List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules

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Infrared spectrum of HH 46/47 (image in inset), with vibrational bands of several molecules labelled in colour

This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium and circumstellar envelopes, grouped by the number of component atoms. The chemical formula is listed for each detected compound, along with any ionized form that has also been observed.

## Contents

* 1 Background
* 2 Molecules
* 2.1 Diatomic (45)
* 2.2 Triatomic (45)
* 2.3 Four atoms (31)
* 2.4 Five atoms (21)
* 2.5 Six atoms (16)
* 2.6 Seven atoms (16)
* 2.7 Eight atoms (14)
* 2.8 Nine atoms (11)
* 2.9 Ten or more atoms (24)
* 3 Deuterated molecules (22)
* 4 Unconfirmed (16)
* 5 See also
* 6 Notes
* 7 References
* 8 External links

## Background

Idealised example of the rotational spectrum (bottom) produced by transitions between different rotational energy levels (top) of a simple linear molecule. B is the rotational constant of the molecule, J is the rotational quantum number, J′ is the upper level and J″ is the lower level.

The molecules listed below were detected through astronomical spectroscopy. Their spectral features arise because molecules either absorb or emit a photon of light when they transition between two molecular energy levels. The energy (and thus the wavelength) of the photon matches the energy difference between the levels involved. Molecular electronic transitions occur when one of the molecule's electrons moves between molecular orbitals, producing a spectral line in the ultraviolet, optical or near-infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Alternatively, a vibrational transition transfers quanta of energy to (or from) vibrations of molecular bonds, producing signatures in the mid- or far-infrared. Gas-phase molecules also have quantised rotational levels, leading to transitions at microwave or radio wavelengths.[1]

Sometimes a transition can involve more than one of these types of energy level e.g. ro-vibrational spectroscopy changes both the rotational and vibrational energy level. Occasionally all three occur together, as in the Phillips band of C2 (diatomic carbon), in which an electronic transition produces a line in the near-infrared, which is then split into several vibronic bands by a simultaneous change in vibrational level, which in turn are split again into rotational branches.[2]

The spectrum of a particular molecule is governed by the selection rules of quantum chemistry and by its molecular symmetry. Some molecules have simple spectra which are easy to identify, whilst others (even some small molecules) have extremely complex spectra with flux spread among many different lines, making them far harder to detect.[3] Interactions between the atomic nuclei and the electrons sometimes cause further hyperfine structure of the spectral lines. If the molecule exists in multiple isotopologues (versions containing different atomic isotopes), the spectrum is further complicated by isotope shifts.

Detection of a new interstellar or circumstellar molecule requires identifying a suitable astronomical object where it is likely to be present, then observing it with a telescope equipped with a spectrograph working at the required wavelength, spectral resolution and sensitivity. The first molecule detected in the interstellar medium was the methylidyne radical (CH•) in 1937, through its strong electronic transition at 4300 angstroms (in the optical).[4] Advances in astronomical instrumentation have led to increasing numbers of new detections. From the 1950s onwards, radio astronomy began to dominate new detections, with sub-mm astronomy also becoming important from the 1990s.[3]

The inventory of detected molecules is highly biased towards certain types which are easier to detect. For example, radio astronomy is most sensitive to small linear molecules with a high molecular dipole.[3] The most common molecule in the Universe, H2 (molecular hydrogen), is completely invisible to radio telescopes because it has no dipole;[3] its electronic transitions are too energetic for optical telescopes, so detection of H2 required ultraviolet observations with a sounding rocket.[5] Vibrational lines are often not specific to an individual molecule, allowing only the general class to be identified. For example, the vibrational lines of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were identified in 1984,[6] showing the class of molecules is very common in space,[7] but it took until 2021 to identify any specific PAHs through their rotational lines.[8][9]

The carbon star CW Leonis. The visible shells of circumstellar material were ejected by the central star over thousands of years.

One of the richest sources for detecting interstellar molecules is Sagittarius B2 (Sgr B2), a giant molecular cloud near the centre of the Milky Way. About half of the molecules listed below were first found in Sgr B2, and many of the others have been subsequently detected there.[10] Many of the largest molecules were first detected in another molecular cloud, TMC-1. A rich source of circumstellar molecules is CW Leonis (also known as IRC +10216), a nearby carbon star, where about 50 molecules have been identified.[11] There is no clear boundary between interstellar and circumstellar media, so both are included in the tables below.

The discipline of astrochemistry includes understanding how these molecules form and explaining their abundances. The extremely low density of the interstellar medium is not conducive to the formation of molecules, making conventional gas-phase reactions between neutral species (atoms or molecules) inefficient. Many regions also have very low temperatures (typically 10 kelvin inside a molecular cloud), further reducing the reaction rates, or high ultraviolet radiation fields, which destroy molecules through photochemistry.[12] Explaining the observed abundances of interstellar molecules requires calculating the balance between formation and destruction rates using gas-phase ion chemistry (often driven by cosmic rays), surface chemistry on cosmic dust, radiative transfer including interstellar extinction, and sophisticated reaction networks.[13] The use of molecular lines to determine the physical properties of astronomical objects is known as molecular astrophysics.

## Molecules

The following tables list molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium or circumstellar matter, grouped by the number of component atoms. Neutral molecules and their molecular ions are listed in separate columns; if there is no entry in the molecule column, only the ionized form has been detected. Designations (names of molecules) are those used in the scientific literature describing the detection; if none was given that field is left empty. Mass is listed in daltons. Deuterated molecules, which contain at least one deuterium (2H) atom, have slightly different masses and are listed in a separate table. The total number of unique species, including distinct ionization states, is indicated in each section header.

Most of the molecules detected so far are organic. The only detected inorganic molecule with five or more atoms is SiH4.[14] Molecules larger than that all have at least one carbon atom, with no N−N or O−O bonds.[14]

### Diatomic (45)

Carbon monoxide is frequently used to trace the distribution of mass in molecular clouds.[15] Molecule | Designation | Mass | Ions

|
|
|

AlCl | Aluminium monochloride[16] | 62.5 | —
AlF | Aluminium monofluoride[17] | 46 | —
AlO | Aluminium monoxide[18] | 43 | —
— | Argonium[19][20] | 37[note 1] | ArH+
C2 | Diatomic carbon[21][22] | 24 | —
— | Fluoromethylidynium | 31 | CF+[23]
CH | Methylidyne radical[24][25] | 13 | CH+[26]
CN | Cyano radical[25][27][28] | 26 | CN+,[29] CN−[30]
CO | Carbon monoxide[31][32] | 28 | CO+[33]
CP | Carbon monophosphide[28] | 43 | —
CS | Carbon monosulfide[34] | 44 | —
FeO | Iron(II) oxide[35] | 82 | —
— | Helium hydride ion[36][37] | 5 | HeH+
H2 | Molecular hydrogen[5] | 2 | —
HCl | Hydrogen chloride[38] | 36.5 | HCl+[39]
HF | Hydrogen fluoride[40] | 20 | —
HO | Hydroxyl radical[34] | 17 | OH+[41]
KCl | Potassium chloride[16] | 75.5 | —
NH | Imidogen radical[42][43] | 15 | —
N2 | Molecular nitrogen[44][45] | 28 | —
NO | Nitric oxide[46] | 30 | NO+[29]
NS | Nitrogen sulfide[34] | 46 | —
NaCl | Sodium chloride[16] | 58.5 | —
— | Magnesium monohydride cation
O2 | Molecular oxygen[47] | 32 | —
PN | Phosphorus mononitride[48][49] | 45 | —
PO | Phosphorus monoxide[50] | 47 | —
SH | Sulfur monohydride[51] | 33 | SH+[52]
SO | Sulfur monoxide[34] | 48 | SO+[26]
SiC | Carborundum[53] | 40 | —
SiN | –[54] | 42 | —
SiO | Silicon monoxide[34] | 44 | —
NaS | Sodium sulfide[55] | 55 | —
MgS | Magnesium sulfide[55] | 56 | —
SiS | Silicon monosulfide[34] | 60 | —
TiO | Titanium(II) oxide[56] | 64[note 2] | —

### Triatomic (45)

The H+3 cation is one of the most abundant ions in the universe. It was first detected in 1993.[57][58] Molecule | Designation | Mass | Ions

|
|
|

AlNC | Aluminium isocyanide[34] | 53 | —
AlOH | Aluminium hydroxide[59] | 44 | —
C3 | Tricarbon[60][61] | 36 | —
C2H | Ethynyl radical[27] | 25 | —
CCN | Cyanomethylidyne[62] | 38 | —
C2O | Dicarbon monoxide[63] | 40 | —
C2S | Thioxoethenylidene[64] | 56 | —
C2P | —[65] | 55 | —
CO2 | Carbon dioxide[66] | 44 | —
CaNC | Calcium(I) isocyanide[67] | 66 | —
FeCN | Iron(I) cyanide[68] | 82 | —
— | Protonated molecular hydrogen | 3 | H+3[57][58]
H2C | Methylene radical[69] | 14 | —
— | Chloronium | 37.5 | H2Cl+[70]
H2O | Water[71] | 18 | H2O+[72]
HO2 | Hydroperoxyl[73] | 33 | —
H2S | Hydrogen sulfide[34] | 34 | —
HCN | Hydrogen cyanide[27][74] | 27 | —
HNC | Hydrogen isocyanide[75][76] | 27 | —
HCO | Formyl radical[77] | 29 | HCO+[26][77][78]
HCP | Phosphaethyne[79] | 44 | —
HCS | Thioformyl[80] | 45 | HCS+[26][78]
— | Diazenylium[78][26][81] | 29 | HN+2
HNO | Nitroxyl[82] | 31 | —
— | Isoformyl  | 29 | HOC+[27]
HSC | Isothioformyl[80] | 45 | —
KCN | Potassium cyanide[34] | 65 | —
MgCN | Magnesium(I) cyanide[34] | 50 | —
MgNC | Magnesium(I) isocyanide[34] | 50 | —
NH2 | Amino radical[83] | 16 | —
N2O | Nitrous oxide[84] | 44 | —
NaCN | Sodium cyanide[34] | 49 | —
NaOH | Sodium hydroxide[85] | 40 | —
OCS | Carbonyl sulfide[86] | 60 | —
O3 | Ozone[87] | 48 | —
SO2 | Sulfur dioxide[88] | 64 | —
c-SiC2 | c-Silicon dicarbide[53] | 52 | —
SiCSi | Disilicon carbide[89] | 68 | —
SiCN | Silicon carbonitride[90] | 54 | —
SiNC | [91] | 54 | —
CaC2 | Calcium dicarbide[92] | 64 | —
TiO2 | Titanium dioxide[56] | 79.9 | —

### Four atoms (31)

Formaldehyde is an organic molecule that is widely distributed in the interstellar medium.[93] Molecule | Designation | Mass | Ions

|
|
|

CH3 | Methyl radical[94] | 15 | CH+
3[95]
l-C3H | Propynylidyne[96] | 37 | l-C3H+[97]
c-C3H | Cyclopropynylidyne[98] | 37 | —
C3N | Cyanoethynyl[99] | 50 | C3N−[100]
C3O | Tricarbon monoxide[96] | 52 | —
C3S | Tricarbon sulfide[64] | 68 | —
— | Hydronium | 19 | H3O+[101]
C2H2 | Acetylene[102] | 26 | —
H2CN | Methylene amidogen[103] | 28 | H2CN+[26]
H2NC | Aminocarbyne[104] | 28 | —
H2CO | Formaldehyde[93] | 30 | —
H2CS | Thioformaldehyde[105] | 46 | —
HCCN | —[106] | 39 | —
HCCO | Ketenyl[107] | 41 | —
— | Protonated hydrogen cyanide | 28 | HCNH+[78]
— | Protonated carbon dioxide | 45 | HOCO+[108]
HCNO | Fulminic acid[109] | 43 | —
HOCN | Cyanic acid[110] | 43 | —
CNCN | Isocyanogen[111] | 52 | —
HOOH | Hydrogen peroxide[112] | 34 | —
HNCO | Isocyanic acid[88] | 43 | —
HNCN | Cyanomidyl radical[113] | 41 | —
HNCS | Isothiocyanic acid[114] | 59 | —
NH3 | Ammonia[115] | 17 | —
HSCN | Thiocyanic acid[116] | 59 | —
HNSO | Thionylimide[117] | 63 | —
SiC3 | Silicon tricarbide[34] | 64 | —
HMgNC | Hydromagnesium isocyanide[118] | 51.3 | —
HNO2 | Nitrous acid[119] | 47 | —

### Five atoms (21)

Methane, the primary component of natural gas, has also been detected in molecular clouds.[120] Molecule | Designation | Mass | Ions

|
|
|

— | Ammonium ion | 18 | NH+4[121][122]
CH4 | Methane[123] | 16 | —
CH3O | Methoxy radical[124] | 31 | —
c-C3H2 | Cyclopropenylidene[27][125][126] | 38 | —
l-H2C3 | Propadienylidene[126] | 38 | —
H2CCN | Cyanomethyl[127] | 40 | —
H2C2O | Ketene[88] | 42 | —
H2CNH | Methylenimine[128] | 29 | —
HNCNH | Carbodiimide[129] | 42 | —
— | Protonated formaldehyde | 31 | H2COH+[130]
C4H | Butadiynyl[34] | 49 | C4H−[131]
HC3N | Cyanoacetylene[27][78][132][133] | 51 | —
HCC-NC | Isocyanoacetylene[134] | 51 | —
HCOOH | Formic acid[135][132] | 46 | —
NH2CN | Cyanamide[136][137] | 42 | —
NH2OH | Hydroxylamine[138] | 37 | —
— | Protonated cyanogen | 53 | NCCNH+[139]
HC(O)CN | Cyanoformaldehyde[140] | 55 | —
C5 | Linear C5[141] | 60 | —
HCS2H | dithioformic acid[142] | 78 | —
SiC4 | Silicon-carbide cluster[53] | 92 | —
SiH4 | Silane[143] | 32 | —

### Six atoms (16)

In the ISM, formamide (above) can combine with methylene to form acetamide.[144] Molecule | Designation | Mass | Ions

|
|
|

c-H2C3O | Cyclopropenone[145] | 54 | —
E-HNCHCN | E-Cyanomethanimine[146] | 54 | —
C2H4 | Ethylene[147] | 28 | —
CH3CN | Acetonitrile[88][148][149] | 40 | —
CH3NC | Methyl isocyanide[148] | 40 | —
CH3OH | Methanol[88][150] | 32 | —
CH3SH | Methanethiol[151] | 48 | —
l-H2C4 | Diacetylene[152] | 50 | —
— | Protonated cyanoacetylene | 52 | HC3NH+[78]
HCONH2 | Formamide[144] | 44 | —
HOCOOH | Carbonic acid[153] |  | —
C5H | Pentynylidyne[64] | 61 | —
C5N | Cyanobutadiynyl radical[154] | 74 | —
HC2CHO | Propynal[155] | 54 | —
HC4N | —[34] | 63 | —
CH2CNH | Ketenimine[125] | 40 | —
C5S | —[156] | 92 | —

### Seven atoms (16)

Acetaldehyde (above) and its isomers vinyl alcohol and ethylene oxide have all been detected in interstellar space.[157] Molecule | Designation | Mass | Ions

|
|
|

c-C2H4O | Ethylene oxide[158] | 44 | —
CH3C2H | Methylacetylene[27] | 40 | —
H3CNH2 | Methylamine[159] | 31 | —
CH2CHCN | Acrylonitrile[88][148] | 53 | —
53 | —
H2CHCOH | Vinyl alcohol[157] | 44 | —
C6H | Hexatriynyl radical[64] | 73 | C6H−[126][160]
HC4CN | Cyanodiacetylene[88][133][148] | 75 | —
HC4NC | Isocyanodiacetylene[161] | 75 | —
HC5O | —[162] | 77 | —
CH3CHO | Acetaldehyde[158] | 44 | —
CH3CHS | Thioacetaldehyde[163] | 60 | —
CH3NCO | Methyl isocyanate[164] | 57 | —
HOCH2CN | Glycolonitrile[165] | 57 | —
HC3HCN | 1-cyano propargyl radical[166] | 64 | —
CH2C3N | 3-cyano propargyl radical[167] | 64 | —

### Eight atoms (14)

The radio signature of acetic acid, a compound found in vinegar, was confirmed in 1997.[168] Molecule | Designation | Mass

|
|

H3CC2CN | Methylcyanoacetylene[169] | 65
HC3H2CN | Propargyl cyanide[170] | 65
H2COHCHO | Glycolaldehyde[171] | 60
(CHOH)2 | 1,2-ethenediol[172] | 60
HCOOCH3 | Methyl formate[88][132] | 60
CH3COOH | Acetic acid[168] | 60
H2C6 | Hexapentaenylidene[152] | 74
CH2CHCHO | Propenal[125] | 56
CH2CCHCN | Cyanoallene[125][169] | 65
CH3CHNH | Ethanimine[173] | 43
C2H3NH2 | Vinylamine[174] | 43
C7H | Heptatrienyl radical[175] | 85
NH2CH2CN | Aminoacetonitrile[176] | 56
(NH2)2CO | Urea[177] | 60

### Nine atoms (11)

Molecule | Designation | Mass | Ions

|
|
|

CH3C4H | Methyldiacetylene[178] | 64 | —
CH3OCH3 | Dimethyl ether[179] | 46 | —
CH3CH2CN | Propionitrile[88][148] | 55 | —
CH3CONH2 | Acetamide[125][144][137] | 59 | —
CH3CH2OH | Ethanol[180] | 46 | —
C8H | Octatetraynyl radical[181] | 97 | C8H−[182][183]
HC7N | Cyanohexatriyne or Cyanotriacetylene[115][184][185] | 99 | —
CH3CHCH2 | Propylene (propene)[186] | 42 | —
CH3CH2SH | Ethyl mercaptan[187] | 62 | —
CH3SCH3 | Dimethyl sulfide[188] | 62 | —
CH3NHCHO | N-methylformamide[137] | 59 | —

### Ten or more atoms (24)

A number of polyyne-derived chemicals are among the heaviest molecules found in the interstellar medium.

Atoms | Molecule | Designation | Mass | Ions

|
|
|
|

10 | (CH3)2CO | Acetone[88][189] | 58 | —
10 | (CH2OH)2 | Ethylene glycol[190][191] | 62 | —
10 | CH3CH2CHO | Propanal[125] | 58 | —
10 | CH3OCH2OH | Methoxymethanol[192] | 62 | —
10 | CH3C5N | Methylcyanodiacetylene[125] | 89 | —
10 | CH3CHCH2O | Propylene oxide[193] | 58 | —
11 | NH2CH2CH2OH | Ethanolamine[194] | 61 | —
11 | HC8CN | Cyanotetraacetylene[184] | 123 | —
11 | C2H5OCHO | Ethyl formate[195] | 74 | —
11 | CH3COOCH3 | Methyl acetate[196] | 74 | —
11 | CH3C6H | Methyltriacetylene[125][178] | 88 | —
12 | C6H6 | Benzene[152] | 78 | —
12 | C3H7CN | n-Propyl cyanide[195] | 69 | —
12 | (CH3)2CHCN | iso-Propyl cyanide[197][198] | 69 | —
13 | CH3OCH2CH2OH | 2-methoxyethanol[199] | 76 | —
13 | C6H5CN | Benzonitrile[200] | 104 | —
13 | HC10CN | Cyanopentaacetylene[184] | 147 | —
17 | C9H8 | Indene[9] | 116 | —
19 | C10H7CN | 1-cyanonaphthalene[8] | 153 | —
19 | C10H7CN | 2-cyanonaphthalene[8] | 153 | —
21 | C12H7CN | 1-cyanoacenaphtylene[201] | 177 | —
21 | C12H7CN | 5-cyanoacenaphtylene[201] | 177 | —
27 | C16H9CN | 1-cyanopyrene[202] | 227 | —
27 | C16H9CN | 2-cyanopyrene[203] | 227 | —
27 | C16H9CN | 4-cyanopyrene[203] | 227 | —
37 | C24H11CN | cyanocoronene[204] | 325 | —
60 | C60 | Buckminsterfullerene
(C60 fullerene)[205] | 720 | C+60[206][207][208]
70 | C70 | C70 fullerene[205] | 840 | —

## Deuterated molecules (22)

These molecules all contain one or more deuterium atoms, a heavier isotope of hydrogen.

Atoms | Molecule | Designation

|
|

2 | HD | Hydrogen deuteride[209][210]
3 | H2D+, HD+2 | Trihydrogen cation[209][210]
3 | HDO, D2O | Heavy water[211][212]
3 | DCN | Hydrogen cyanide[213]
3 | DCO | Formyl radical[213]
3 | DNC | Hydrogen isocyanide[213]
3 | N2D+ | —[213]
3 | NHD, ND2 | Amidogen[214]
4 | NH2D, NHD2, ND3 | Ammonia[210][215][216]
4 | HDCO, D2CO | Formaldehyde[210][217]
4 | DNCO | Isocyanic acid[218]
5 | NH3D+ | Ammonium ion[219][220]
6 | NH2CDO; NHDCHO | Formamide[218]
7 | CH2DCCH, CH3CCD | Methylacetylene[221][222]

## Unconfirmed (16)

Evidence for the existence of the following molecules has been reported in the scientific literature, but the detections either are described as tentative by the authors, or have been challenged by other researchers. They await independent confirmation.

Atoms | Molecule | Designation

|
|

2 | SiH | Silylidine[75]
2 | CaO | Calcium oxide[55]
4 | PH3 | Phosphine[223]
4 | MgCCH | Magnesium monoacetylide[156]
4 | NCCP | Cyanophosphaethyne[156]
5 | H2NCO+ | —[224]
6 | SiH3CN | Silyl cyanide[156]
10 | H2NCH2COOH | Glycine[225][226]
10 | C2H5NH2 | Ethylamine[174]
12 | CO(CH2OH)2 | Dihydroxyacetone[227][228]
12 | C2H5OCH3 | Ethyl methyl ether[229]
18 | C10H+8 | Naphthalene cation[230]
24 | C24 | Graphene[231]
24 | C14H10 | Anthracene[232][233]
26 | C16H10 | Pyrene[232]
27 | C11H12N2O2 | Tryptophan[234][235][236]

## See also

* Astrochemistry
* Cosmic dust
* Diffuse interstellar band
* Lists of molecules
* Molecular astrophysics
* Molecular spectroscopy
* Molecules in stars
* Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)
* Tholin

## Notes

1. ↑ On Earth, the dominant isotope of argon is 40Ar, so ArH+ would have a mass of 41 amu. However, the interstellar detection was of the 36ArH+ isotopologue, which has a mass of 37 amu.
2. ↑ Although titanium has several stable isotopes, only the 48Ti16O isotopologue was detected,[56] which has a molecular mass of 64 amu.

## References

1. ↑ Shu, Frank H. (1982). The Physical Universe: An Introduction to Astronomy. University Science Books. ISBN 978-0-935702-05-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=v_6PbAfapSAC.
2. ↑ Chaffee, Frederick H.; Lutz, Barry L.; Black, John H.; Vanden Bout, Paul A.; Snell, Ronald L. (1980). "Rotational fine-structure lines of interstellar C2 toward Zeta Persei". The Astrophysical Journal 236: 474. doi:10.1086/157764. Bibcode: 1980ApJ...236..474C.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 McGuire, Brett A. (2018). "2018 Census of Interstellar, Circumstellar, Extragalactic, Protoplanetary Disk, and Exoplanetary Molecules". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 239 (2): 17. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aae5d2. Bibcode: 2018ApJS..239...17M.
4. ↑ Woon, D. E. (May 2005), Methylidyne radical, The Astrochemist, http://www.astrochymist.org/AMOTM/amotm_0505.html, retrieved 2007-02-13
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Carruthers, George R. (1970), "Rocket Observation of Interstellar Molecular Hydrogen", Astrophysical Journal 161: L81–L85, doi:10.1086/180575, Bibcode: 1970ApJ...161L..81C
6. ↑ Leger, A.; Puget, J. L. (1984). "Identification of the "unidentified" IR emission features of interstellar dust ?". Astronomy and Astrophysics 137: L5. Bibcode: 1984A&A...137L...5L.
7. ↑ Tielens, A.G.G.M. (2008). "Interstellar Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Molecules". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 46: 289–337. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145211. Bibcode: 2008ARA&A..46..289T. https://zenodo.org/record/1234931.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 McGuire, Brett A. et al. (19 March 2021). "Detection of two interstellar polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons via spectral matched filtering". Science 371 (6535): 1265–1269. doi:10.1126/science.abb7535. PMID 33737489. Bibcode: 2021Sci...371.1265M.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Burkhardt, Andrew M. et al. (1 June 2021). "Discovery of the Pure Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Indene (c-C9H8) with GOTHAM Observations of TMC-1". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 913 (2): L18. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/abfd3a. Bibcode: 2021ApJ...913L..18B.
10. ↑ Cummins, S. E.; Linke, R. A.; Thaddeus, P. (1986), "A survey of the millimeter-wave spectrum of Sagittarius B2", Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 60: 819–878, doi:10.1086/191102, Bibcode: 1986ApJS...60..819C
11. ↑ Kaler, James B. (2002). The hundred greatest stars. Copernicus Series. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-95436-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=Aq24O7B4ehoC&pg=PA107. Retrieved 2011-05-09.
12. ↑ Brown, Laurie M.; Pais, Abraham; Pippard, A. B. (1995), "The physics of the interstellar medium", Twentieth Century Physics (2nd ed.), CRC Press, p. 1765, ISBN 978-0-7503-0310-1
13. ↑ Dalgarno, A. (2006), "Interstellar Chemistry Special Feature: The galactic cosmic ray ionization rate", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (33): 12269–12273, doi:10.1073/pnas.0602117103, PMID 16894166, Bibcode: 2006PNAS..10312269D
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Klemperer, William (2011), "Astronomical Chemistry", Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 62: 173–184, doi:10.1146/annurev-physchem-032210-103332, PMID 21128763, Bibcode: 2011ARPC...62..173K
15. ↑ The Structure of Molecular Cloud Cores, Centre for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, University of Kent, http://astro.kent.ac.uk/gw/molcloud.html, retrieved 2007-02-16
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Cernicharo, J.; Guelin, M. (1987), "Metals in IRC+10216 - Detection of NaCl, AlCl, and KCl, and tentative detection of AlF", Astronomy and Astrophysics 183 (1): L10–L12, Bibcode: 1987A&A...183L..10C
17. ↑ Ziurys, L. M.; Apponi, A. J.; Phillips, T. G. (1994), "Exotic fluoride molecules in IRC +10216: Confirmation of AlF and searches for MgF and CaF", Astrophysical Journal 433 (2): 729–732, doi:10.1086/174682, Bibcode: 1994ApJ...433..729Z
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153. ↑ Sanz-Novo, Miguel et al. (July 2023). "Discovery of the Elusive Carbonic Acid (HOCOOH) in Space". The Astrophysical Journal 954 (1): 3. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace523. Bibcode: 2023ApJ...954....3S.
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210. ↑ 210.0 210.1 210.2 210.3 Ceccarelli, Cecilia (2002), "Millimeter and infrared observations of deuterated molecules", Planetary and Space Science 50 (12–13): 1267–1273, doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(02)00093-4, Bibcode: 2002P&SS...50.1267C
211. ↑ Green, Sheldon (1989), "Collisional excitation of interstellar molecules - Deuterated water, HDO", Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 70: 813–831, doi:10.1086/191358, Bibcode: 1989ApJS...70..813G
212. ↑ Butner, H. M. et al. (2007), "Discovery of interstellar heavy water", Astrophysical Journal 659 (2): L137–L140, doi:10.1086/517883, Bibcode: 2007ApJ...659L.137B
213. ↑ 213.0 213.1 213.2 213.3 Turner, B. E.; Zuckerman, B. (1978), "Observations of strongly deuterated molecules - Implications for interstellar chemistry", Astrophysical Journal Letters 225: L75–L79, doi:10.1086/182797, Bibcode: 1978ApJ...225L..75T
214. ↑ Melosso, M. et al. (2020). "First detection of NHD and ND2 in the interstellar medium". Astronomy & Astrophysics 641: A153. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038490. Bibcode: 2020A&A...641A.153M.
215. ↑ Lis, D. C. et al. (2002), "Detection of Triply Deuterated Ammonia in the Barnard 1 Cloud", Astrophysical Journal 571 (1): L55–L58, doi:10.1086/341132, Bibcode: 2002ApJ...571L..55L.
216. ↑ Hatchell, J. (2003), "High NH2D/NH3 ratios in protostellar cores", Astronomy and Astrophysics 403 (2): L25–L28, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20030297, Bibcode: 2003A&A...403L..25H.
217. ↑ Turner, B. E. (1990), "Detection of doubly deuterated interstellar formaldehyde (D2CO) - an indicator of active grain surface chemistry", Astrophysical Journal Letters 362: L29–L33, doi:10.1086/185840, Bibcode: 1990ApJ...362L..29T.
218. ↑ 218.0 218.1 Coutens, A. (9 May 2016). "The ALMA-PILS survey: First detections of deuterated formamide and deuterated isocyanic acid in the interstellar medium". Astronomy & Astrophysics 590: L6. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201628612. Bibcode: 2016A&A...590L...6C.
219. ↑ Cernicharo, J. et al. (2013), "Detection of the Ammonium ion in space", Astrophysical Journal Letters 771 (1): L10, doi:10.1088/2041-8205/771/1/L10, Bibcode: 2013ApJ...771L..10C
220. ↑ Doménech, J. L. et al. (2013), "Improved Determination of the 10-00 Rotational Frequency of NH3D+ from the High-Resolution Spectrum of the ν4 Infrared Band", Astrophysical Journal Letters 771 (1): L11, doi:10.1088/2041-8205/771/1/L10, Bibcode: 2013ApJ...771L..11D
221. ↑ Gerin, M. et al. (1992), "Interstellar detection of deuterated methyl acetylene", Astronomy and Astrophysics 253 (2): L29–L32, Bibcode: 1992A&A...253L..29G.
222. ↑ Markwick, A. J.; Charnley, S. B.; Butner, H. M.; Millar, T. J. (2005), "Interstellar CH3CCD", The Astrophysical Journal 627 (2): L117–L120, doi:10.1086/432415, Bibcode: 2005ApJ...627L.117M.
223. ↑ Agúndez, M. et al. (2008-06-04), "Tentative detection of phosphine in IRC +10216", Astronomy & Astrophysics 485 (3): L33, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810193, Bibcode: 2008A&A...485L..33A
224. ↑ Gupta, H. et al. (2013), "Laboratory Measurements and Tentative Astronomical Identification of H2NCO+", Astrophysical Journal Letters 778 (1): L1, doi:10.1088/2041-8205/778/1/L1, Bibcode: 2013ApJ...778L...1G, http://authors.library.caltech.edu/43247/1/2041-8205_778_1_L1.pdf
225. ↑ Snyder, L. E. et al. (2005), "A Rigorous Attempt to Verify Interstellar Glycine", Astrophysical Journal 619 (2): 914–930, doi:10.1086/426677, Bibcode: 2005ApJ...619..914S.
226. ↑ Kuan, Y. J. et al. (2003), "Interstellar Glycine", Astrophysical Journal 593 (2): 848–867, doi:10.1086/375637, Bibcode: 2003ApJ...593..848K.
227. ↑ Widicus Weaver, S. L.; Blake, G. A. (2005), "1,3-Dihydroxyacetone in Sagittarius B2(N-LMH): The First Interstellar Ketose", Astrophysical Journal Letters 624 (1): L33–L36, doi:10.1086/430407, Bibcode: 2005ApJ...624L..33W
228. ↑ Apponi, A. J.; Halfen, D. T.; Ziurys, L. M.; Hollis, J. M.; Remijan, Anthony J.; Lovas, F. J. (2006). "Investigating the Limits of Chemical Complexity in Sagittarius B2(N): A Rigorous Attempt to Confirm 1,3-Dihydroxyacetone". The Astrophysical Journal 643 (1): L29–L32. doi:10.1086/504979. Bibcode: 2006ApJ...643L..29A.
229. ↑ Fuchs, G. W. et al. (2005), "Trans-Ethyl Methyl Ether in Space: A new Look at a Complex Molecule in Selected Hot Core Regions", Astronomy & Astrophysics 444 (2): 521–530, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053599, Bibcode: 2005A&A...444..521F
230. ↑ Iglesias-Groth, S. et al. (2008-09-20), "Evidence for the Naphthalene Cation in a Region of the Interstellar Medium with Anomalous Microwave Emission", The Astrophysical Journal Letters 685 (1): L55–L58, doi:10.1086/592349, Bibcode: 2008ApJ...685L..55I \- This spectral assignment has not been independently confirmed, and is described by the authors as "tentative" (page L58).
231. ↑ García-Hernández, D. A. et al. (2011), "The Formation of Fullerenes: Clues from New C60, C70, and (Possible) Planar C24 Detections in Magellanic Cloud Planetary Nebulae", Astrophysical Journal Letters 737 (2): L30, doi:10.1088/2041-8205/737/2/L30, Bibcode: 2011ApJ...737L..30G.
232. ↑ 232.0 232.1 Battersby, S. (2004). "Space molecules point to organic origins". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4552-space-molecules-point-to-organic-origins.html.
233. ↑ Iglesias-Groth, S. et al. (May 2010), "A search for interstellar anthracene toward the Perseus anomalous microwave emission region", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 407 (4): 2157–2165, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17075.x, Bibcode: 2010MNRAS.407.2157I
234. ↑ Iglesias-Groth, S. (August 2023). "A search for tryptophan in the gas of the IC 348 star cluster of the Perseus molecular cloud". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 523 (2): 2876–2886. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad1535. Bibcode: 2023MNRAS.523.2876I.
235. ↑ Hudson, Reggie L. (2023). "Interstellar tryptophan revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 526 (3): 4051–4053. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3058. Bibcode: 2023MNRAS.526.4051H. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/526/3/4051/7310867. "there is no firm support for the tryptophan assignment".
236. ↑ Dhariwal, Aditya et al. (June 2024). "On the Origin of Infrared Bands Attributed to Tryptophan in Spitzer Observations of IC 348". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 968 (1): L9. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ad4d9a. ISSN 2041-8205. Bibcode: 2024ApJ...968L...9D. "there is no compelling evidence for the tryptophan assignment".

## External links

* Woon, David E. (October 1, 2010). "Interstellar and Circumstellar Molecules". http://www.astrochymist.org/astrochymist_ism.html.
* "Molecules in Space". Universität zu Köln. April 2022. https://cdms.astro.uni-koeln.de/classic/molecules.
* Dworkin, Jason P. (February 1, 2007). "Interstellar Molecules". NASA's Cosmic Ice Lab. http://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/691/cosmicice/interstellar.html.
* Wootten, Al (November 2005). "The 129 reported interstellar and circumstellar molecules". National Radio Astronomy Observatory. http://www.cv.nrao.edu/~awootten/allmols.html.
* Lovas, F. J.; Dragoset, R. A. (February 2004). "NIST Recommended Rest Frequencies for Observed Interstellar Molecular Microwave Transitions, 2002 Revision". Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 33 (1): 177. doi:10.1063/1.1633275. Bibcode: 2004JPCRD..33..177L. http://www.physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/Micro/Html/contents.html. Retrieved 2007-02-13.
* Williams, David A.; Cecchi-Pestellini, Cesare (8 February 2023) (in en). Astrochemistry: Chemistry in Interstellar and Circumstellar Space. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-83916-939-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=agqtEAAAQBAJ.

* v
* t
* e

Molecules detected in outer space

Molecules|

| Diatomic|

* Aluminium monochloride
* Aluminium monofluoride
* Aluminium monoxide
* Argonium
* Carbon monophosphide
* Carbon monosulfide
* Carbon monoxide
* Carborundum
* Cyanogen radical
* Diatomic carbon
* Fluoromethylidynium
* Helium hydride ion
* Hydrogen chloride
* Hydrogen fluoride
* Hydrogen (molecular)
* Hydroxyl radical
* Iron(II) oxide
* Magnesium monohydride cation
* Methylidyne radical
* Nitric oxide
* Nitrogen (molecular)
* Nitrogen monohydride
* Nitrogen sulfide
* Oxygen (molecular)
* Phosphorus monoxide
* Phosphorus mononitride
* Potassium chloride
* Silicon carbide
* Silicon mononitride
* Silicon monoxide
* Silicon monosulfide
* Sodium chloride
* Sodium iodide
* Sulfur monohydride
* Sulfur monoxide
* Titanium oxide

|
|

Triatomic|

* Aluminium hydroxide
* Aluminium isocyanide
* Amino radical
* Carbon dioxide
* Carbonyl sulfide
* CCP radical
* Chloronium
* Diazenylium
* Dicarbon monoxide
* Disilicon carbide
* Ethynyl radical
* Formyl radical
* Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
* Hydrogen isocyanide (HNC)
* Hydrogen sulfide
* Hydroperoxyl
* Iron cyanide
* Isoformyl
* Magnesium cyanide
* Magnesium isocyanide
* Methylene radical
* N2H+
* Nitrous oxide
* Nitroxyl
* Ozone
* Phosphaethyne
* Potassium cyanide
* Protonated molecular hydrogen
* Sodium cyanide
* Sodium hydroxide
* Silicon carbonitride
* c-Silicon dicarbide
* SiNC
* Sulfur dioxide
* Thioformyl
* Thioxoethenylidene
* Titanium dioxide
* Tricarbon
* Water

Four
atoms|

* Acetylene
* Ammonia
* Cyanic acid
* Cyanoethynyl
* Cyclopropynylidyne
* Formaldehyde
* Fulminic acid
* HCCN
* Hydrogen peroxide
* Hydromagnesium isocyanide
* Isocyanic acid
* Isothiocyanic acid
* Ketenyl
* Methylene amidogen
* Methyl radical
* Propynylidyne
* Protonated carbon dioxide
* Protonated hydrogen cyanide
* Silicon tricarbide
* Thioformaldehyde
* Tricarbon monoxide
* Tricarbon sulfide
* Thiocyanic acid

Five
atoms|

* Ammonium ion
* Butadiynyl
* Carbodiimide
* Cyanamide
* Cyanoacetylene
* Cyanoformaldehyde
* Cyanomethyl
* Cyclopropenylidene
* Formic acid
* Isocyanoacetylene
* Ketene
* Methane
* Methoxy radical
* Methylenimine
* Propadienylidene
* Protonated formaldehyde
* Protonated formaldehyde
* Silane
* Silicon-carbide cluster

Six
atoms|

* Acetonitrile
* Cyanobutadiynyl radical
* E-Cyanomethanimine
* Cyclopropenone
* Diacetylene
* Ethylene
* Formamide
* HC4N
* Ketenimine
* Methanethiol
* Methanol
* Methyl isocyanide
* Pentynylidyne
* Propynal
* Protonated cyanoacetylene

Seven
atoms|

* Acetaldehyde
* Acrylonitrile
* Vinyl cyanide
* Cyanodiacetylene
* Ethylene oxide
* Glycolonitrile
* Hexatriynyl radical
* Methylacetylene
* Methylamine
* Methyl isocyanate
* Vinyl alcohol

Eight
atoms|

* Acetic acid
* Aminoacetonitrile
* Cyanoallene
* Ethanimine
* Glycolaldehyde
* Heptatrienyl radical
* Hexapentaenylidene
* Methylcyanoacetylene
* Methyl formate
* Propenal

Nine
atoms|

* Acetamide
* Cyanohexatriyne
* Cyanotriacetylene
* Dimethyl ether
* Ethanol
* Methyldiacetylene
* Octatetraynyl radical
* Propene
* Propionitrile

Ten
atoms
or more|

* Acetone
* Benzene
* Benzonitrile
* Buckminsterfullerene (C60, C60+, fullerene, buckyball)
* C70 fullerene
* Cyanodecapentayne
* Cyanopentaacetylene
* Cyanotetra-acetylene
* Ethylene glycol
* Ethyl formate
* Methyl acetate
* Methyl-cyano-diacetylene
* Methyltriacetylene
* Propanal
* n-Propyl cyanide
* Pyrimidine

Deuterated
molecules|

* Ammonia
* Ammonium ion
* Formaldehyde
* Formyl radical
* Heavy water
* Hydrogen cyanide
* Hydrogen deuteride
* Hydrogen isocyanide
* Methylacetylene
* N2D+
* Trihydrogen cation

Unconfirmed|

* Anthracene
* Dihydroxyacetone
* Ethyl methyl ether
* Glycine
* Graphene
* H2NCO+
* Linear C5
* Naphthalene cation
* Phosphine
* Pyrene
* Silylidine

Related|

* Abiogenesis
* Astrobiology
* Astrochemistry
* Atomic and molecular astrophysics
* Chemical formula
* Circumstellar envelope
* Cosmic dust
* Cosmic ray
* Cosmochemistry
* Diffuse interstellar band
* Earliest known life forms
* Extraterrestrial life
* Extraterrestrial liquid water
* Forbidden mechanism
* Homochirality
* Intergalactic dust
* Interplanetary medium
* Interstellar medium
* Photodissociation region
* Iron–sulfur world theory
* Kerogen
* Molecules in stars
* Nexus for Exoplanet System Science
* Organic compound
* Outer space
* PAH world hypothesis
* Panspermia
* Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)
* RNA world hypothesis
* Spectroscopy
* Tholin

* Category:Astrochemistry
*   *   *

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