Teenage pregnancy

Other names: Teen pregnancy, adolescent pregnancy
Drawing of a young poverty-stricken girl clutches her child, Boston, 1884.
Specialty| Obstetrics
Symptoms| Pregnancy under the age of 20[1]
Complications| Mother: Eclampsia, anemia of pregnancy, postpartum infection, obstetric fistula[2][3]
Baby: Preterm birth, low birth weight, stillbirth[3]
Risk factors| Lower education, poverty, child marriage, lack of access to birth control, foster care, substance misuse, religion, sexual abuse[4][3][5]
Prevention| Comprehensive sex education, birth control, not having sex[6][5]
Frequency| 21 million per year (developing world)[4]
Deaths| Leading cause of death (15 to 19 year old females)[2]

Teenage pregnancy, also known as adolescent pregnancy, is pregnancy in a female under the age of 20.[1] Pregnancy can occur with sexual intercourse after the start of ovulation, which can be before the first menstrual period (menarche).[7] In well-nourished girls, periods usually start around the age of 12 or 13 while in low income countries onset is typically slightly later around 14.[1][8]

There is a higher risk of eclampsia, anemia of pregnancy, preterm birth, postpartum infection, obstetric fistula, and stillbirth.[4][3][2] Complications of pregnancy are a leading cause of deaths in 15 to 19 year old girls.[9][2] In those under the age of 15 the risk of maternal death may be fives times greater.[10] While not having sex has resulted in lower rates in the United States, abstinence education programs are not effective.[5][11]

Teenage pregnancies are associated with lower education and poverty.[4] Other risks include child marriage, lack of access to birth control, living in foster care, substance misuse, religion, and sexual abuse.[4][3][5] When used in combination, educational interventions and access to birth control reduce unintended teenage pregnancies.[6][12]

About 20% of teenagers have children.[3] In 2023 alone, 43 females per 1,000 had children well under the age of 20.[4] Rates are higher in Africa at 97 and lower in Europe at 13 per 1,000.[4] Rates have been declined in the United States since 1990.[5] In the developing world about 21 million 15 to 19 year olds get pregnant and 12 million have children each year.[4] Another 6 million have abortions, many of which are unsafe.[3] Other negative effects for the mother can include social stigma, financial problems, and stopping education.[3][5]

## Contents

* 1 Definition
* 2 Effects
* 2.1 Teenager
* 2.2 Child
* 2.3 Medical
* 2.4 Economics
* 3 Risk factors
* 3.1 Culture
* 3.2 Family members
* 3.3 Sexuality
* 3.4 Drug and alcohol
* 3.5 Early puberty
* 3.6 Birth control
* 3.7 Sexual abuse
* 3.8 Dating violence
* 3.9 Socioeconomic factors
* 3.10 Childhood environment
* 3.11 Media influence
* 4 Prevention
* 4.1 Education
* 4.2 Abstinence only education
* 4.3 Public policy
* 4.3.1 Canada
* 4.3.2 United States
* 4.3.3 Developing countries
* 4.4 Other
* 5 Prevalence
* 5.1 Sub-Saharan Africa
* 5.2 India
* 5.3 Asia
* 5.4 Australia
* 5.5 Europe
* 5.6 United Kingdom
* 5.7 United States
* 5.8 Canada
* 6 Teenage fatherhood
* 7 History
* 8 Society and culture
* 8.1 Politics
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 11 External links

## Definition[edit | edit source]

Teenage pregnancy rate in the United States by age group in 2013.[13]

The age of the mother is determined by the easily verified date when the pregnancy ends, not by the estimated date of conception.[14] Consequently, the statistics do not include pregnancies that began at age 19, but that ended on or after the woman's 20th birthday.[14] Similarly, statistics on the mother's marital status are determined by whether she is married at the end of the pregnancy.

## Effects[edit | edit source]

According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), "Pregnancies among girls less than 18 years of age have irreparable consequences. It violates the rights of girls, with life-threatening consequences in terms of sexual and reproductive health, and poses high development costs for communities, particularly in perpetuating the cycle of poverty."[15] Health consequences include not yet being physically ready for pregnancy and childbirth leading to complications and malnutrition as the majority of adolescents tend to come from lower-income households. The risk of maternal death for girls under age 15 in low and middle income countries is higher than for women in their twenties.[15] Teenage pregnancy also affects girls' education and income potential as many are forced to drop out of school which ultimately threatens future opportunities and economic prospects.[16]

Several studies have examined the socioeconomic, medical, and psychological impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors, such as poverty or social support, may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can rely on family and community support, social services and child-care support are more likely to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.[17]

A holistic approach is required in order to address teenage pregnancy. This means not focusing on changing the behaviour of girls but addressing the underlying reasons of adolescent pregnancy such as poverty, gender inequality, social pressures and coercion. This approach should include "providing age-appropriate comprehensive sexuality education for all young people, investing in girls' education, preventing child marriage, sexual violence and coercion, building gender-equitable societies by empowering girls and engaging men and boys and ensuring adolescents' access to sexual and reproductive health information as well as services that welcome them and facilitate their choices".[16]

In the United States one third of high school students reported being sexually active. In 2011–2013, 79% of females reported using birth control. Teenage pregnancy puts young women at risk for health issues, economic, social and financial issues.[18][19]

### Teenager[edit | edit source]

Being a young mother in a first world country can affect one's education. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of high school.[20] One study in 2001 found that women that gave birth during their teens completed secondary-level schooling 10–12% as often and pursued post-secondary education 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30.[21] Young motherhood in an industrialized country can affect employment and social class. Teenage women who are pregnant or mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers.[22]

According to the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, nearly 1 in 4 teen mothers will experience another pregnancy within two years of having their first.[23] Pregnancy and giving birth significantly increases the chance that these mothers will become high school dropouts and as many as half have to go on welfare. Many teen parents do not have the intellectual or emotional maturity that is needed to provide for another life.[24] Often, these pregnancies are hidden for months resulting in a lack of adequate prenatal care and dangerous outcomes for the babies.[24] Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have a closely spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.[25]

### Child[edit | edit source]

Early motherhood can affect the psychosocial development of the infant. The children of teen mothers are more likely to be born prematurely with a low birth weight, predisposing them to many other lifelong conditions.[26] Children of teen mothers are at higher risk of intellectual, language, and socio-emotional delays.[24] Developmental disabilities and behavioral issues are increased in children born to teen mothers.[27][28] One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to stimulate their infant through affectionate behaviors such as touch, smiling, and verbal communication, or to be sensitive and accepting toward his or her needs.[27] Another found that those who had more social support were less likely to show anger toward their children or to rely upon punishment.[29]

Poor academic performance in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of the children being held back a grade level, scoring lower on standardized tests, and/or failing to graduate from secondary school.[20] Daughters born to adolescent parents are more likely to become teen mothers themselves.[20][30] Sons born to teenage mothers are three times more likely to serve time in prison.[31]

### Medical[edit | edit source]

Maternal and prenatal health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. Premature birth and low birth weight is higher among adolescent mothers.[32][20][33] In a rural hospital in West Bengal, teenage mothers between 15 and 19 years old were more likely to have anemia, preterm delivery, and a baby with a lower birth weight than mothers between 20 and 24 years old.[34]

Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive prenatal care, often seeking it in the third trimester, if at all.[32] The Guttmacher Institute reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to have health issues in childhood or be hospitalized than those born to older women.[35]

In the United States, teenage Latinas who become pregnant face barriers to receiving healthcare because they are the least insured group in the country. [36]

Young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those who do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers appear to result from lack of access to adequate medical care.[37]

Many pregnant teens are at risk of nutritional deficiencies from poor eating habits common in adolescence, including attempts to lose weight through dieting, skipping meals, food faddism, snacking, and consumption of fast food.[38]

Inadequate nutrition during pregnancy is an even more marked problem among teenagers in developing countries.[39][40] Complications of pregnancy result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting HIV.[10] The World Health Organization estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as high for girls aged 15–19 than for women aged 20–24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged 10–14 than for women aged 20–24. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa.[41]

Risks for medical complications are greater for girls aged under 15, as an underdeveloped pelvis can lead to difficulties in childbirth. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by caesarean section in industrialized nations; however, in developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to eclampsia, obstetric fistula, infant mortality, or maternal death.[10][16] For mothers who are older than fifteen, age in itself is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.[32]

### Economics[edit | edit source]

The lifetime opportunity cost caused by teenage pregnancy in different countries varies from 1% to 30% of the annual GDP (30% being the figure in Uganda).[42] In the United States, teenage pregnancy costs taxpayers between $9.4 and $28 billion each year, due to factors such as foster care and lost tax revenue.[43] The estimated increase in economic productivity from ending teenage pregnancy in Brazil and India would be over $3.5 billion and $7.7 billion respectively.[42]

Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance.[44] The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women.[20] One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were impoverished at the time of giving birth.[45] Additional research found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought social assistance within the first five years of their child's life.[20] A study of 100 teenaged mothers in the UK found that only 11% received a salary, while the remaining 89% were unemployed.[46] Most British teenage mothers live in poverty, with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.[47]

## Risk factors[edit | edit source]

### Culture[edit | edit source]

Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher in societies where it is traditional for girls to marry young and where they are encouraged to bear children as soon as they are able. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's fertility.[41] Countries where teenage marriages are common experience higher levels of teenage pregnancies. In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities than in cities.[48] Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality.[49]

Economic incentives also influence the decision to have children. In societies where children are set to work at an early age, it is economically attractive to have many children.[50]

In societies where adolescent marriage is less common, such as many developed countries, young age at first intercourse and lack of use of contraceptive methods (or their inconsistent and/or incorrect use; the use of a method with a high failure rate is also a problem) may be factors in teen pregnancy.[51][52] Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned.[52][53] Many Western countries have instituted sex education programs, the main objective of which is to reduce unplanned pregnancies and STIs. Countries with low levels of teenagers giving birth accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality.[54]

Teenage pregnancies are common among Romani people because they marry earlier.[55]

### Family members[edit | edit source]

Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of education and employment and more likely to accept human sexual behavior, parenting, and marriage at younger ages. Younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of non-marital and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to high-risk behaviors.[56] If the younger sisters of teenage parents babysit the children, they have an increased probability of getting pregnant themselves.[57] Once an older daughter has a child, parents often become more accepting as time goes by.[58] A study from Norway in 2011 found that the probability of a younger sister having a teenage pregnancy went from 1:5 to 2:5 if the elder sister had a baby as a teenager.[59]

### Sexuality[edit | edit source]

See also: Adolescent sexuality

In most countries, most males experience sexual intercourse for the first time before their 20th birthday.[60] Males in Western developed countries have sex for the first time sooner than in undeveloped and culturally conservative countries such as sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia.[60]

In a 2005 Kaiser Family Foundation study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn’t really want to do".[61] Several polls have indicated peer pressure as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex.[62][63] The increased sexual activity among adolescents is manifested in increased teenage pregnancies and an increase in sexually transmitted diseases.

### Drug and alcohol[edit | edit source]

Inhibition-reducing drugs and alcohol may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity.[64] If so, it is unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. Correlation does not imply causation. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking them to teenage pregnancy are alcohol, cannabis, "ecstasy" and other substituted amphetamines. The drugs with the least evidence to support a link to early pregnancy are opioids, such as heroin, morphine, and oxycodone, of which a well-known effect is the significant reduction of libido – it appears that teenage opioid users have significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their non-using, and alcohol, "ecstasy", cannabis, and amphetamine using peers.[51][61][65][66]

### Early puberty[edit | edit source]

Main article: Precocious puberty

Girls who mature early (precocious puberty) are more likely to engage in sexual intercourse at a younger age, which in turn puts them at greater risk of teenage pregnancy.[67]

### Birth control[edit | edit source]

Main article: Birth control

Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information.[62][68] In 1998, the government of the UK set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1,000 women. Young women often think of birth control either as 'the pill' or condoms with little knowledge about other methods. They are influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of birth control from their friends and the media. Prejudices are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example weight gain and acne, often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure.[69]

In the US in 2002, sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than older women to use contraceptives (18% of 15–19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% for women aged 15–44).[70] More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended.[71] Over half of unintended pregnancies were to women not using birth control,[70] most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use.[71] 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 Seventeen magazine poll admitted to having had unprotected sex with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 PARADE poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.[62]

A US survey of grades 7–12 in 1995 to compare the use of birth control among whites, Blacks, and Hispanics. The results were that 36% of Hispanics said they never used birth control during sex compared to 23% of Black teens and 17% of white teens.[72]

In a 2012 survey found almost half had been involved in unprotected sex within the previous three months. These women gave three main reasons for not using birth control: trouble obtaining birth control (the most frequent reason), lack of intention to have sex, and the misconception that they "could not get pregnant".[73]

"Since timing and levels of sexual activity are quite similar across [Sweden, France, Canada, Great Britain, and the US], the high U.S. rates arise primarily because of less, and possibly less-effective, contraceptive use by sexually active teenagers."[74] Thus, the cause for the discrepancy between rich nations can be traced largely to birth control-based issues.

Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a study found that the rate of birth control use was roughly the same for teens as for older women.[75]

In other cases, birth control is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use condoms incorrectly, forget to take combined oral birth control pill, or fail to use the birth control they had previously chosen. Birth control failure rates are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users.[65] Long-acting contraceptives such as intrauterine devices, subcutaneous contraceptive implants, and contraceptive injections (such as Depo-Provera and combined injectable contraceptive), which prevent pregnancy for months or years at a time, are more effective in women who have trouble remembering to take pills or using barrier methods consistently.

According to Encyclopedia of Women's Health, published in 2004, there has been an increased effort to provide birth control to adolescents via family planning services and school-based health, such as HIV prevention education.[76]

### Sexual abuse[edit | edit source]

See also: Sexual abuse

Studies from South Africa have found that 11–20% of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape, while about 60% of teenage mothers had unwanted sexual experiences preceding their pregnancy. Before age 15, a majority of first-intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary; the Guttmacher Institute found that 60% of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males who on average were six years their senior.[77] One in five teenage fathers admitted to forcing girls to have sex with them.[78]

Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. Up to 70% of women who gave birth in their teens were molested as young girls; by contrast, 25% of women who did not give birth as teens were molested.[79][80][81]

In some countries, sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is not considered consensual under the law because a minor is believed to lack the maturity and competence to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult. In those countries, sex with a minor is therefore considered statutory rape. In most European countries, by contrast, once an adolescent has reached the age of consent, he or she can legally have sexual relations with adults because it is held that in general (although certain limitations may still apply), reaching the age of consent enables a juvenile to consent to sex with any partner who has also reached that age. Therefore, the definition of statutory rape is limited to sex with a person under the minimum age of consent. What constitutes statutory rape ultimately differs by jurisdiction (see age of consent).

### Dating violence[edit | edit source]

See also: Dating abuse and Teen dating violence

Adolescent girls are often in abusive relationships at the time of their conceiving.[82][83] They have also reported that knowledge of their pregnancy has often intensified violent and controlling behaviors on part of their boyfriends. Girls under age 18 are twice as likely to be beaten by their child's father than women over age 18. A UK study found that 70% of women who gave birth in their teens had experienced adolescent domestic violence. Similar results have been found in studies in the US. A Washington State study found 70% of teenage mothers had been beaten by their boyfriends, 51% had experienced attempts of birth control sabotage within the last year, and 21% experienced school or work sabotage.

In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of girls aged 11–15 and 56% of girls aged 16–19 reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control.[84]

### Socioeconomic factors[edit | edit source]

Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. Poverty is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy.[65] Economically poor countries such as Niger and Bangladesh have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as Switzerland and Japan.[85]

In the UK, around half of all pregnancies to under 18 are concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived.[86] For example, in Italy, the teenage birth rate in the well-off central regions is only 3.3 per 1,000, while in the poorer Mezzogiorno it is 10.0 per 1,000.[51] Similarly, in the US, sociologist Mike A. Males noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in California:[87]

County  | Poverty rate  | Birth rate*

|
|

Marin County | 5%  | 5
Tulare County (Caucasians)  | 18%  | 50
Tulare County (Hispanics)  | 40%  | 100

* per 1,000 women aged 15–19

Teen pregnancy cost the US over $9.1 billion in 2004, including $1.9 billion for health care, $2.3 billion for child welfare, $2.1 billion for incarceration, and $2.9 billion in lower tax revenue.[88]

There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or financial aid before they got pregnant and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong.[53]

### Childhood environment[edit | edit source]

Girls exposed to abuse, domestic violence, and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences.[89] According to a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences.[90] Studies have also found that boys raised in homes with a battered mother, or who experienced physical violence directly, were significantly more likely to impregnate a girl.[91]

Studies have also found that girls whose fathers left the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity, and the lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the US and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls.[92][93]

Low educational expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor.[94] A girl is also more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens.[30][57] A majority of respondents in a 1988 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of communication between parents and child and also to inadequate parental supervision.[62]

Foster care youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the US, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly three times the rate for girls in the general population.[95]

### Media influence[edit | edit source]

A study conducted in 2006 found that, adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were also more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves.[96] According to Time, "teens exposed to the most sexual content on TV are twice as likely as teens watching less of this material to become pregnant before they reach age 20".[97]

## Prevention[edit | edit source]

Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy.[98] It is unclear which type of intervention is most effective.[98]

In the US free access to a long acting form of reversible birth control along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the rate of abortions by more than 75%.[99] Currently there are four federal programs aimed at preventing teenage pregnancy: Teen Pregnancy Prevention (TPP), Personal Responsibility Education Program (PREP), Title V Sexual Risk Avoidance Education, and Sexual Risk Avoidance Education.[100]

### Education[edit | edit source]

The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.[101]

In the United States, only 39 states and the District of Columbia out of the 50 states require some form of sex education of HIV education. [102] Out of these 39 states and the District of Columbia, only 17 states require that the sexual education provided be medically accurate, and only 3 states prohibit a program from promoting sexual education in a religious way. These three states include California, Colorado, and Louisiana. Additionally, 19 of those 39 states stress the importance of only having sex when in a committed marriage. [103] From this data, 11 states currently have no requirement for sexual education for any years of schooling, meaning these 11 states may have no sexual education at all. This could also mean these states are allowed to teach sexual education in anyway they would like, including in medically inaccurate ways. This point is also valid for those 22 states that do not require sexual education to be medically accurate. Comprehensive sexual education has been proven to work to reduce the risk of teen pregnancies. [104] Without a nationwide mandate for medically accurate programs, teenagers in the United States are at risk for missing out on valuable information that can protect them. It is unfair to expect teenagers to make educated decisions about sex that can lead to teen pregnancy when they have never been properly educated about the issue. A program developed by experts in public health and sexual education titled National Sexuality Education Standards, is a valuable resource that describes what the minimum requirements of sexual education should be across the nation.[105] Giving teenagers the tools that are outlined in that roadmap would have positive effects, as it gives teenagers the resources to make educated decisions. Currently, there is not a national implementation of this program in the United States.

### Abstinence only education[edit | edit source]

Ad promoting abstinence in Ghana for prevention of HIV/AIDS (2005)

Some schools provide abstinence-only sex education. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of abstinence-only sex education.[11] It has been found to be ineffective in decreasing HIV risk in the developed world,[106] and does not decrease rates of unplanned pregnancy when compared to comprehensive sex education.[11] It does not decrease the sexual activity rates of students, when compared to students who undertake comprehensive sexual education classes.[107]

### Public policy[edit | edit source]

#### Canada[edit | edit source]

In 2018, Québec's Institut national de santé publique (INSPQ) began implementing adjustments to the Protocole de contraception du Québec (Québec Contraception Protocol). The new protocol allows registered nurses to prescribe hormonal birth control, an IUD or emergency birth control to women, as long as they comply with prescribed standards in the Prescription infirmière : Guide explicatif conjoint, and are properly trained in providing contraceptives. In 2020, Québec will offer online training to registered nurses, provided by the Ordre des infirmières et infirmiers du Québec (OIIQ). Nurses that do not have training in the areas of sexually transmitted and blood borne infections may have to take additional online courses provided by the INSPQ.[108]

#### United States[edit | edit source]

US statistics in April 2015

In the US, one policy initiative that has been used to increase rates of contraceptive use is Title X. Title X of the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act of 1970 (Pub.L. 91–572) provides family planning services for those who do not qualify for Medicaid by distributing "funding to a network of public, private, and nonprofit entities [to provide] services on a sliding scale based on income."[109] Studies indicate that, internationally, success in reducing teen pregnancy rates is directly correlated with the kind of access that Title X provides: “What appears crucial to success is that adolescents know where they can go to obtain information and services, can get there easily and are assured of receiving confidential, nonjudgmental care, and that these services and contraceptive supplies are free or cost very little.”[74] In addressing high rates of unplanned teen pregnancies, scholars agree that the problem must be confronted from both the biological and cultural contexts.

On September 30, 2010, the US Department of Health and Human Services approved $155 million in new funding for comprehensive sex education programs designed to prevent teenage pregnancy. The money is being awarded "to states, non-profit organizations, school districts, universities and others. These grants will support the replication of teen pregnancy prevention programs that have been shown to be effective through rigorous research as well as the testing of new, innovative approaches to combating teen pregnancy."[110] Of the total of $150 million, $55 million is funded by Affordable Care Act through the Personal Responsibility Education Program, which requires states receiving funding to incorporate lessons about both abstinence and contraception.

#### Developing countries[edit | edit source]

In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools.[48] Non-governmental agencies such as the International Planned Parenthood Federation and Marie Stopes International provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against child marriage have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female literacy and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as Iran, Indonesia, and the Indian state of Kerala.

### Other[edit | edit source]

A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant.[111]

## Prevalence[edit | edit source]

Main article: Prevalence of teenage pregnancy

In reporting teenage pregnancy rates, the number of pregnancies per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19 when the pregnancy ends is generally used.[112]

Worldwide, teenage pregnancy rates range from 143 per 1,000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1,000 in South Korea.[51][113] In the US, 82% of pregnancies in those between 15 and 19 are unplanned.[114] Among OECD developed countries, the US, the UK and New Zealand have the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while Japan and South Korea have the lowest in 2001.[115] According to the UNFPA, “In every region of the world – including high-income countries – girls who are poor, poorly educated or living in rural areas are at greater risk of becoming pregnant than those who are wealthier, well-educated or urban. This is true on a global level, as well: 95 per cent of the world’s births to adolescents (aged 15–19) take place in developing countries. Every year, some 3 million girls in this age bracket resort to unsafe abortions, risking their lives and health.”[15]

According to a 2001 UNICEF survey, in 10 out of 12 developed nations with available data, more than two thirds of young people have had sexual intercourse while still in their teens. In Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, the UK and the US, the proportion is over 80%. In Australia, the UK and the US, approximately 25% of 15-year-olds and 50% of 17-year-olds have had sex.[51] According to the Encyclopedia of Women's Health, published in 2004, approximately 15 million girls under the age of 20 in the world have a child each year. Estimates were that 20–60% of these pregnancies in developing countries are mistimed or unwanted.[76]

Of the 13 million children born to women aged under 20, more than 90% are in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of death among women aged 15–19 in such areas.[9][2]

### Sub-Saharan Africa[edit | edit source]

The highest rate of teenage pregnancy is in sub-Saharan Africa, where women tend to marry at an early age.[113] In Niger, for example, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18.[41] Socio-cultural factors, economic factors, environmental factors, individual factors, and health service-related factors were responsible for the high rates of teenage pregnancy in Sub-Saharan Africa.[116]

### India[edit | edit source]

In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage sometimes results in adolescent pregnancy, particularly in rural regions where the rate is much higher than it is in urbanized areas. Latest data suggests that teen pregnancy in India is high with 62 pregnant teens out of every 1,000 women.[117] India is fast approaching to be the most populous country in the world by 2050 and increasing teenage pregnancy, an important factor for the population rise, is likely to aggravate the problems.[118]

### Asia[edit | edit source]

The rates of early marriage and pregnancy in some Asian countries are high. In recent years, the rates have decreased sharply in Indonesia and Malaysia,[119] although it remains relatively high in the former. However, in the industrialized Asian nations such as South Korea and Singapore, teenage birth rates remain among the lowest in the world.[48]

### Australia[edit | edit source]

Main article: Teenage pregnancy in Australia

In 2015, the birth rate among teenage women in Australia was 11.9 births per 1,000 women.[120] The rate has fallen from 55.5 births per 1,000 women in 1971, probably due to ease of access to effective birth control, rather than any decrease in sexual activity.[121]

### Europe[edit | edit source]

The overall trend in Europe since 1970 has been a decreasing total fertility rate, an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers.[122] Most continental Western European countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good sex education and high levels of contraceptive use (in the case of the Netherlands and Scandinavia), traditional values and social stigmatization (in the case of Spain and Italy) or both (in the case of Switzerland).[123]

On the other hand, the teen birth rate is very high in Bulgaria and Romania. As of 2015, Bulgaria had a birth rate of 37/1.000 women aged 15–19, and Romania of 34.[124] The teen birth rate of these two countries is even higher than that of underdeveloped countries like Burundi and Rwanda.[124] Many of the teen births occur in Roma populations, who have an occurrence of teenage pregnancies well above the local average.[125]

### United Kingdom[edit | edit source]

Main article: Teenage pregnancy and sexual health in the United Kingdom

The teen pregnancy rate in England and Wales was 23.3 per 1,000 women aged 15 to 17. There were 5,740 pregnancies in girls aged under 18 in the three months to June 2014, data from the Office for National Statistics shows. This compares with 6,279 in the same period in 2013 and 7,083 for the June quarter the year before that. Historically, the UK has had one of the highest teenage pregnancy and abortion rates in Western Europe.

There are no comparable rates for conceptions across Europe, but the under-18 birth rate suggests England is closing the gap. The under-18 birth rate in 2012 in England and Wales was 9.2, compared with an EU average of 6.9. However, the UK birth rate has fallen by almost a third (32.3%) since 2004 compared with a fall of 15.6% in the EU. In 2004, the UK rate was 13.6 births per 1,000 women aged 15–17 compared with an EU average rate of 7.7.

### United States[edit | edit source]

Main article: Teenage pregnancy in the United States

US teen pregnancy rate 15 to 19 year olds (per 1,000), including black, Hispanic, and white populations.[126] A US government poster on teen pregnancy. Over 1,100 teenagers, mostly aged 18 or 19,[127] give birth every day in the United States.

In 2001, the teenage birth rate in the US was the highest in the developed world, and the teenage abortion rate is also high.[51][needs update] In 2005 in the US, the majority (57%) of teen pregnancies resulted in a live birth, 27% ended in an induced abortion, and 16% in a fetal loss.[128] The US teenage pregnancy rate was at a high in the 1950s and has decreased since then, although there has been an increase in births out of wedlock.[129] The teenage pregnancy rate decreased significantly in the 1990s; this decline manifested across all racial groups, although teenagers of African-American and Hispanic descent retain a higher rate, in comparison to that of European-Americans and Asian-Americans. The Guttmacher Institute attributed about 25% of the decline to abstinence and 75% to the effective use of contraceptives.[130] While in 2006 the US teen birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years,[131] it reached a historic low in 2010: 34.3 births per 1,000 women aged 15–19.[127] As of 2017, the birth rate for teen pregnancy from girls ages 15-19 was at 18.8 per 1,000 women between this age group. [132]

The Latina teenage pregnancy rate is 75% higher pregnancy rate than the national average.[133]

The latest data from the US shows that the states with the highest teenage birthrate are Mississippi, New Mexico and Arkansas while the states with the lowest teenage birthrate are New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Vermont.[134]

### Canada[edit | edit source]

The Canadian teenage birth trended towards a steady decline for both younger (15–17) and older (18–19) teens in the period between 1992 and 2002;[135] it further dropped by a factor of more than 2-fold between 2000 and 2020 (from 20.1 per 1000 women in 2000 to 8.4 in 2020).[136]

## Teenage fatherhood[edit | edit source]

In some cases, the father of the child is also a teenager. The pregnancy may begin within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage (the so-called shotgun wedding). In countries such as India, the majority of teenage births occur within marriage.[48][51]

In other countries, such as the US and Ireland, the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the father of their children.[51][137] In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple and 10% are married.[138] Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. US surveys tend to under-report the prevalence of teen fatherhood.[139] In many cases, "teenage father" may be a misnomer. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the US are fathered by adult men aged over 20.[140][141] The Guttmacher Institute reports that over 40% of mothers aged 15–17 had sexual partners three to five years older and almost one in five had partners six or more years older.[142] A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner.[143] In the UK, 72% of jointly registered births to women aged under 20, the father is over 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25.[144]

## History[edit | edit source]

Teenage pregnancy (with conceptions normally involving girls between age 16 and 19), was far more normal in previous centuries, and common in developed countries in the 20th century. Among Norwegian women born in the early 1950s, nearly a quarter became teenage mothers by the early 1970s. However, the rates have steadily declined throughout the developed world since that 20th century peak. Among those born in Norway in the late 1970s, less than 10% became teenage mothers, and rates have fallen since then.[145][146]

In the United States, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 included the objective of reducing the number of young Black and Latina single mothers on welfare, which became the foundation for teenage pregnancy prevention in the United States and the founding of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, now known as Power to Decide.[147]

## Society and culture[edit | edit source]

### Politics[edit | edit source]

Some politicians condemn pregnancy in unmarried teenagers as a drain on taxpayers, if the mothers and children receive welfare payments and social housing from the government.[148][149]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* Precocious puberty
* Pregnancy over age 50
* Pregnancy school

## References[edit | edit source]

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3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Maheshwari, MV; Khalid, N; Patel, PD; Alghareeb, R; Hussain, A (June 2022). "Maternal and Neonatal Outcomes of Adolescent Pregnancy: A Narrative Review". Cureus. 14 (6): e25921. doi:10.7759/cureus.25921. PMID 35844352.
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81. ↑ Study Links Childhood Sexual Abuse, Teen Pregnancy Archived 2012-06-29 at archive.today University of Southern California, Science Blog, 2004
82. ↑ Rosen D (2004). ""I Just Let Him Have His Way" Partner Violence in the Lives of Low-Income, Teenage Mothers". Violence Against Women. 10 (1): 6–28. doi:10.1177/1077801203256069. S2CID 72957028.
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85. ↑ Indicator: Births per 1000 women (aged 15–19) – 2002 UNFPA, State of World Population 2003. Retrieved Jan 22, 2007.
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89. ↑ Smith, Carolyn (1996). "The link between childhood maltreatment and teenage pregnancy". Social Work Research. 20 (3): 131–141. doi:10.1093/swr/20.3.131.
90. ↑ Tamkins, T. (2004) Teenage pregnancy risk rises with childhood exposure to family strife Archived 2007-11-04 at the Wayback Machine Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, March–April 2004
91. ↑ Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Chapman DP, Croft JB, Williamson DF, Santelli J, Dietz PM, Marks JS (2001). "Abused boys, battered mothers, and male involvement in teen pregnancy". Pediatrics. 107 (2): E19. doi:10.1542/peds.107.2.e19. PMID 11158493.
92. ↑ Ellis BJ, Bates JE, Dodge KA, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Pettit GS, Woodward L (2003). "Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy?". Child Development. 74 (3): 801–821. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00569. PMC 2764264. PMID 12795391.
93. ↑ Quigley, Ann (2003) Father's Absence Increases Daughter's Risk of Teen Pregnancy Archived 2015-09-06 at the Wayback Machine Health Behavior News Service, May 27, 2003
94. ↑ Allen E, Bonell C, Strange V, Copas A, Stephenson J, Johnson AM, Oakley A (2007). "Does the UK government's teenage pregnancy strategy deal with the correct risk factors? Findings from a secondary analysis of data from a randomised trial of sex education and their implications for policy". J Epidemiol Community Health. 61 (1): 20–7. doi:10.1136/jech.2005.040865. PMC 2465587. PMID 17183010.
95. ↑ "Fostering Hope: Preventing Teen Pregnancy Among Youth in Foster Care" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-28. (42.1 KB) A Joint Project of The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy and UCAN (Uhlich Children’s Advantage Network) 16 Feb 2006
96. ↑ L'Engle, KL; Brown, JD; Kenneavy, K (2006). "The mass media are an important context for adolescents' sexual behavior". Journal of Adolescent Health. 38 (3): 186–192. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.020. PMID 16488814.
97. ↑ Park, Alice (November 3, 2008). "Sex on TV Increases Teen Pregnancy, Says Report". Time. Archived from the original on November 6, 2008.
98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 Oringanje, Chioma; Meremikwu, Martin M; Eko, Hokehe; Esu, Ekpereonne; Meremikwu, Anne; Ehiri, John E (3 February 2016). "Interventions for preventing unintended pregnancies among adolescents". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (2): CD005215. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005215.pub3. PMC 8730506. PMID 26839116.
99. ↑ Secura, Gina M.; Madden, Tessa; McNicholas, Colleen; Mullersman, Jennifer; Buckel, Christina M.; Zhao, Qiuhong; Peipert, Jeffrey F. (2 October 2014). "Provision of No-Cost, Long-Acting Contraception and Teenage Pregnancy". New England Journal of Medicine. 371 (14): 1316–1323. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1400506. PMC 4230891. PMID 25271604.
100. ↑ Fernandes-Alcantara, Adrienne L. (April 30, 2018). Teen Pregnancy: Federal Prevention Programs (PDF). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 June 2018. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
101. ↑ Valk, Guus (July 2000). "The Dutch Model" (PDF). The UNESCO Courier. 53 (7): 19. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2011.
102. ↑ "Sex and HIV Education". Guttmacher Institute. 2016-03-14. Archived from the original on 2019-11-16. Retrieved 2020-10-21.
103. ↑ "Sex and HIV Education". Guttmacher Institute. 2016-03-14. Archived from the original on 2019-11-16. Retrieved 2020-10-21.
104. ↑ "Sexuality Education". Advocates for Youth. Archived from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2020-10-21.
105. ↑ "Sexuality Education". Advocates for Youth. Archived from the original on 2020-10-24. Retrieved 2020-10-21.
106. ↑ Underhill, K; Operario, D; Montgomery, P (Oct 17, 2007). Operario, Don (ed.). "Abstinence-only programs for HIV infection prevention in high-income countries". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4): CD005421. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005421.pub2. PMID 17943855.
107. ↑ Kohler, Pamela; Lafferty, William; Manhart, Lisa (Apr 2008). "Abstinence-Only and Comprehensive Sex Education and the Initiation of Sexual Activity and Teen Pregnancy". Journal of Adolescent Health. 42 (4): 344–351. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.026. PMID 18346659.
108. ↑ Institut national de santé publique du Québec. 2018. Protocole de contraception du Québec Mise à jour 2018 Archived 2021-07-29 at the Wayback Machine.
109. ↑ The National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy. "Policy Brief: Title X Plays a Critical Role in Preventing Unplanned Pregnancy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
110. ↑ U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. "HHS Awards Evidence-based Teen Pregnancy Prevention Grants". Archived from the original on 10 January 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
111. ↑ Fe Moncloa; Marilyn Johns; Elizabeth J. Gong; Stephen Russell; Faye Lee; Estella West (2003). "Best Practices in Teen Pregnancy Prevention Practitioner Handbook". Journal of Extension. 41 (2). Archived from the original on 2020-08-08. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
112. ↑ Teenage pregnancy –Definitions. Statcan.gc.ca (2007-06-05). Retrieved 2011-12-03.
113. ↑ 113.0 113.1 Treffers PE (2003). "Teenage pregnancy, a worldwide problem". Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde. 147 (47): 2320–2325. PMID 14669537.
114. ↑ Marnach ML, Long ME, Casey PM (2013). "Current Issues in Contraception". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 88 (3): 295–299. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.01.007. PMID 23489454.
115. ↑ A League Table of Teenage Births in Rich Nations Archived 2010-10-21 at the Wayback Machine. unicef-irc.org ISBN 88-85401-75-9
116. ↑ Yakubu, Ibrahim; Salisu, Waliu Jawula (December 2018). "Determinants of adolescent pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review". Reproductive Health. 15 (1): 15. doi:10.1186/s12978-018-0460-4. PMC 5787272. PMID 29374479. S2CID 28017533.
117. ↑ Dawan, Himanshi (28 November 2008). "Teen pregnancies higher in India than even UK, US". The Economic times. Archived from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
118. ↑ Kumar A, Singh T, Basu S, Pandey S, Bhargava V (2007). "Outcome of teenage pregnancy". Indian Journal of Pediatrics. 74 (10): 927–931. doi:10.1007/s12098-007-0171-2. PMID 17978452. S2CID 37537112.
119. ↑ Jones, Gavin (2010). Changing Marriage Patterns in Asia (Report). doi:10.2139/ssrn.1716533. S2CID 53398466. SSRN 1716533.
120. ↑ Statistics, c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of (13 December 2017). "Media Release – September most common month for babies born in Australia (Media Release)". Archived from the original on 12 March 2020. Retrieved 26 January 2022.
121. ↑ "Teenage pregnancy – Better Health Channel". Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2015-08-31.
122. ↑ "Teen pregnancy rate 'lower still'". BBC News. February 25, 2014. Archived from the original on April 15, 2019. Retrieved January 26, 2022.
123. ↑ "Young mothers face stigma and abuse, say charities". BBC News. 2014-02-25. Archived from the original on 2015-02-27. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 "Adolescent fertility rate (births per 1,000 women ages 15–19) – Data". data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 2019-03-30. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
125. ↑ http://www.tol.org (6 July 2010). "Silence Makes Babies – Transitions Online". www.tol.org. Archived from the original on 14 May 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2022. `{{cite web}}`: External link in ``|last=`` (help)
126. ↑ Kost, Kathryn; Maddow-Zimet, Isaac (April 2016). "U.S. Teenage Pregnancies, Births and Abortions, 2011: National Trends by Age, Race and Ethnicity". Guttmacher Institute. Archived from the original on 2022-01-20. Retrieved 2022-01-26. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
127. ↑ 127.0 127.1 Hamilton, Brady E.; Ventura, Stephanie J. (April 10, 2012). "Birth Rates for U.S. Teenagers Reach Historic Lows for All Age and Ethnic Groups". NCHS Data Brief. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (89): 1–8. PMID 22617115. Archived from the original on June 27, 2019. Retrieved April 18, 2012.
128. ↑ "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2011) Health Disparities and Inequality Report – United States, MMWR, Jan 14, 2011 volume 60" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on November 13, 2018. Retrieved January 26, 2022.
129. ↑ Boonstra, Heather (February 2002). "The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy". 5 (1). Archived from the original on 2016-03-25. Retrieved 2022-01-26. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
130. ↑ U.S. Teenage Pregnancy Rate Drops For 10th Straight Year Archived 2006-06-16 at the Wayback Machine." Retrieved July 7, 2006.
131. ↑ Martin, Joyce A.; Hamilton, Brady E.; Sutton, Paul D.; Ventura, Stephanie J.; Menacker, Fay; Kirmeyer, Sharon; Mathews, T.J. (January 7, 2009). "Births: Final Data for 2006" (PDF). National Vital Statistics Reports. 57 (7). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 15, 2011. Retrieved January 26, 2022.
132. ↑ "About Teen Pregnancy | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2020-10-28. Archived from the original on 2021-11-30. Retrieved 2021-05-13.
133. ↑ Sterling, Sandra P. (2009). "Contraceptive Use Among Adolescent Latinas Living in the United States: The Impact of Culture and Acculturation". Journal of Pediatric Health Care. 23 (1): 19–28. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2008.02.004. PMID 19103403.
134. ↑ U.S. teen birth rates fall to historic lows Archived 2013-10-16 at the Wayback Machine. CBS News (2012-04-10). Retrieved 2013-09-26.
135. ↑ Dryburgh, H. (2002). Teenage pregnancy. Health Reports, 12 (1), 9–18; Statistics Canada . (2005). Health Indicators, 2005, 2. Retrieved from Facts and Statistics: Sexual Health and Canadian Youth – Teen Pregnancy Rates Archived 2011-09-30 at the Wayback Machine
136. ↑ "Adolescent fertility rates, 2000 to 2020 – the Health of Canada's Children and Youth". Archived from the original on 2022-01-04. Retrieved 2022-01-26.
137. ↑ National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (2007). Do most teens who choose to raise the child get married when they find out they're pregnant?
138. ↑ "Census 2001 People aged 16–29 Archived 2011-06-29 at the Wayback Machine" Office For National Statistics
139. ↑ Joyner, K; Peters, H.E.; Hynes, K; et al. (2012). "The Quality of Male Fertility Data in Major U.S. Surveys". Demography. 49 (1): 101–124. doi:10.1007/s13524-011-0073-9. PMC 3500148. PMID 22203451.
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