National Science Foundation

Short description: Independent United States government agency

Not to be confused with the National Sanitation Foundation.

United States National Science Foundation

Agency overview
Formed| May 10, 1950; 76 years ago (1950-05-10)
Headquarters| 2415 Eisenhower Ave., Alexandria, Virginia, U.S.[1]
Motto| Where Discoveries Begin[2]
Employees| 1532 (as of 2025)
Annual budget| $8.75 billion for 2026[3]
Agency executives|

* Vacant, Director
* Vacant, Deputy Director
* Karen A. Marrongelle, Chief Science Officer
* Brian Stone, Chief of Staff
* Linnea Avallone, Chief Officer of Research Facilities
* Vacant, Chief Information Officer (CIO)

Website| {{{1}}}

The United States National Science Foundation[4] (NSF) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health. With an annual budget of about $8.75 billion (fiscal year 2026), the NSF funds approximately 25% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States' colleges and universities.[5][6] In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the NSF is the major source of federal backing.

NSF's director and deputy director are appointed by the president of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate, whereas the 24 president-appointed members of the National Science Board (NSB)[7] do not require U.S. Senate confirmation. The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of the foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Founding
* 1.2 Budget and performance history
* 1.3 Funding profile
* 1.4 Timeline
* 1.4.1 Pre–World War II
* 1.4.2 1940–1949
* 1.4.3 1950–1959
* 1.4.4 1960–1969
* 1.4.5 1970–1979
* 1.4.6 1980–1989
* 1.4.7 1990–1999
* 1.4.8 2000–2009
* 1.4.9 2010–2019
* 1.4.10 2020–present
* 2 Grants and the merit review process
* 3 Scope and organization
* 3.1 Offices
* 3.2 Research directorates
* 3.3 Overseas sites
* 3.4 Crosscutting programs
* 3.5 National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics
* 3.6 Center for Insect Biomanufacturing and Innovation
* 4 List of NSF directors
* 5 Criticism
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## History

### Founding

Logo used from 1999 to 2009

The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950.[8] Its stated mission is "to promote the progress of science, to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare, and to secure the national defense".[9] The NSF's scope has expanded over the years to include many areas that were not in its initial portfolio, including the social and behavioral sciences, engineering, and science and mathematics education. The NSF is the only U.S. federal agency with a mandate to support all non-medical fields of research.[5]

### Budget and performance history

Since the technology boom of the 1980s, the U.S. Congress has generally embraced the premise that government-funded basic research is essential for the nation's economic health and global competitiveness, and for national defense. This support has manifested in an expanding National Science Foundation budget from $1 billion in 1983 to $8.28 billion in 2020.[10]

NSF has published annual reports since 1950, which since the new millennium have been two reports, variously called "Performance Report" and "Accountability Report" or "Performance Highlights" and "Financial Highlights"; the latest available FY 2013 Agency Financial Report was posted December 16, 2013, and the six-page FY 2013 Performance and Financial Highlights was posted March 25, 2013.[11] More recently, the NSF has focused on obtaining high return on investment from their spending on scientific research.[12]

Various bills have sought to direct funds within the NSF. In 1981, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) introduced a proposal to reduce the NSF social sciences directorate's budget by 75%.[13] Economist Robert A. Moffit suggests a connection between this proposal and Democratic senator William Proxmire's Golden Fleece Award series criticizing "frivolous" government spending — Proxmire's first Golden Fleece had been awarded to the NSF in 1975 for granting $84,000 to a social science project investigating why people fall in love. Ultimately, the OMB's 75% reduction proposal failed, but the NSF Economics Program budget did fall 40%.[13] In 2012, political science research was barred from NSF funding by the passage of the Flake Amendment,[14] breaking the precedent of granting the NSF autonomy to determine its own priorities.[14]

### Funding profile

In fiscal year 2020, NSF received 42,400 proposals and awarded 12,100, for a funding rate of 28%. In FY 2021, the estimates are 43,200 and 11,500 respectively, giving a funding rate of 26.6%. According to FY 2020 numbers, the median annualized award size is $153,800 and the average duration of an award is 2.9 years.[15]

In 2022 the NSF has started funding open source software as part of their Pathways to Enable Open-Source Ecosystems (POSE) program.[16][17][18]

### Timeline

#### Pre–World War II

Although the federal government had established nearly 40 scientific organizations between 1910 and 1940, the US relied upon a primarily laissez-faire approach to scientific research and development. Academic research in science and engineering occasionally received federal funding. Within University laboratories, almost all support came from private contributions and charitable foundations. In industrial laboratories, the concentration of workers and funding (some through military and government programs as a result of Roosevelt's New Deal) would eventually raise concern during the wartime period. In particular, concerns were raised that industry laboratories were largely allowed full patent rights of technologies developed with federal funds. These concerns, in part, led to efforts like Senator Harley M. Kilgore's "Science Mobilization Act".[19]

#### 1940–1949

Amidst growing awareness that US military capability depended on strength in science and engineering, Congress considered several proposals to support research in these fields. Separately, President Franklin D. Roosevelt sponsored creation of organizations to coordinate federal funding of science for war, including the National Defense Research Committee and the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) both from 1941 to 1947. Despite broad agreement over the principle of federal support for science, working out a consensus on how to organize and manage it required five years.[20] The five-year political debate over the creation of a national scientific agency has been a topic for academic study, understood from a variety of perspectives.[21] Themes include disagreements over administrative structure, patents and inclusion of social sciences,[21] a populist-versus-scientist dispute,[22] as well as the roles of political parties, Congress, and President Harry S. Truman.[21]

Commonly, this debate is characterized by the conflict between New Deal senator Harley M. Kilgore and OSRD head Vannevar Bush.[23] Narratives about the National Science Foundation prior to the 1970s typically concentrated on Vannevar Bush and his 1945 publication Science—The Endless Frontier.[24] In this report, Vannevar Bush, then head of the Office of Scientific Research and Development which began the Manhattan Project, addressed plans for the postwar years to further foster government commitment to science and technology.[24] Issued to President Harry S. Truman in July 1945, the report made a strong case for federally-funded scientific research, arguing that the nation would reap rich dividends in the form of better health care, a more vigorous economy, and a stronger national defense. It proposed creating a new federal agency, the National Research Foundation.[24]

The NSF first appeared as a comprehensive New Deal Policy proposed by Sen. Harley Kilgore of West Virginia.[19] In 1942, Senator Kilgore introduced the "Science Mobilization Act" (S. 1297), which did not pass.[23][19] Perceiving organizational chaos, elitism, over-concentration of funds in elite universities, and lack of incentives for socially applicable research, Kilgore envisioned a comprehensive and centralized research body supporting basic and applied research which would be controlled by members of the public and civil servants rather than scientific experts.[23] The public would own the rights to all patents funded by public monies and research monies would be equitably spread across universities. Kilgore's supporters included non-elite universities, small businesses, and the Budget Bureau.[23] His proposals received mixed support.

Vannevar Bush opposed Kilgore, preferring science policy driven by experts and scientists rather than public and civil servants.[23] Bush was concerned that public interests would politicize science, and believed that scientists would be the best judges of the direction and needs of their field. While Bush and Kilgore both agreed on the need for a national science policy,[23] Bush maintained that scientists should continue to own the research results and patents, wanted project selection limited to scientists, and focused support on basic research, not the social sciences, leaving the market to support applied projects.[23]

Sociologist Daniel Kleinman divides the debate into three broad legislative attempts. The first attempt consisted of the 1945 Magnuson bill (S. 1285), the 1945 Science and Technology Mobilization Bill, a 1945 compromise bill (S. 1720), a 1946 compromise bill (S. 1850), and the Mills Bill (H.B. 6448). The Magnuson bill was sponsored by Senator Warren Magnuson and drafted by the OSRD, headed by Vannevar Bush. The Science and Technology Mobilization bill was promoted by Harley Kilgore. The bills called for the creation of a centralized science agency, but differed in governance and research supported.[23][21] The second attempt, in 1947, included Senator H. Alexander Smith's bill S. 526, and Senator Elbert Thomas's bill S. 525. The Smith bill reflected ideas of Vannevar Bush, while the Thomas bill was identical to the previous year's compromise bill (S. 1850).[23]

After amendments, the Smith bill made it to President Truman's desk, but it was vetoed. Truman wrote that regrettably, the proposed agency would have been "divorced from control by the people to an extent that implies a distinct lack of faith in the democratic process".[25] The third attempt began with the introduction of S. 2385 in 1948. This was a compromise bill cosponsored by Smith and Kilgore, and Bush aide John Teeter had contributed in the drafting process. In 1949, S. 247 was introduced by the same group of senators behind S. 2385, marking the fourth and final effort to establish a national science agency. Essentially identical to S. 2385, S. 247 passed the Senate and the House with a few amendments.[23] It was signed by President Truman on May 10, 1950. Kleinman points out that the final NSF bill closely resembles Vannevar Bush's proposals.[26]

Kilgore and Bush Proposals differed on five issues which were central to the larger debate (Chart reproduced)[23] | Populist Proposal

(Harley Kilgore)

| Scientist/Business Proposal

(Vannevar Bush)

| National Science Foundation Act

1950

|
|
|

Coordination/Planning  | Strong Mandate  | Vague Mandate  | Vague Mandate
Control/Administration  | Non-scientist members of the public:

Business, labor, farmers, consumers

| Scientists and other experts  | Scientists and other experts
Research Supported  | Basic and applied  | Basic  | Basic
Patent Policy  | Nonexclusive licensing  | No nonexclusive licensing  | No nonexclusive licensing
Social Science Support  | Yes  | No  | No

#### 1950–1959

In 1950 Harry S. Truman signed Public Law 507, or 42 U.S.C. 16[27] creating the National Science Foundation.[28][29] which provided for a National Science Board of twenty-four part-time members. In 1951 Truman nominated Alan T. Waterman, chief scientist at the Office of Naval Research, to become the first Director.

#### 1960–1969

In 1963, President John F. Kennedy appointed Leland John Haworth as the second director of the NSF.[30] During the 1960s, the impact of the Sputnik Crisis spurred international competition in science and technology and accelerated NSF growth.[30] The NSF initiated a number of programs that support institution-wide research during this decade including the Graduate Science Facilities program (started in 1960), Institutional Grants for Science (started in 1961), and Science Development Grants, better known as Centers of Excellence program (started in 1964).[30] Notable projects conducted during this decade include creation of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (1960), creation of the Division of Environmental Sciences (1965), deep sea exploration endeavors Project Mohole (1961) and the Deep Sea Drilling Project (1968–1983), the Ecosystems Analysis Program (1969), and ownership of the Arecibo Observatory (1969).[30][31] In 1969, Franklin Long was tentatively selected to take over directorship of the NSF.[31][30] His nomination caused some controversy due to his opposition to the current administration's antiballistic missile program and was ultimately rejected by President Richard Nixon.[31][30] William D. McElroy instead took over as the third director of the NSF in 1969.[31][30] By 1968, the NSF budget had reached nearly $500 million.[30]

#### 1970–1979

In 1972 the NSF took over management of twelve interdisciplinary materials research laboratories from the Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). These university-based laboratories had taken a more integrated approach than did most academic departments at the time, encouraging physicists, chemists, engineers, and metallurgists to cross departmental boundaries and use systems approaches to attack complex problems of materials synthesis or processing. The NSF expanded these laboratories into a nationwide network of Materials Research Science and Engineering Centers. In 1972 the NSF launched the biennial "Science & Engineering Indicators" report[32] to the US president and Congress, as required by the NSF Act of 1950. In 1977 the first interconnection of unrelated public data networks was developed, run by DARPA.

#### 1980–1989

#### 1990–1999

In 1991 the NSFNET acceptable use policy was altered to allow commercial traffic. By 1995, with private, commercial market thriving, NSF decommissioned the NSFNET, allowing for public use of the Internet. In 1993 students and staff at the NSF-supported National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, developed Mosaic, the first freely available browser to allow World Wide Web pages that include both graphics and text. Within 18 months, NCSA Mosaic becomes the Web browser of choice for more than a million users, and sets off an exponential growth in the number of Web users. In 1994 NSF, together with DARPA and NASA, launched the Digital Library Initiative.[33] One of the first six grants went to Stanford University, where two graduate students, Larry Page and Sergey Brin, began to develop a search engine that used the links between Web pages as a ranking method, which they later commercialized under the name Google.

#### 2000–2009

NSF joined with other federal agencies in the National Nanotechnology Initiative, dedicated to the understanding and control of matter at the atomic and molecular scale. NSF's roughly $300 million annual investment in nanotechnology research was still one of the largest in the 23-agency initiative. In 2001, NSF's appropriation passed $4 billion. The NSF's "Survey of Public Attitudes Toward and Understanding of Science and Technology" revealed that the public had a positive attitude toward science, but a poor understanding of it.[34] During 2004–5 NSF sent "rapid response" research teams to investigate the aftermath of the Indian Ocean tsunami disaster[35] and Hurricane Katrina.[36] An NSF-funded engineering team helped uncover why the levees failed in New Orleans. In 2005, NSF's budget stood at $5.6 billion, in 2006 it stood at $5.91 billion for the 2007 fiscal year (October 1, 2006, through September 30, 2007), and in 2007 NSF requested $6.43 billion for FY 2008.[37]

#### 2010–2019

President Obama requested $7.373 billion for fiscal year 2013.[38] Due to the October 1, 2013 shutdown of the Federal Government, and NSF's lapse in funding, their website was down "until further notice", but was brought back online after the US government passed their budget. In 2014, NSF awarded rapid response grants to study a chemical spill that contaminated the drinking water of about 300,000 West Virginia residents.[39] In early 2018, it was announced that Trump would cut NSF Research Funding by 30% but quickly rescinded this due to backlash.[40] As of May 2018, Heather Wilson, the secretary of the Air Force, signed that letter of intent with the director of NSF initiating partnership for the research related to space operations and Geosciences, advanced material sciences, information and data sciences, and workforce and processes.[41]

#### 2020–present

On April 28, 2026, President Donald Trump fired all 24 members of the foundation's governing board.[42]

## Grants and the merit review process

A grant proposal which the National Science Foundation chose to fund

The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, limited-term grants in response to specific proposals from the research community and establishing cooperative agreements with research organizations.[43] It does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being NASA and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The NSF uses four main mechanisms to communicate funding opportunities and generate proposals: dear colleague letters, program descriptions, program announcements, and program solicitations.[44]

The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year, and funds about 10,000 of them.[45] Those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a 'merit review' process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997.[46] Reviews are carried out by ad hoc reviewers and panels of independent scientists, engineers, and educators who are experts in the relevant fields of study, and who are selected by the NSF with particular attention to avoiding conflicts of interest. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers. All proposal evaluations are confidential: the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers.[5]

The first merit review criterion is 'intellectual merit', the second is that of the 'broader societal impact' of the proposed research; the latter reflects a broader global trend for funding agencies to demand evidence of research 'impact' and has been met with opposition from the scientific and policy communities since its inception in 1997.[47][48] In June 2010, the National Science Board (NSB), the governing body for NSF and science advisers to both the legislative and executive branches, convened a 'Task Force on Merit Review' to determine "how well the current Merit Review criteria used by the NSF to evaluate all proposals were serving the agency".[49] The task force reinforced its support for both criteria as appropriate for the goals and aims of the agency and published a revised version of the merit review criteria in its 2012 report, to clarify and improve the function of the criteria. However, both criteria already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act.[50] The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research, a phrase which has been included in the most recent incarnation of the 'merit review' criteria.[51]

Most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for mid-scale research centers, instruments, and facilities that serve researchers from many institutions. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the research community as a whole. Examples of national facilities include the NSF's national observatories, with their giant optical and radio telescopes; its Antarctic research sites; its high-end computer facilities and ultra-high-speed network connections; the ships and submersibles used for ocean research; and its gravitational wave observatories.

In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering and mathematics education from pre-K through graduate school. Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs.[52] Graduate students are supported through Integrative Graduate Education Research Traineeships (IGERT)[53] and Alliance for Graduate Education and the Professoriate (AGEP) programs[54] and through the Graduate Research Fellowships, NSF-GRF. K–12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs.[55] In addition, an early career-development program (CAREER) supports teacher-scholars that most effectively integrate research and education within the mission of their organization, as a foundation for a lifetime of integrated contributions.[56]

## Scope and organization

U.S. National Science Foundation staff on the occasion of the agency's 75th anniversary

The NSF is broadly organized into four offices, seven directorates, and the National Science Board.[57] It employs about 2,100 people in permanent, temporary and contractual positions at its headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia. Prior to 2017, its headquarters were located in Arlington, Virginia.[58][59]

In addition to around 1,400 permanent employees and the staffs of the NSB office and the Office of the Inspector General, NSF's workforce includes some 200 scientists on temporary duty and 450 contract workers.[60] Scientists from research institutions can join the NSF as temporary program directors, called "rotators", overseeing the merit review process and searching for new funding opportunities. These assignments typically last one–two years, but may extend to four.[61] The NSF also offers contracting opportunities. As of May 2018, the NSF has 53 existing contracts.[62]

### Offices

* Office of the Director
* Office of the Inspector General
* Office of Budget, Finance, and Award Management
* Office of Information & Resource Management
* Office of the Chief Information Officer

The NSF also supports research through several offices within the Office of the Director, including the Office of Integrative Activities,[63] and Office of International Science and Engineering.[64]

### Research directorates

The NSF organizes its research and education support through eight directorates, each encompassing several disciplines:

* Biological Sciences (molecular, cellular, and organismal biology, environmental science)[65]
* Computer and Information Science and Engineering (theoretical computer science, fundamental hardware and software, systems and networking, and artificial intelligence)[66]
* Engineering (bioengineering, environmental systems, civil and mechanical systems, chemical and transport systems, electrical and communications systems, and design and manufacturing)[67]
* Geosciences (geological, atmospheric and ocean sciences)[68]
* Mathematical and Physical Sciences (mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry and materials science)[69]
* Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences (neuroscience, management, psychology, sociology, anthropology, linguistics, science of science policy and economics)[70]
* STEM Education and Human Resources (science, technology, engineering and mathematics education at every level)[71]

An eighth directorate, the Directorate for Technology, Innovation and Partnerships (TIP), was created in 2022 to accelerate the transition of basic research into real world impact.[72] It has a primary goal of the support of use-inspired research and the translation of research results to the market and society.

### Overseas sites

Prior to October 2018, NSF maintained three overseas offices to promote collaboration between the science and engineering communities of the United States and other continents' scientific communities:[73]

* Brussels for Europe, formerly based in Paris[74] (established 1984; relocated to Brussels in 2015)
* Tokyo for East Asia, except China[75] (established 1960)
* Beijing for China[76] (established 2006)

All three overseas offices were shut down in October 2018, to reflect the agency's move to a more nimble international posture. Rather than maintain dedicated offices, NSF will dispatch small teams to specific international institutions. Teams may work for up to a week on-site to evaluate research and explore collaborations with the institution.[77]

### Crosscutting programs

In addition to the research it funds in specific disciplines, the NSF has launched a number of projects that coordinate the efforts of experts in many disciplines, which often involve collaborations with other U.S. federal agencies.[78] Examples include initiatives in:

* Nanotechnology[79]
* The science of learning[80]
* Digital libraries[81]
* The ecology of infectious diseases[82]
* Insect farming[83]

### National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics

NSF's National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (NCSES) gathers data from surveys and partnerships with other agencies to offer official data on the American science and engineering workforce, graduates of advanced U.S. science and engineering programs, and R&D expenditures by U.S. industry.[84] NCSES is one of the principal U.S. statistical agencies. It is a part of the NSF's Social, Behavioral and Economic Sciences Directorate (SBE).[85]

### Center for Insect Biomanufacturing and Innovation

The Center for Insect Biomanufacturing and Innovation (CIBI), formerly known as the Center for Environmental Sustainability through Insect Farming (CEIF), is an NSF partnership program that provides funds for research and experimentation on insect as food and feed.[86] CIBI is a partnership between three Universities, Texas A&M, IU Indianapolis, and Mississippi State University, who all do separate areas of insect research to discover its sustainability.[87] It is a part of NSF's Industry-University Cooperative Research Center (IUCRC) program.[88]

## List of NSF directors

The following persons had led the National Science Foundation as director since 1950:[89][90]

No. | Portrait  | Secretary  | Term start  | Term end  | Field  | Notes

|
|
|
|
|
|

1  | 70px  | Alan T. Waterman | April 1951  | June 1963  | Physics  |
2  | 70px  | Leland J. Haworth | July 1963  | June 1969  | Physics  |
3  |  | William D. McElroy  | July 1969  | January 1972  | Biochemistry  |
4  | 70px  | H. Guyford Stever | February 1972  | August 1976  | Physics  |
acting  | 70px  | Richard C. Atkinson | August 1976  | May 1977  | Psychology  |
5  | May 1977  | June 1980  |
acting  |  | Donald N. Langenberg | July 1980  | December 1980  | Physics  |
6  | 70px  | John B. Slaughter  | December 1980  | October 1982  | Engineering  |
7  | 70px  | Edward A. Knapp | November 1982  | August 1984  | Physics  |
8  | 70px  | Erich Bloch  | September 4, 1984  | August 31, 1990  | Engineering  | Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag[91]
acting  | 70px  | Frederick M. Bernthal  | April 5, 1993  | October 14, 1993  | Nuclear Chemistry
/ Physics
10  | 70px  | Neal F. Lane | October 15, 1993  | August 1998  | Physics  | [92][93]
11  | 70px  | Rita R. Colwell  | August 13, 1998  | February 21, 2004  | Microbiology  | [94][95]
acting  | 70px  | Arden L. Bement, Jr. | February 22, 2004  | November 23, 2004  | Engineering  |
12  | November 24, 2004  | May 31, 2010  | [96][97]
acting  | 70px  | Cora B. Marrett | June 1, 2010  | October 17, 2010  | Sociology  | [98]
13  | 70px  | Subra Suresh | October 18, 2010  | March 31, 2013  | Engineering  | [99][100]
acting  | 70px  | Cora B. Marrett | April 1, 2013  | March 29, 2014  | Sociology  | [101]
14  | 70px  | France A. Córdova  | March 30, 2014  | March 31, 2020  | Astrophysics  | [102][103]
acting  | 70px  | Kelvin K. Droegemeier  | April 1, 2020  | July 1, 2020  | Atmospheric Science  | [104]
15  | 70px  | Sethuraman Panchanathan  | July 2, 2020  | April 24, 2025  | Computer Science  | [105][106]
interim  |  | Brian Stone  | April 25, 2025  | present  | Business Administration, Management and Operations  | [107][108][109]

## Criticism

In May 2011, Republican senator Tom Coburn released a 73-page report, "Organization:National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope",[110][111] receiving immediate attention from such media outlets as The New York Times, Fox News, and MSNBC.[112][113][114] The report found fault with various research projects and was critical of the social sciences. It started a controversy about political bias and a Congressional Inquiry into federally sponsored research. In 2014, Republicans proposed a bill to limit the NSF Board's authority in grant-writing.

In 2013, the NSF had funded the work of Mark Carey at University of Oregon with a $412,930 grant, which included a study concerning gender in glaciological research. After its January 2016 release, the NSF drew criticism for alleged misuse of funding.[115][116]

Some historians of science have argued that the National Science Foundation Act of 1950 was an unsatisfactory compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government.[117] The NSF was certainly not the primary government agency for the funding of basic science, as its supporters had originally envisioned in the aftermath of World War II. By 1950, support for major areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the National Institutes of Health (medical research) and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (nuclear and particle physics). That pattern would continue after 1957 when U.S. anxiety over the launch of Sputnik led to the creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (space science) and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (defense-related research).

## See also

* American Association for the Advancement of Science
* C-MORE, the Center for Microbial Oceanography: Research and Education, an NSF Science and Technology Center
* Capital Jury Project
* International Council on Nanotechnology
* National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program
* National Digital Library Program (NDLP)
* National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities
* Research council
* Science and Technology Policy Institute
* Scientific literacy
* SedDB, online database for sediment geochemistry
* U.S. Civilian Research & Development Foundation
* United States National Academy of Sciences
* USA.gov
* Zodletone Mountain

## References

1. ↑ "Visit NSF | NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/about/visit/.
2. ↑ ﻿2019 Committee of Visitors Final Report﻿ (Report). Division of Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences of the NSF. September 2019. p. 43. https://www.nsf.gov/od/oia/activities/cov/sbe/2019/sbe-bcs-cov-report-2019.pdf. Retrieved 29 September 2021.
3. ↑ "Final 2026 spending bill is kind to U.S. research". https://aas.org/posts/news/2026/01/congress-passes-fiscal-year-2026-spending-bills-nsf-nasa-and-doe.
4. ↑ Beyer, ((Rep. Donald S. [D-VA-8])) (2025-05-15). "Text - H.Res.417 - 119th Congress (2025-2026): Commemorating the National Science Foundation's 75th anniversary.". https://www.congress.gov/bill/119th-congress/house-resolution/417/text.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 "About the National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/about/.
6. ↑ "Budget, Performance and Financial Reporting – About NSF | NSF – National Science Foundation" (in en). https://new.nsf.gov/about/budget.
7. ↑ "National Science Board [homepage]". National Science Board. November 12, 2025. https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/.
8. ↑ "42 U.S. Code Chapter 16 – National Science Foundation". https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/chapter-16.
9. ↑ "US NSF – About – NSF at a Glance". Nsf.gov. https://www.nsf.gov/about/glance.jsp.
10. ↑ "Final FY20 Appropriations: National Science Foundation" (in en). American Institute of Physics. 2020-01-10. https://ww2.aip.org/fyi/2020/final-fy20-appropriations-national-science-foundation.
11. ↑ "NSF Annual Reports". NSF. https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/annual-reports.jsp.
12. ↑ "FY 2014 Budget Request to Congress – NSF Budget Requests to Congress and Annual Appropriations | NSF – National Science Foundation" (in en). https://new.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2014.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Moffitt, Robert A. (2016). "In Defense of the NSF Economics Program". The Journal of Economic Perspectives 30 (3): 213–233. doi:10.1257/jep.30.3.213. ISSN 0895-3309. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43855708.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Uscinski, Joseph E.; Klofstad, Casey A. (2013). "Determinants of Representatives' Votes on the Flake Amendment to End National Science Foundation Funding of Political Science Research". PS: Political Science and Politics 46 (3): 557–561. doi:10.1017/S1049096513000504. ISSN 1049-0965. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43284388.
15. ↑ National Science Foundation. "NSF Funding Profile". https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2022/tables/st_02.xlsx.
16. ↑ Errick, Kirsten (2023-02-03). "NSF Will Invest Up to $28M for STEM Open-Source Ecosystems" (in en). https://www.nextgov.com/digital-government/2023/02/nsf-will-invest-28m-stem-open-source-ecosystems/382580/.
17. ↑ "NSF invests over $26 million in open-source projects" (in en). 2023-10-25. https://new.nsf.gov/tip/updates/nsf-invests-over-26m-open-source-projects.
18. ↑ U.S. National Science Foundation (April 15, 2024). Pathways to Enable Open Source Ecosystems (POSE). Retrieved May 28, 2024 - via YouTube.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Kevles, Daniel (1977). "The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942–1945". Isis 68 (241): 4–26. doi:10.1086/351711. PMID 320157.
20. ↑ George T. Mazuzan, "The National Science Foundation: A Brief History" (NSF Publication nsf8816).
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Wang, Jessica (1995). "Liberals, the Progressive Left, and the Political Economy of Postwar American Science: The National Science Foundation Debate Revisited.". Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences 26 (1): 139–166. doi:10.2307/27757758. PMID 11609016.
22. ↑ B.L.R. Smith 1990: 40, cited in Daniel Kleinman Politics on the Endless Frontier
23. ↑ 23.00 23.01 23.02 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.09 23.10 Kleinman, Daniel (1995). Politics on the Endless Frontier. Duke University Press.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 "Science The Endless Frontier – A Report to the President by Vannevar Bush, Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, July 1945". National Science Foundation. Jul 1945. https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/vbush1945.htm.
25. ↑ Truman, cited in Daniel Kleinman's Politics on the Endless Frontier.
26. ↑ "Statement by the President Upon Signing Bill Creating the National Science Foundation.". https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statement-the-president-upon-signing-bill-creating-the-national-science-foundation.
27. ↑ 42 U.S.C. 16 – National Science Foundation. Gpo.gov. Retrieved on February 21, 2014.
28. ↑ "Harry S. Truman: "Statement by the President Upon Signing Bill Creating the National Science Foundation.," May 10, 1950". The American Presidency Project. Santa Barbara: University of California. https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=13480.
29. ↑ Pub.L. 81–507, 64 Stat. 149, enacted May 10, 1950
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 30.7 "A Brief History | NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf50/nsf8816.jsp#chapter3.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 "A Timeline of NSF History – 1960s | NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/timeline60s.jsp.
32. ↑ "Chapter 7. Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding". Science and Engineering Indicators. 2014. https://nsf.gov/statistics/seind14/index.cfm/chapter-7/c7h.htm.
33. ↑ Digital Libraries at nsf.gov
34. ↑ "nsf.gov – Surveys – NCSES – US National Science Foundation (NSF)". https://nsf.gov/statistics/survey.cfm.
35. ↑ "After the Tsunami – Special Report – Archived – NSF – National Science Foundation". March 14, 2025. https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/tsunami/index.jsp.
36. ↑ "NSF's Response to the Hurricanes – NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104474.
37. ↑ "Budget Requests and Approriations List Page – NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/.
38. ↑ NSF, "National Science Foundation Budget Positions U.S. to Maintain Competitive Edge" Feb. 13, 2012
39. ↑ National Science Foundation (NSF) News – NSF awards rapid response grants to study West Virginia chemical spill – US National Science Foundation (NSF). nsf.gov. Retrieved on February 21, 2014.
40. ↑ "Trump, Congress approve largest U.S. research spending increase in a decade". March 23, 2018. https://www.science.org/content/article/updated-us-spending-deal-contains-largest-research-spending-increase-decade.
41. ↑ "Air Force and NSF announce partnership in science and engineering rese" (in en-US). U.S. Air Force. https://www.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1516265/air-force-and-nsf-announce-partnership-in-science-and-engineering-research/.
42. ↑ "Trump administration fires entire National Science Board". April 28, 2026. https://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/trump-administration-fires-entire-national-science-board-2026-04-28/.
43. ↑ "US NSF – About Funding" (in en). https://www.nsf.gov/funding/aboutfunding.jsp.
44. ↑ "PAPPG – Chapter I". https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/policydocs/pappg17_1/pappg_1.jsp#IC.
45. ↑ "Proposal & Award Policies & Procedures Guide". NSF. Jan 2016. https://www.nsf.gov/bfa/dias/policy/papp/pappg16_1/fedreg/draftpappg_may2016.pdf.
46. ↑ "Merit Review". NSF. January 14, 2013. https://www.nsf.gov/bfa/dias/policy/merit_review/.
47. ↑ McLellan, Timothy (2020-08-25). "Impact, theory of change, and the horizons of scientific practice" (in en). Social Studies of Science 51 (1): 100–120. doi:10.1177/0306312720950830. ISSN 0306-3127. PMID 32842910.
48. ↑ Lok, Corie (2010). "Science funding: Science for the masses". Nature 465 (7297): 416–418. doi:10.1038/465416a. PMID 20505707.
49. ↑ NSB (2011). "National Science Foundation's Merit Review Criteria: Review and Revisions." National Science Board. Available at: https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/publications/2011/meritreviewcriteria.pdf
50. ↑ Holbrook, J.B. (2005). "Assessing the Science-Society Relation: The Case of the US National Science Foundation's Second Merit Review Criterion". Technology in Society 27 (4): 437–451. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.08.001. http://humanitiespolicy.unt.edu/topics/our_work/science-1.pdf. Retrieved March 5, 2012.
51. ↑ "Chapter III – NSF Proposal Processing and Review". Grant proposal Guide. NSF. January 1, 2013. https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/policydocs/pappguide/nsf13001/gpg_3.jsp#IIIA. "2. To what extent do the proposed activities suggest and explore creative, original, or potentially transformative concepts?"
52. ↑ "Find an IGERT: Results". http://www.igert.org/projects?project[is_recruiting]=1&project[tag]=&project[keywords]=&project[city]=&project[state]=&project[institution]=&project[is_active]=0&project_status=1.
53. ↑ "About". http://www.igert.org/public/about.
54. ↑ "NSF: AGEP Alliance for Graduate Education and the Professoriate". http://www.agep.us/.
55. ↑ "Research Experiences for Teachers (RET) in Engineering and Computer Science". National Science Foundation. https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2011/nsf11509/nsf11509.htm.
56. ↑ "Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) Program – NSF – National Science Foundation". March 31, 2005. https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5262&org=NSF.
57. ↑ "NSF Organization List | NSF – National Science Foundation" (in en). https://www.nsf.gov/staff/orglist.jsp.
58. ↑ "National Science Foundation prepares to move to its new Alexandria home developed by USAA and Lowe Enterprises – Washington Business Journal". https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/news/2017/08/24/national-science-foundation-relocating-to-its-new.html.
59. ↑ Sernovitz, Daniel J. (August 24, 2017). "National Science Foundation is relocating to its new Alexandria HQ. We take you inside.". https://www.bizjournals.com/washington/news/2017/08/24/national-science-foundation-relocating-to-its-new.html.
60. ↑ "About NSF – National Science Foundation" (in en). https://www.nsf.gov/about/who.jsp.
61. ↑ "Temporary/Rotator Programs | NSF – National Science Foundation" (in en). https://www.nsf.gov/careers/rotator/.
62. ↑ "Existing Contracts – FY 2018". https://www.nsf.gov/about/contracting/nsf_fy18_existing_contracts.pdf.
63. ↑ "Office of Integrative Activities (OIA) – NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/od/oia/index.jsp.
64. ↑ "Office of International Science and Engineering (OISE) – NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?org=OISE.
65. ↑ NSF Biological Sciences"
66. ↑ "Directorate for Computer & Information Science & Engineering (CISE) – NSF – National Science Foundation". February 26, 2024. https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=CISE.
67. ↑ "Directorate for Engineering (ENG) – NSF – National Science Foundation". March 28, 2025. https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=ENG.
68. ↑ "Directorate for Geosciences (GEO) – NSF – National Science Foundation". April 16, 2025. https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=GEO.
69. ↑ "Directorate for Mathematical & Physical Sciences (MPS) – NSF – National Science Foundation". April 16, 2025. https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=MPS.
70. ↑ "Directorate for Social, Behavioral & Economic Sciences (SBE) – NSF – National Science Foundation". January 17, 2025. https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=SBE.
71. ↑ "Directorate for Education & Human Resources (EHR)". https://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=EHR.
72. ↑ "Latest" (in en). https://beta.nsf.gov/tip/latest.
73. ↑ "NSF Overseas Offices". https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/overseas.jsp.
74. ↑ "NSF Europe Regional Office". https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/europe/.
75. ↑ "NSF Tokyo Regional Office". https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/tokyo/.
76. ↑ "NSF Beijing Office". https://www.nsf.gov/od/oise/beijing/.
77. ↑ Normile, Dennis; Stone, Richard (2018-02-26). "National Science Foundation to close its overseas offices" (in en). https://www.science.org/content/article/national-science-foundation-close-its-overseas-offices.
78. ↑ "Crosscutting and NSF-wide Active Funding Opportunities – NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_list.jsp?type=xcut.
79. ↑ "National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) – NSF Activities, Solicitations and Their Outcomes – NSF – National Science Foundation". April 14, 2025. https://www.nsf.gov/crssprgm/nano/.
80. ↑ "Science of Learning – NSF – National Science Foundation". September 12, 2016. https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5567&from=fund.
81. ↑ "Cyberinfrastructure: Digital Libraries-Access to Human Knowledge – NSF – National Science Foundation". https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/cyber/digitallibraries.jsp.
82. ↑ "Ecology and Evolution of Infectious Diseases – NSF – National Science Foundation". August 18, 2023. https://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=5269&from=fund.
83. ↑ "Center for Environmental Sustainability through Insect Farming (CEIF)" (in en). https://iucrc.nsf.gov/centers/center-for-environmental-sustainability-through-insect-farming/.
84. ↑ NCSES home page at nsf.gov
85. ↑ "nsf.gov – About – NCSES – US National Science Foundation (NSF)" (in en). https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/about-ncses.cfm#core.
86. ↑ "About CEIF" (in en-US). https://www.insectcenter.org/about.
87. ↑ "Research" (in en-US). https://www.insectcenter.org/research.
88. ↑ "IUCRC | Industry-University Research Partnerships" (in en). https://iucrc.nsf.gov/.
89. ↑ "NSF Directors and Deputy Directors (1950-present)". National Science Foundation. https://new.nsf.gov/od/directors.
90. ↑ "NSF Director". National Science Foundation. https://www.nsf.gov/about/history#nsfs-directors-cbe.
91. ↑ Leary, Warren E. (January 28, 1993). "Head of Science Foundation Will Take a University Post". p. A14. https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/28/us/head-of-science-foundation-will-take-a-university-post.html.
92. ↑ "Distinguished Service Awardees – Neal F. Lane and Donald Kennedy". The American Biology Teacher 59 (9). November 1997. https://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-abstract/59/9/584/15725/Distinguished-Service-Awardees-Neal-F-Lane-and?redirectedFrom=PDF.
93. ↑ "The President's Committee of Advisors on Science & Technology". The Clinton White House. https://clintonwhitehouse4.archives.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/NSTC/PCAST/pcast-members.html.
94. ↑ "349th MEETING NATIONAL SCIENCE BOARD". National Science Foundation. August 1998. https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/meetings/1998/august/opensess.htm.
95. ↑ "Rita Colwell to Leave National Science Foundation". National Science Foundation. February 11, 2004. https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100331.
96. ↑ "President Bush Appoints Arden Bement as NSF Director". National Science Foundation. November 29, 2004. https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100560&org=NSF.
97. ↑ "Arden Bement Leaving NSF". University of Washington. February 4, 2010. https://www.washington.edu/federalrelations/2010/02/04/aredent-bement-leaving-nsf/.
98. ↑ Devitt, Terry (May 28, 2010). "UW emeritus professor named acting director of NSF". University of Wisconsin–Madison. https://news.wisc.edu/uw-emeritus-professor-named-acting-director-of-nsf/.
99. ↑ "Subra Suresh Sworn in as NSF Director". National Science Foundation. October 18, 2010. https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=117780.
100. ↑ "NSF Director Subra Suresh Named Carnegie Mellon University President". National Science Foundation. February 5, 2013. https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=126833.
101. ↑ Mervis, Jeffrey (March 11, 2013). "Cora Marrett to Be Acting NSF Director". Science. https://www.science.org/content/article/cora-marrett-be-acting-nsf-director.
102. ↑ "France A. Córdova sworn in as NSF director". National Science Foundation. March 30, 2014. https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=130931.
103. ↑ "NSF Director's Farewell". National Science Foundation. https://new.nsf.gov/farewell.
104. ↑ "Dr. Kelvin Droegemeier Named Acting National Science Foundation Director". National Science Foundation. April 1, 2020. https://www.nsf.gov/news/dr-kelvin-droegemeier-named-acting-national.
105. ↑ "New director takes helm at National Science Foundation". National Science Foundation. June 23, 2020. https://new.nsf.gov/news/new-director-takes-helm-national-science.
106. ↑ "Statement by Director Sethuraman Panchanathan on his departure". National Science Foundation. April 24, 2025. https://www.nsf.gov/news/statement-director-sethuraman-panchanathan-his-departure.
107. ↑ "Brian W. Stone to Serve as NSF Director's First Chief of Staff". National Science Foundation. April 12, 2016. https://www.usap.gov/news/4213/.
108. ↑ Hiar, Corbin (April 24, 2025). "Trump-appointed National Science Foundation leader resigns". Politico. https://www.politico.com/news/2025/04/24/trump-national-science-foundation-leader-resigns-00308198. "Brian Stone, the director's chief of staff, will lead the agency on an interim basis."
109. ↑ Garisto, Dan (April 25, 2025). "Hundreds more NSF grants terminated after agency director resigns". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-025-01312-8. PMID 40281296. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-025-01312-8.
110. ↑ "National Science Foundation: Under the Microscope" , May 26, 2011
111. ↑ "Dr. Coburn Releases New Oversight Report Exposing Waste, Mismanagement at the National Science Foundation" , May 26, 2011
112. ↑ "Sen. Coburn Sets Sight on Waste, Duplication at Science Agency". Greenwire. May 26, 2011. https://www.nytimes.com/gwire/2011/05/26/26greenwire-sen-coburn-sets-sight-on-waste-duplication-at-55538.html.
113. ↑ Office of Sen. Tom Coburn (April 7, 2010). "Senate Report Finds Billions In Waste On Science Foundation Studies". Fox News. https://www.foxnews.com/politics/senate-report-finds-billions-in-waste-on-science-foundation-studies/.
114. ↑ Boyle, Alan. "Cosmic Log – Funny science sparks serious spat". MSNBC. http://cosmiclog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2011/05/26/6724606-funny-science-sparks-serious-spat.
115. ↑ Carey, Mark (March 11, 2016). "Q&A: Author of 'feminist glaciology' study reflects on sudden appearance in culture wars" (Interview). Interviewed by Carolyn Gramling. Retrieved July 12, 2017.
116. ↑ "U.S. House Backs New Bid to Require 'National Interest' Certification for NSF Grants". The Chronicle of Higher Education. February 11, 2016. http://www.chronicle.com/article/US-House-Backs-New-Bid-to/235275.
117. ↑ David M. Hart, The Forged Consensus: Science, Technology, and Economic Policy in the United States, 1921–1953 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).

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## Further reading

* Oral history interview with Bruce H. Barnes, 26-Sep-1990 – Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Barnes describes his duties as a program director at NSF. He provides brief overviews and examples of NSF's support of research in theoretical computer science, computer architecture, numerical methods, software engineering, and the development of networking. He describes NSF's support for the development of computing facilities through the 'Coordinated Experimental Research Program'.
* Science and Engineering Indicators published biannually since 1972 by the National Science Board, provides quantitative information on the U.S. and international science and engineering enterprise.
* Solovey, Mark (2020). Social Science for What?: Battles over Public Funding for the "Other Sciences" at the National Science Foundation. MIT Press.

## External links

* Official Website
* Brand Identity Portal
* NSF Multimedia Gallery
* National Science Foundation in the Federal Register
* IGERT
* TerraFly Autopilot Walk from Metro to NSF offices
* Historic technical reports from the National Science Foundation (and other federal agencies) are available in the Technical Report Archive and Image Library (TRAIL)
* "U.S. lawmakers unveil bold $100 billion plan to remake NSF", Science (May, 26, 2020)

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* National Science Foundation (NSF)
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