037. ISSN 0271-3586. PMID 31436850.
214. ↑ Jansen et al. (2018), pp. 5, 29–30.
215. ↑ Jansen et al. (2018), p. 17.
216. ↑ 216.0 216.1 Gianatti, Toni-Louise (14 May 2020). "How AI-driven Algorithms Improve an Individual's Ergonomic Safety" (in en). https://ohsonline.com/articles/2020/05/14/how-aidriven-algorithms-improve-an-individuals-ergonomic-safety.aspx.
217. ↑ Frank, Morgan R.; Autor, David; Bessen, James E.; Brynjolfsson, Erik; Cebrian, Manuel; Deming, David J.; Feldman, Maryann; Groh, Matthew et al. (25 March 2019). "Toward Understanding the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Labor" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116 (14): 6531–6539. doi:10.1073/pnas.1900949116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 30910965. Bibcode: 2019PNAS..116.6531F.
218. ↑ "Coronavirus Disease-2019" (in en-us). 18 February 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/emres/2019_ncov.html.
219. ↑ Siegrist, Michael; Wiek, Arnim; Helland, Asgeir; Kastenholz, Hans (February 2007). "Risks and Nanotechnology: The Public Is More Concerned Than Experts and Industry". Nature Nanotechnology 2 (2): 67. doi:10.1038/nnano.2007.10. ISSN 1748-3387. PMID 18654213. Bibcode: 2007NatNa...2...67S.
220. ↑ Arnall, Alexander; Parr, Douglass (2005). "Nanotechnology Risks – The Real Issues". Technology in Society 27: 23–38. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2004.10.005. ISSN 0160-791X.
221. ↑ "Occupational Health Disparities". 19 December 2012. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/programs/ohd/risks.html.
222. ↑ Flynn, Michael A.; Check, Pietra; Steege, Andrea L.; Sivén, Jacqueline M.; Syron, Laura N. (January 2022). "Health Equity and a Paradigm Shift in Occupational Safety and Health" (in en). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19 (1): 349. doi:10.3390/ijerph19010349. ISSN 1661-7827. PMID 35010608.
223. ↑ Cunningham, Thomas R.; Guerin, Rebecca J.; Keller, Brenna M.; Flynn, Michael A.; Salgado, Cathy; Hudson, Dennis (1 March 2018). "Differences in Safety Training Among Smaller and Larger Construction Firms with Non-native Workers: Evidence of Overlapping Vulnerabilities" (in en). Safety Science 103: 62–69. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2017.11.011. ISSN 0925-7535. PMID 29375194.
224. ↑ Flynn, Michael A.; Eggerth, Donald E.; Jacobson, C. Jeffrey (November 2015). "Undocumented Status as a Social Determinant of Occupational Safety and Health: The Workers' Perspective" (in en). American Journal of Industrial Medicine 58 (11): 1127–1137. doi:10.1002/ajim.22531. ISSN 0271-3586. PMID 26471878.
225. ↑ Flynn, Michael A.; Eggerth, Donald E.; Keller, Brenna M.; Check, Pietra (4 May 2021). "Reaching 'Hard to Reach' Workers: Evaluating Approaches to Disseminate Worker Safety Information via the Mexican Consular Network" (in en). Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene 18 (4–5): 180–191. doi:10.1080/15459624.2021.1903014. ISSN 1545-9624. PMID 33881388.
226. ↑ Flynn, Michael A.; Carreón, Tania; Eggerth, Donald E.; Johnson, Antoinette I. (2014). "Immigration, Work, and Health: A Literature Review of Immigration Between Mexico and the United States". Revista de trabajo social [Social Work Journal] 6: 129–149. ISSN 0716-9736. PMID 28260831.

### Sources

* Hutchins, B.L.; Harrison, A. (1911). A History of Factory Legislation (2nd ed.). London, England: P.S. King & Son. OCLC 60732343. https://archive.org/details/factoryofhistory00hutcrich. Retrieved 1 March 2024.
* Jansen, Anne; van der Beek, Dolf; Cremers, Anita; Neerincx, Mark; van Middelaar, Johan (28 August 2018) (PDF). ﻿Emergent Risks to Workplace Safety; Working in the Same Space as a Cobot﻿ (Report no. TNO 2018 R10742 for the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment). Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO). https://publications.tno.nl/publication/34627026/je8DYe. Retrieved 5 May 2024.
* Myeni, Sibongiseni S.; Ngcobo, Ntombenhle J. (2020). ﻿The Profile of Occupational Health and Safety: South Africa﻿ (Report). Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Employment and Labour. https://www.labour.gov.za/DocumentCenter/Publications/Occupational Health and Safety/The Profile Occupational Health and Safety South Africa.pdf. Retrieved 15 March 2024.

## Further reading

* ﻿A Guide to Health and Safety Regulation in Great Britain﻿ (Report). Health and Safety Executive (HSE). July 2013. https://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/hse49.pdf. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
* Koester, Frank (April 1912). "Our Stupendous Yearly Waste: The Death Toll of Industry". The World's Work (Doubleday, Page and Company) XXIII (6): 713–715. ISSN 2691-7254. https://archive.org/details/sim_worlds-work_1912-04_23_6/page/712/mode/2up?view=theater. Retrieved 15 March 2024.
* LaDou, Joseph (2006). Current Occupational & Environmental Medicine (4th ed.). New York, N.Y.: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-144313-5.
* Leidel, Nelson A.; Busch, Kenneth A. (April 1975). ﻿Statistical Methods for the Determination of Noncompliance with Occupational Health Standards﻿ (Report: HEW Publication No.(NIOSH) 75-159). Washington, D.C.: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). doi:10.26616/NIOSHPUB75159. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/115461. Retrieved 25 December 2024.
* Roughton, James E.; Mercurio, James J. (15 March 2002). Developing an Effective Safety Culture: A Leadership Approach. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-7506-7411-9.

## External links

### International agencies

* (EU) European Agency for Safety & Health at Work (EU-OSHA)
* (UN) International Labour Organization (ILO)

### National bodies

* (Canada) Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
* (Japan) Japan Industrial Safety and Health Association
* (Japan) Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare
* (Japan) Japan National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
* (UK) Health and Safety Executive
* (US) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
* (US) Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

### Legislation

* (Canada) EnviroOSH Legislation plus Standards

### Publications

* American Journal of Industrial Medicine

### Education

* National Examination Board in Occupational Safety and Health (NEBOSH)

* v
* t
* e

Occupational safety and health

Occupational diseases
and injuries|

* Acrodynia
* Asbestosis
* Asthma
* Barotrauma
* Berylliosis
* Brucellosis
* Byssinosis ("brown lung")
* Chalicosis
* Chimney sweeps' carcinoma
* Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy (CSE)
* Coalworker's pneumoconiosis ("black lung")
* Concussions in sport
* Decompression sickness
* De Quervain syndrome
* Exposure to human nail dust
* Farmer's lung
* Fiddler's neck
* Flock worker's lung
* Glassblower's cataract
* Golfer's elbow
* Hearing Loss
* Hospital-acquired infection
* Indium lung
* Laboratory animal allergy
* Lead poisoning
* Mad hatter disease
* Mesothelioma
* Metal fume fever
* Mule spinners' cancer
* Noise-induced hearing loss
* Phossy jaw
* Pneumoconiosis
* Radium jaw
* Repetitive strain injury
* Silicosis
* Silo-filler's disease
* Sports injury
* Surfer's ear
* Tennis elbow
* Tinnitus
* Writer's cramp

Occupational hygiene|

* Occupational hazard
* Biological hazard
* Chemical hazard
* Physical hazard
* Psychosocial hazard
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Prevention through design
* Exposure assessment
* Occupational exposure limit
* Occupational epidemiology
* Workplace health surveillance

Professions|

* Environmental health
* Industrial engineering
* Occupational health nursing
* Occupational health psychology
* Occupational medicine
* Occupational therapist
* Safety engineering

Agencies and organizations|

* Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
* European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
* UK Health and Safety Executive
* International Labour Organization
* U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
* U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
* World Health Organization

Standards|

* Bangladesh Accord
* ISO 45001
* Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981
* Worker Protection Standard (US)
* Working Environment Convention, 1977

Safety|

* Checklist
* Code of practice
* Contingency plan
* Diving safety
* Emergency procedure
* Emergency evacuation
* Hazard
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Hazard elimination
* Administrative controls
* Engineering controls
* Hazard substitution
* Personal protective equipment
* Job safety analysis
* Lockout-tagout
* Permit To Work
* Operations manual
* Redundancy (engineering)
* Risk assessment
* Safety culture
* Standard operating procedure

Legislation|

* Diving regulations

See also|

* Environment, health and safety
* Environmental toxicology
* Ergonomics
* Health physics
* Indoor air quality
* International Chemical Safety Card
* National Day of Mourning (Canadian observance)
* Process safety management
* Public health
* Risk management
* Safety data sheet (SDS)
* Toxic tort
* Workers' compensation

* Category
* Occupational diseases
* Journals
* Organizations
* Commons
* Glossary

* v
* t
* e

Public health

General|

* Auxology
* Biological hazard
* Chief Medical Officer
* Cultural competence
* Deviance
* Environmental health
* Euthenics
* Genomics
* Globalization and disease
* Health economics
* Health literacy
* Health policy
* Health system
* Health care reform
* Public health law
* Maternal health
* Medical anthropology
* Medical sociology
* Mental health
* Pharmaceutical policy
* Public health intervention
* Public health laboratory
* Reproductive health
* Social psychology
* Sociology of health and illness

Preventive healthcare|

* Behavior change
* Theories
* Family planning
* Health promotion
* Human nutrition
* Preventive nutrition
* Hygiene
* Food safety
* Hand washing
* Infection control
* Oral hygiene
* Occupational safety and health
* Human factors and ergonomics
* Hygiene
* Injury prevention
* Medicine
* Nursing
* Patient safety
* Organization
* Pharmacovigilance
* Safe sex
* Sanitation
* Emergency
* Fecal–oral transmission
* Open defecation
* Sanitary sewer
* Waterborne diseases
* Smoking cessation
* Vaccination
* Vector control

Population health|

* Biostatistics
* Child mortality
* Community health
* Epidemiology
* Global health
* Health impact assessment
* Health system
* Infant mortality
* Open-source healthcare software
* Public health informatics
* Social determinants of health
* Health equity
* Race and health
* Social medicine

Biological and
epidemiological statistics|

* Case–control study
* Randomized controlled trial
* Relative risk
* Statistical hypothesis testing
* Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
* Regression analysis
* ROC curve
* Student's t-test
* Z-test
* Statistical software

Infectious and epidemic
disease prevention|

* Asymptomatic carrier
* Epidemics
* List
* Notifiable diseases
* List
* Public health surveillance
* Disease surveillance
* Quarantine
* Sexually transmitted infection
* Tropical disease
* Vaccine trial

Food hygiene and
safety management|

* Food
* Additive
* Chemistry
* Engineering
* Microbiology
* Processing
* Safety
* Safety scandals
* Genetically modified food
* Good agricultural practice
* Good manufacturing practice
* HACCP
* ISO 22000

Health behavioral
sciences|

* Diffusion of innovations
* Health belief model
* Health communication
* Health psychology
* Positive deviance
* PRECEDE-PROCEED model
* Social cognitive theory
* Social norms approach
* Theory of planned behavior
* Transtheoretical model

Organizations,
education
and history|

| Organizations|

* Europe
* Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
* Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
* India
* Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
* U.S.
* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
* City and county health departments
* Council on Education for Public Health
* Public Health Service
* World Health Organization
* World Toilet Organization

|

Education|

* Health education
* Higher education
* Bachelor of Science in Public Health
* Doctor of Public Health
* Professional degrees of public health
* Schools of public health

History|

* Sara Josephine Baker
* Samuel Jay Crumbine
* Carl Rogers Darnall
* Joseph Lister
* Margaret Sanger
* John Snow
* Typhoid Mary
* Germ theory of disease
* Social hygiene movement

* Category
* Commons
* WikiProject

* v
* t
* e

Employment

Classifications|

* Casual
* Contingent
* Full-time
* Part-time
* Self-employed
* Skilled
* Independent contractor
* Temporary
* Tenure
* Unskilled
* Wage labour

Hiring|

* Application
* Background check
* Business networking
* Contract
* Cover letter
* Curriculum Vitae (CV)
* Drug testing
* e-recruitment
* Employment counsellor
* Executive search (list)
* Induction programme
* Job fair
* Job fraud
* Job hunting
* Job interview
* Labour brokering
* Overqualification
* Onboarding
* Personality-job fit theory
* Person-environment fit
* Probation
* Reference
* Résumé
* Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates
* Underemployment
* Work-at-home scheme

Roles|

* Mentorship
* Co-op
* Employee
* Employer
* Internship
* Job
* Permanent
* Permatemp
* Supervisor
* Volunteer

Worker class|

* Blue-collar
* Green-collar
* Grey-collar
* Pink-collar
* White-collar

Career and training|

* Apprenticeship
* Avocation
* Career assessment
* Career counseling
* Career development
* Coaching
* Creative class
* Education
* Continuing education
* Continuing professional development
* E-learning
* Employability
* Further education
* Graduate school
* Induction training
* Initial Professional Development
* Knowledge worker
* Licensure
* Lifelong learning
* Practice-based professional learning
* Professional association
* Professional certification
* Professional development
* Professional school
* Reflective practice
* Retraining
* Vocational education
* Vocational school
* Vocational university
* Mentorship
* Occupational Outlook Handbook
* Practice firm
* Profession
* Tradesman
* Vocation

Attendance|

* Break
* Career break
* Furlough
* Gap year
* Leave of absence
* Long service leave
* No call, no show
* Sabbatical
* Sick leave
* Time clock

Schedules|

* Four-day week
* Eight-hour day
* 996
* Flextime
* Overtime
* Retroactive overtime
* Shift work
* Telecommuting
* Working time
* Workweek and weekend

Wages and salaries|

* Income bracket
* Income tax
* Living wage
* Maximum wage
* National average salary
* World
* Europe
* Minimum wage
* Canada
* Hong Kong
* Europe
* United States
* Progressive wage
* Singapore
* Overtime rate
* Paid time off
* Performance-related pay
* Salary
* Salary cap
* Working poor

Benefits|

* Annual leave
* Casual Friday
* Day care
* Disability insurance
* Health insurance
* Life insurance
* Marriage leave
* Parental leave
* Pension
* Sick leave
* Take-home vehicle

Safety and health|

* Epilepsy and employment
* Human factors and ergonomics
* Industrial noise
* Karōshi
* Protective clothing
* Occupational burnout
* Occupational disease
* Occupational exposure limit
* Occupational health psychology
* Occupational injury
* Occupational stress
* Repetitive strain injury
* Sick building syndrome
* Work accident
* Occupational fatality
* Workers' compensation
* Workplace phobia
* Workplace wellness

Equality|

* Affirmative action
* Equal pay for women
* Gender pay gap
* Glass ceiling

Infractions|

* Corporate abuse
* Accounting scandals
* Corporate behaviour
* Corporate crime
* Control fraud
* Corporate scandals
* Discrimination
* Dress code
* Employee handbook
* Employee monitoring
* Evaluation
* Labour law
* Sexual harassment
* Sleeping while on duty
* Wage theft
* Whistleblower
* Workplace bullying
* Workplace harassment
* Workplace incivility

Willingness|

* Boreout
* Civil conscription
* Conscription
* Dead-end job
* Extreme careerism
* Job satisfaction
* Organizational commitment
* McJob
* Refusal of work
* Slavery
* Bonded labour
* Human trafficking
* Labour camp
* Penal labour
* Peonage
* Truck system
* Unfree labour
* Wage slavery
* Workaholic
* Work aversion
* Work ethic
* Work–life balance
* Downshifting (lifestyle)
* Slow living

Termination|

* At-will employment
* Dismissal
* Banishment room
* Constructive dismissal
* Wrongful dismissal
* Employee exit management
* Exit interview
* Layoff
* Notice period
* Pink slip
* Resignation
* Letter of resignation
* Restructuring
* Retirement
* Mandatory retirement
* Retirement age
* Severance package
* Golden handshake
* Golden parachute
* Turnover

Unemployment|

* Barriers to Employment
* Depression
* Great Depression
* Long Depression
* Discouraged worker
* Frictional unemployment
* Full employment
* Graduate unemployment
* Involuntary unemployment
* Jobless recovery
* Phillips curve
* Recession
* Great Recession
* Great Recession job losses
* List of recessions
* Recession-proof job
* Reserve army of labour
* Types of unemployment
* Unemployment Convention
* Unemployment benefits
* Unemployment extension
* Unemployment insurance
* Unemployment rates
* Employment rates
* Employment-to-population ratio
* Structural unemployment
* Technological unemployment
* Wage curve
* Youth unemployment

See also templates

* Aspects of corporations
* Aspects of jobs
* Aspects of occupations
* Aspects of organizations
* Aspects of workplaces
* Corporate titles
* Organized labor

* v
* t
* e

Aspects of occupations

* Apartheid
* Asthma
* Burnout
* Closure
* Crime
* Disease
* Fatality
* Hygiene
* Inequality
* Injury
* Injustice
* Medicine
* Prestige
* Psychology
* Psychosis
* Rehabilitation
* Repetitive strain injury
* Safety and health
* Science
* Stress
* Therapist
* Therapy
* Therapy in the United Kingdom

See also templates
Aspects of corporations
Aspects of jobs
Aspects of organizations
Aspects of workplaces
Occupational safety and health
Employment

* v
* t
* e

Underwater diving

* Diving modes
* Atmospheric pressure diving
* Freediving
* Saturation diving
* Scuba diving
* Snorkeling
* Surface-supplied diving
* Unmanned diving

Diving equipment

| Basic equipment|

* Diving mask
* Snorkel
* Swimfin

|

Breathing gas|

* Bailout gas
* Bottom gas
* Breathing air
* Decompression gas
* Emergency gas supply
* Heliox
* Nitrox
* Oxygen
* Travel gas
* Trimix

Buoyancy and
trim equipment|

* Buoyancy control device
* Power inflator
* Dump valve
* Diving weighting system
* Ankle weights
* Integrated weights
* Trim weights
* Weight belt

Decompression
equipment|

* Decompression buoy
* Decompression cylinder
* Decompression trapeze
* Dive computer
* Diving shot
* Jonline

Environmental
protection|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving suit
* Dry suit
* Sladen suit
* Standard diving suit
* Rash vest
* Wetsuit
* Dive skins
* Hot-water suit

Helmets
and masks|

* Anti-fog
* Diving helmet
* Free-flow helmet
* Lightweight demand helmet
* Reclaim helmet
* Standard diving helmet
* Diving mask
* Band mask
* Half mask
* Full-face mask

Instrumentation|

* Bottom timer
* Depth gauge
* Dive computer
* Dive timer
* Diving compass
* Diving watch
* Pneumofathometer
* Submersible pressure gauge

Mobility
equipment|

* Diving bell
* Closed bell
* Wet bell
* Diving stage
* Diver propulsion vehicle
* Advanced SEAL Delivery System
* Cosmos CE2F series
* Dry Combat Submersible
* Human torpedo
* Motorised Submersible Canoe
* R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle
* SEAL Delivery Vehicle
* Shallow Water Combat Submersible
* Siluro San Bartolomeo
* Wet Nellie
* Wet sub
* Necker Nymph
* Swimfins
* Monofin
* Towboard

Safety
equipment|

* Alternative air source
* Bailout block
* Bailout bottle
* Bolt snap
* Buddy line
* Distance line
* Dive light
* Dive reel
* Diver's cutting tool
* Diver's knife
* Diver's telephone
* Through-water communications
* Diving bell
* Diving safety harness
* Emergency gas supply
* Lifeline
* Screw gate carabiner
* Line marker
* Octopus regulator
* Pony bottle
* Rescue tether
* Safety helmet
* Shark-proof cage
* Surface marker buoy
* Personal locator beacon

Underwater
breathing
apparatus|

* Atmospheric diving suit
* Diving cylinder
* Burst disc
* Diving cylinder valve
* Diving helmet
* Diving regulator
* Single-hose regulator
* Twin-hose regulator
* Regulator malfunction
* Regulator freeze
* Full face diving mask
* Reclaim helmet
* Open-circuit scuba
* Scuba set
* Bailout bottle
* Decompression cylinder
* Independent doubles
* Manifolded twin set
* Scuba manifold
* Pony bottle
* Sidemount
* Sling cylinder
* Scuba replacement
* Standard diving dress
* Diving rebreather
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Carleton CDBA
* CDLSE
* Cis-Lunar
* Cryogenic rebreather
* CUMA
* DSEA
* Dolphin
* Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor
* FROGS
* Halcyon PVR-BASC
* Halcyon RB80
* IDA71
* Interspiro DCSC
* KISS
* LAR-5
* LAR-6
* LAR-V
* LARU
* Porpoise
* Dräger Ray
* Siebe Gorman CDBA
* Siva
* Viper
* Surface-supplied diving equipment
* Air line
* Diver's umbilical
* Diving air compressor
* Hookah
* Sea Trek
* Snuba
* Standard diving dress

Diving
equipment
manufacturers|

* AP Diving
* Apeks
* Aqua Lung America
* Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique
* Beuchat
* René Cavalero
* Cressi-Sub
* Dacor
* DESCO
* Dive Xtras
* Divex
* Diving Unlimited International
* Drägerwerk
* Fenzy
* Maurice Fernez
* Technisub
* Oscar Gugen
* Heinke
* HeinrichsWeikamp
* Johnson Outdoors
* Mares
* Morse Diving
* Nemrod
* Oceanic Worldwide
* Porpoise
* Sub Sea Systems
* Shearwater Research
* Siebe Gorman
* Submarine Products
* Suunto

Diving support equipment

| Breathing gas|

* Air filtration
* Booster pump
* Carbon dioxide scrubber
* Cascade filling system
* Diver's pump
* Diving air compressor
* Diving air filter
* High pressure breathing air compressor
* Low pressure breathing air compressor
* Gas blending
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Gas panel
* Gas reclaim system
* Gas storage bank
* Gas storage quad
* Gas storage tube
* Helium analyzer
* Nitrox production
* Membrane method of gas concentration
* Pressure swing adsorption
* Oxygen analyser
* Oxygen compatibility

|

Decompression
equipment|

* Built-in breathing system
* Decompression tables
* Dive computer
* Diving bell
* Bell cursor
* Closed bell
* Clump weight
* Launch and recovery system
* Wet bell
* Diving chamber
* Diving stage
* Jersey upline
* Recreational Dive Planner
* Saturation system

Platforms|

* Dive boat
* Boarding stirrup
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Combat Rubber Raiding Craft
* Diving platform (scuba)
* Liveaboard
* Subskimmer
* Diving support vessel
* HMS Challenger (K07)
* Moon pool
* Underwater habitat
* Aquarius Reef Base
* Continental Shelf Station Two
* Helgoland Habitat
* Jules' Undersea Lodge
* Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station
* SEALAB
* Tektite habitat

Remotely operated
underwater vehicles|

* 8A4-class ROUV
* ABISMO
* Atlantis ROV Team
* CURV
* Épaulard
* Global Explorer ROV
* Goldfish-class ROUV
* Kaikō ROV
* Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System
* Mini Rover ROV
* OpenROV
* ROV KIEL 6000
* ROV PHOCA
* Scorpio ROV
* Sea Dragon-class ROV
* Seabed tractor
* Seafox drone
* Seahorse ROUV
* SeaPerch
* SJT-class ROUV
* T1200 Trenching Unit
* VideoRay UROVs

Safety equipment|

* Diver down flag
* Diving shot
* Hyperbaric lifeboat
* Hyperbaric stretcher
* Jackstay
* Jonline
* Reserve gas supply

General|

* Diving ladder
* Hot water system
* Downline

Freediving

| Activities|

* Aquathlon
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Haenyeo
* Pearl hunting
* Ama
* Snorkeling
* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater ice hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

|

Competitions|

* Nordic Deep
* Vertical Blue
* Disciplines
* Constant weight (CWT)
* Constant weight without fins (CNF)
* Dynamic apnea (DYN)
* Dynamic apnea without fins (DNF)
* Free immersion (FIM)
* No-limits apnea (NLT)
* Static apnea (STA)
* Skandalopetra diving
* Variable weight apnea (VWT)
* Variable weight apnea without fins

Equipment|

* Diving mask
* Diving suit
* Fins
* Hawaiian sling
* Monofin
* Polespear
* Snorkel (swimming)
* Speargun
* Water polo cap

Freedivers|

* Deborah Andollo
* Peppo Biscarini
* Sara Campbell
* Derya Can Göçen
* Goran Čolak
* Carlos Coste
* Robert Croft
* Mandy-Rae Cruickshank
* Yasemin Dalkılıç
* Leonardo D'Imporzano
* Flavia Eberhard
* Şahika Ercümen
* Emma Farrell
* Francisco Ferreras
* Pierre Frolla
* Flavia Eberhard
* Mehgan Heaney-Grier
* Elisabeth Kristoffersen
* Loïc Leferme
* Enzo Maiorca
* Jacques Mayol
* Audrey Mestre
* Karol Meyer
* Stéphane Mifsud
* Alexey Molchanov
* Natalia Molchanova
* Dave Mullins
* Patrick Musimu
* Guillaume Néry
* Herbert Nitsch
* Umberto Pelizzari
* Annelie Pompe
* Michal Risian
* Stig Severinsen
* Tom Sietas
* Aharon Solomons
* Martin Štěpánek
* Walter Steyn
* Tanya Streeter
* William Trubridge
* Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
* Danai Varveri
* Alessia Zecchini
* Nataliia Zharkova

Hazards|

* Barotrauma
* Drowning
* Freediving blackout
* Deep-water blackout
* Shallow-water blackout
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Historical|

* Ama
* Octopus wrestling
* Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming

Organisations|

* AIDA International
* Scuba Schools International
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Freediving Association
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* Performance Freediving International

Professional diving

| Occupations|

* Ama
* Commercial diving
* Commercial offshore diving
* Hazmat diving
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Diving safety officer
* Diving supervisor
* Haenyeo
* Media diving
* Underwater photography
* Underwater videography
* Military diving
* Army engineer diver
* Clearance diver
* Frogman
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Scientific diving
* Underwater archaeology

|

Underwater work|

* Commercial offshore diving
* Dive guide
* Diver training
* Recreational diver training
* Hyperbaric welding
* Nondestructive testing
* Pearl hunting
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Salvage diving
* Scientific diving
* Sponge diving
* Submarine pipeline
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater demolition
* Underwater photography
* Underwater search and recovery
* Underwater videography

Tools & equipment|

* Abrasive waterjet
* Airlift
* In-water surface cleaning
* Brush cart
* Cavitation cleaning
* Pressure washing
* Lifting bag
* Remotely operated underwater vehicle
* Silt screw
* Snoopy loop
* Thermal lance
* Tremie
* Water jetting

Underwater
weapons|

* Limpet mine
* Speargun
* Hawaiian sling
* Polespear

| Underwater
firearm|

* Gyrojet
* Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
* Powerhead
* Underwater pistols
* Heckler & Koch P11
* SPP-1 underwater pistol
* Underwater revolvers
* AAI underwater revolver
* Underwater rifles
* ADS amphibious rifle
* APS underwater rifle
* ASM-DT amphibious rifle

|

Recreational diving

| Specialties|

* Altitude diving
* Cave diving
* Deep diving
* Ice diving
* Muck diving
* Open-water diving
* Rebreather diving
* Sidemount diving
* Solo diving
* Technical diving
* Wreck diving

|

Diver
organisations|

* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)

Diving tourism
industry|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Scuba diving tourism
* Shark tourism
* Sinking ships for wreck diving sites

Recreational
dive sites|

| Reef diving
regions|

* Arrecifes de Cozumel National Park
* Great Barrier Reef
* iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area
* Poor Knights Islands
* Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area

|

Reef dive
sites|

* Artificial reef
* Gibraltar Artificial Reef
* Shark River Reef
* Osborne Reef
* Palancar Reef
* Underwater artworks
* Cancún Underwater Museum
* Christ of the Abyss
* The Diver
* Molinere Underwater Sculpture Park

Wreck diving
regions|

* Chuuk Lagoon
* Maritime Heritage Trail – Battle of Saipan
* Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
* Wreck Alley, San Diego

Wreck dive
sites|

* HMS A1
* HMS A3
* Engineering:USS Aaron Ward
* Abessinia
* Aeolian Sky
* Albert C. Field
* Andrea Doria
* Antilla
* Antilles
* Aquila
* Engineering:USS Arkansas
* HMS Boadicea
* Bianca C.
* Booya
* HMSAS Bloemfontein
* Breda
* HMAS Brisbane
* Bungsberg
* HMAS Canberra
* Carl D. Bradley
* Carnatic
* SMS Dresden
* Dunraven
* Eastfield
* HMT Elk
* Ellengowan
* RMS Empress of Ireland
* HMS Falmouth
* Fifi
* SS Francisco Morazan
* Fujikawa Maru
* Fumizuki
* SATS General Botha
* USNS General Hoyt S. Vandenberg
* HMS Ghurka
* Glen Strathallan
* SAS Good Hope
* Gothenburg
* Herzogin Cecilie
* Hilma Hooker
* Hispania
* HMS Hood
* HMAS Hobart
* Igara
* James Eagan Layne
* Captain Keith Tibbetts
* King Cruiser
* SMS Kronprinz
* Kyarra
* HMS Laforey
* USAT Liberty
* Louis Sheid
* Engineering:USS LST-507
* SMS Markgraf
* Mikhail Lermontov
* HMS M2
* Maine
* Maloja
* HMS Maori
* Marguerite
* SS Mauna Loa
* USAT Meigs
* Mendi
* USCGC Mohawk
* Mohegan
* RMS Moldavia
* HMS Montagu
* MV RMS Mulheim
* Nagato
* Oceana
* Engineering:USS Oriskany
* Oslofjord
* P29
* P31
* Pedernales
* Persier
* HMAS Perth
* SAS Pietermaritzburg
* Piłsudski
* Pool Fisher
* HMS Port Napier
* Preußen
* President Coolidge
* PS Queen Victoria
* Radaas
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* RMS Rhone
* Rondo
* Rosehill
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* Royal Charter
* Rozi
* HMS Safari
* Salem Express
* Engineering:USS Saratoga
* Engineering:USS Scuffle
* HMS Scylla
* HMS Sidon
* Engineering:USS Spiegel Grove
* Stanegarth
* Stanwood
* Stella
* HMAS Swan
* Engineering:USS Tarpon
* Thesis
* Thistlegorm
* Toa Maru
* Torrey Canyon
* SAS Transvaal
* Tulagi
* Tulamben
* U-40
* U-352
* U-1195
* Um El Faroud
* Varvassi
* Walter L M Russ
* Washingtonian (1913)
* HMNZS Wellington
* Engineering:USS Yancey
* Yongala
* Zenobia
* Zealandia
* Zingara

Cave diving
sites|

* Devil's Throat at Punta Sur
* Engelbrecht
* Fossil Cave
* Piccaninnie Ponds
* Pollatoomary
* Sistema Ox Bel Ha
* Sistema Sac Actun
* Sistema Dos Ojos
* Sistema Nohoch Nah Chich

Freshwater
dives|

* Ewens Ponds
* Little Blue Lake

Training sites|

* Capernwray Dive Centre
* National Diving and Activity Centre
* Stoney Cove

Open ocean
diving|

* Blue-water diving
* Black-water diving

Diving safety

* Ergonomics of diving equipment
* Human factors in diving safety
* Life support system
* Safety-critical system

| Diving hazards|

* Trait anxiety
* Cold shock response
* Decompression
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Nitrogen narcosis
* Overconfidence effect
* Oxygen toxicity
* Panic
* Penetration diving
* Seasickness
* Silt out
* Single point of failure
* Task loading
* Uncontrolled decompression

|

Consequences|

* Barotrauma
* Decompression sickness
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Hypoxia
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Risk
management|

* Checklist
* Hazard identification and risk assessment
* Hazard analysis
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Risk control
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Incident pit
* Lockout-tagout
* Permit To Work
* Redundancy
* Safety data sheet
* Situation awareness
* Diving team
* Bellman
* Chamber operator
* Diver's attendant
* Diving supervisor
* Diving systems technician
* Life support technician
* Stand-by diver
* Equipment safety
* Breathing gas quality
* Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
* Hydrostatic test
* Sustained load cracking
* Diving regulators
* Breathing performance of regulators
* Occupational safety and health
* Approaches to safety
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Toolbox talk
* Housekeeping
* Association of Diving Contractors International
* Code of practice
* Contingency plan
* Diving regulations
* Emergency procedure
* Emergency response plan
* Evacuation plan
* Hazardous Materials Identification System
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Administrative controls
* Engineering controls
* Hazard elimination
* Hazard substitution
* Personal protective equipment
* International Marine Contractors Association
* Occupational hazard
* Biological hazard
* Chemical hazard
* Physical hazard
* Psychosocial hazard
* Occupational hygiene
* Exposure assessment
* Occupational exposure limit
* Workplace health surveillance
* Safety culture
* Code of practice
* Health and safety representative
* Operations manual
* Safety meeting
* Standard operating procedure

Diving
procedures|

* Ascending and descending
* Emergency ascent
* Boat diving
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Buddy diving
* Decompression
* Decompression practice
* Pyle stop
* Ratio decompression
* Dive briefing
* Dive log
* Dive planning
* Scuba gas planning
* Diver communications
* Diving hand signals
* Diving line signals
* Diver voice communications
* Diver rescue
* Diver training
* Doing It Right
* Drift diving
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Night diving
* Solo diving
* Water safety

Incidents|

| Diver rescues|

* Tham Luang cave rescue

|

Early diving|

* John Day (carpenter)
* Charles Spalding
* Ebenezer Watson

Freediving|

* Loïc Leferme
* Audrey Mestre
* Nicholas Mevoli
* Natalia Molchanova

Professional
diving|

* Johnson Sea Link accident
* Offshore diving incidents
* Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
* Drill Master diving accident
* Star Canopus diving accident
* Venture One diving accident
* Waage Drill II diving accident
* Wildrake diving accident
* Professional diver fatalities
* Roger Baldwin
* John Bennett
* Victor F. Guiel Jr.
* Craig M. Hoffman
* Peter Henry Michael Holmes
* Edwin Clayton Link
* Gerard Anthony Prangley
* Pier Skipness
* Robert John Smyth
* Albert D. Stover
* Richard A. Walker
* Lothar Michael Ward
* Joachim Wendler
* Death of Bradley Westell
* Arne Zetterström

Scuba diving
fatalities|

* Ricardo Armbruster
* Allan Bridge
* David Bright
* Berry L. Cannon
* Cotton Coulson
* Cláudio Coutinho
* E. Yale Dawson
* Deon Dreyer
* Milan Dufek
* Sheck Exley
* Maurice Fargues
* Guy Garman
* Steve Irwin
* Jim Jones
* Henry Way Kendall
* Artur Kozłowski
* Chris and Chrissy Rouse
* Kirsty MacColl
* Agnes Milowka
* François de Roubaix
* Dave Shaw
* Wesley C. Skiles
* Dewey Smith
* Rob Stewart
* Esbjörn Svensson
* Josef Velek

Diving medicine

| Diving
disorders|

* List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
* Cramps
* Motion sickness
* Surfer's ear

| Pressure
related|

* Aerosinusitis
* Air embolism
* Alternobaric vertigo
* Barodontalgia
* Barostriction
* Barotrauma
* Compression arthralgia
* Decompression illness
* Dental barotrauma
* Dysbarism
* Pulmonary barotrauma

| Oxygen|

* Freediving blackout
* Hyperoxia
* Hypoxia
* Oxygen toxicity

|

Inert gases|

* Avascular necrosis
* Decompression sickness
* Isobaric counterdiffusion
* Taravana
* Dysbaric osteonecrosis
* High-pressure nervous syndrome
* Hydrogen narcosis
* Nitrogen narcosis

Carbon dioxide|

* Hypercapnia
* Hypocapnia

Breathing gas
contaminants|

* Carbon monoxide poisoning

Immersion
related|

* Asphyxia
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Immersion diuresis
* Instinctive drowning response
* Laryngospasm
* Salt water aspiration syndrome
* Swimming-induced pulmonary edema

Treatment|

* Demand valve oxygen therapy
* First Aid
* Hyperbaric medicine
* Hyperbaric treatment schedules
* In-water recompression
* Oxygen therapy
* Therapeutic recompression

Personnel|

* Diving Medical Examiner
* Diving Medical Practitioner
* Diving Medical Technician
* Hyperbaric nursing

Screening|

* Atrial septal defect
* Fitness to dive
* Psychological fitness to dive

Research|

| Researchers in
diving physiology
and medicine|

* Arthur J. Bachrach
* Albert R. Behnke
* Paul Bert
* George F. Bond
* Robert Boyle
* Albert A. Bühlmann
* John R. Clarke
* Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
* William Paul Fife
* John Scott Haldane
* Robert William Hamilton Jr.
* Leonard Erskine Hill
* Brian Andrew Hills
* Felix Hoppe-Seyler
* Christian J. Lambertsen
* Simon Mitchell
* Charles Momsen
* John Rawlins R.N.
* Charles Wesley Shilling
* Edward D. Thalmann
* Jacques Triger

|

Diving medical
research
organisations|

* Aerospace Medical Association
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
* Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
* European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
* European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
* National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
* Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
* Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
* Rubicon Foundation
* South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
* Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
* Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
* United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)

Law

* Civil liability in recreational diving
* Duty of care
* List of legislation regulating underwater diving
* Investigation of diving accidents

History of underwater diving

* Aqua-Lung
* History of decompression research and development
* History of scuba diving
* List of researchers in underwater diving
* Porpoise regulator
* Standard diving dress
* Timeline of diving technology
* Underwater diving in popular culture
* Vintage scuba

Publications

| Manuals|

* NOAA Diving Manual
* U.S. Navy Diving Manual
* Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival

|

Standards and
Codes of Practice|

* DIN 7876

General non-fiction|

* The Darkness Beckons
* Goldfinder
* The Last Dive
* Shadow Divers

Training and registration

| Diver
training|

* Diving instructor
* Diving school
* Occupational diver training
* Commercial diver training
* Military diver training
* Public safety diver training
* Scientific diver training
* Competence and assessment
* Competency-based learning
* Skill assessment
* Refresher training (diving)
* Diver training standard
* Recreational diver training
* Introductory diving
* Skills
* Diver navigation
* Diver trim
* Ear clearing
* Frenzel maneuver
* Valsalva maneuver
* Finning techniques
* Scuba skills
* Buddy breathing
* Low impact diving
* Diamond Reef System
* Surface-supplied diving skills
* Underwater searches
* Teaching methods
* Muscle memory
* Overtraining
* Stress exposure training

|

Organisations|

* European Underwater Federation (EUF)
* International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
* International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
* International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
* List of diver certification organizations
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* Universal Referral Program
* World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)

| Commercial diver
certification
authorities|

* Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
* Commercial diver registration in South Africa
* Divers Institute of Technology
* Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
* Department of Employment and Labour

|

Commercial diving
schools|

* Divers Academy International

Free-diving
certification
agencies|

* AIDA International (AIDA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Performance Freediving International (PI)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)

Recreational scuba
certification
agencies|

* American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* International Diving Educators Association (IDEA)
* Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
* Scuba Diving International (SDI)
* Scuba Educators International (SEI)
* Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* United Diving Instructors (UDI)
* YMCA SCUBA Program

Recreational scuba
certification
levels|

* Advanced Open Water Diver
* Autonomous diver
* CMAS* scuba diver
* CMAS** scuba diver
* Dive leader
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Introductory diving
* Low Impact Diver
* Master Instructor
* Master Scuba Diver
* Open Water Diver
* Rescue Diver
* Solo diver
* Supervised diver

Scientific diver
certification
authorities|

* American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
* CMAS Scientific Committee

Technical
certification
agencies|

* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)
* Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
* Technical Extended Range (TXR)

| Cave
diving|

* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)

|

Underwater sports

| Surface snorkeling|

* Finswimming (surface swimming & bi-fins)

|

Snorkeling/breath-hold|

* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

Breath-hold|

* Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Underwater ice hockey

Open Circuit Scuba|

* Immersion finswimming
* Sport diving (sport)
* Underwater orienteering
* Underwater photography (sport)

Rebreather|

* Underwater photography (sport)

Sports governing
organisations|

* International
* AIDA International
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
* National
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Octopush Association
* British Underwater Sports Association
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* South African Underwater Sports Federation
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
* Underwater Society of America)

Freediver Federations|

* AIDA International
* AIDA Hellas
* British Freediving Association (BFA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)

Sports federations|

* Australian Underwater Federation (AUF)
* British Octopush Association (BOA)
* British Underwater Sports Association (BUSA)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* South African Underwater Sports Federation (SAUSF)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* Underwater Society of America (USOA)

Underwater divers

| Pioneers of diving|

* Aquanaut
* Jacques Cousteau
* Hans Hass
* Arne Zetterström

|

Underwater scientists and archaeologists|

* Michael Arbuthnot
* Robert Ballard
* George Bass
* Mensun Bound
* Louis Boutan
* Hugh Bradner
* Cathy Church
* Eugenie Clark
* James P. Delgado
* Sylvia Earle
* John Christopher Fine
* George R. Fischer
* Anders Franzén
* Honor Frost
* David Gibbins
* Robert F. Marx
* Charles T. Meide
* Mark M. Newell
* John Peter Oleson
* Margaret Rule
* Gunter Schöbel
* E. Lee Spence
* Robert Sténuit
* Peter Throckmorton

Scuba record holders|

* Sheck Exley
* Nuno Gomes

Underwater filmmakers|

* Samir Alhafith
* David Attenborough
* Ramón Bravo
* Ivan Tors
* Andrew Wight

Underwater photographers|

* Tamara Benitez
* Georges Beuchat
* Adrian Biddle
* Jonathan Bird
* Eric Cheng
* Neville Coleman
* Jacques Cousteau
* John D. Craig
* Ben Cropp
* Bernard Delemotte
* David Doubilet
* John Christopher Fine
* Dermot FitzGerald
* Rodney Fox
* Ric Frazier
* Stephen Frink
* Peter Gimbel
* Monty Halls
* Hans Hass
* Henry Way Kendall
* Rudie Kuiter
* Joseph B. MacInnis
* Luis Marden
* Agnes Milowka
* Noel Monkman
* Steve Parish
* Zale Parry
* Pierre Petit
* Leni Riefenstahl
* Peter Scoones
* Brian Skerry
* Wesley C. Skiles
* E. Lee Spence
* Philippe Tailliez
* Ron and Valerie Taylor
* Albert Tillman
* John Veltri
* Stan Waterman
* Jiang Wenhao
* Michele Westmorland
* John Ernest Williamson
* J. Lamar Worzel

Underwater explorers|

* Caves
* Sheck Exley
* Martyn Farr
* Jill Heinerth
* William Hogarth Main
* Rick Stanton
* Bill Stone
* John Volanthen
* Reefs
*   * Wrecks
* Clive Cussler
* Aristotelis Zervoudis

Science of underwater diving

| Diving
physics|

* Breathing performance of regulators
* Buoyancy
* Archimedes' principle
* Neutral buoyancy
* Diffusion
* Molecular diffusion
* Force
* Gas law
* Amontons's law
* Boyle's law
* Charles's law
* Combined gas law
* Dalton's law
* Gay-Lussac's law
* Ideal gas law
* Oxygen fraction
* Permeation
* Pressure
* Absolute pressure
* Ambient pressure
* Atmospheric pressure
* Gauge pressure
* Hydrostatic pressure
* Metre sea water
* Partial pressure
* Psychrometric constant
* Solubility
* Henry's law
* Saturation
* Solution
* Supersaturation
* Surface tension
* Hydrophobe
* Surfactant
* Torricellian chamber
* Underwater vision
* Snell's law
* Weight
* Apparent weight

|

Diving
physiology|

* Artificial gills
* Circulatory system
* Blood shift
* Patent foramen ovale
* Perfusion
* Systemic circulation
* Cold shock response
* Diving reflex
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Lipid
* Maximum operating depth
* Metabolism
* Physiological response to water immersion
* Respiration
* Blood–air barrier
* Breathing
* CO₂ retention
* dead space
* Gas exchange
* Hypocapnia
* Normocapnia
* Respiratory exchange ratio
* Respiratory quotient
* Respiratory system
* Work of breathing
* Tissue
* Underwater vision

| Decompression
theory|

* Decompression models:
* Bühlmann decompression algorithm
* Haldane's decompression model
* Reduced gradient bubble model
* Thalmann algorithm
* Thermodynamic model of decompression
* Varying Permeability Model
* Equivalent air depth
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Maximum operating depth
* Oxygen window in diving decompression
* Physiology of decompression
* Pulmonary circulation

|

Diving
environment|

| Diving
environment
classification|

* Altitude diving
* Benign water diving
* Confined water diving
* Deep diving
* Inland diving
* Inshore diving
* Muck diving
* Night diving
* Open water diving
* Open ocean diving
* Black-water diving
* Blue-water diving
* Penetration diving
* Cave diving
* Ice diving
* Wreck diving
* Recreational dive sites
* Underwater environment

|

Environmental
impact|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Low impact diving

Environmental
factors|

* Algal bloom
* Currents:
* Current
* Longshore drift
* Ocean current
* Rip current
* Tidal race
* Undertow
* Upwelling
* Ekman transport
* Halocline
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Reef
* Coral reef
* Stratification
* Thermocline
* Tides
* Turbidity
* Wind wave
* Breaking wave
* Surf
* Surge
* Wave shoaling

Special interest groups

* Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC)
* CMAS Europe
* Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA)
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Green Fins
* Historical Diving Society
* Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS)
* Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club
* Project AWARE
* Reef Life Survey
* Save Ontario Shipwrecks (SOS)
* SeaKeys
* Sea Research Society

Other

* Submarine escape training facility

* Category
* Commons
*   * Glossary
* Indexes: dive sites
* divers
* diving
*   * Outline
* Portal

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupational safety and health. Read more

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