Reflection (geometry)

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This editable Main Article is under development and subject to a disclaimer.

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In Euclidean geometry, a reflection is a linear operation σ on  R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} with σ2 = E, the identity map. This property of σ is called involution. An involutory operator is non-singular and σ−1 = σ. Reflecting twice an arbitrary vector brings back the original vector :

σ ( r -> ) = r -> ′ and σ ( r -> ′ ) = r -> . {\displaystyle \sigma ({\vec {\mathbf {r} }}\,)={\vec {\mathbf {r} }}\,'\quad {\hbox{and}}\quad \sigma ({\vec {\mathbf {r} }}\,'\,)={\vec {\mathbf {r} }}.}

The operation σ is an isometry of  R 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{3}} onto itself, which means that it preserves inner products and that its inverse is equal to its adjoint,

σ T = σ − 1 ( = σ ) . {\displaystyle \sigma ^{\mathrm {T} }=\sigma ^{-1}\;(=\sigma ).\,}

Hence reflection is also symmetric: σT = σ. From (det(σ))2 = det(E) = 1 follows that isometries have determinant ±1\. Those with positive determinant are rotations, while reflections have determinant −1\. Because σ is symmetric it has real eigenvalues; since the extension of an isometry to a complex space is unitary, its (complex) eigenvalues have modulus 1. It follows that the eigenvalues of σ are ±1\. The product of the eigenvalues being its determinant, −1, the sets of eigenvalues of σ are either {1, 1, −1}, or {−1, −1, −1}. An operator with the latter set of eigenvalues is equal to −E, minus the identity operator. This operator is known alternatively as inversion, reflection in a point, or parity operator. An operator with the former set of eigenvalues is reflection in a plane. Reflections in a plane are the subject of this article. Sometimes one finds the concept of "reflections in a line", these are rotations over 180°, see rotation matrix.

PD Image
Fig. 1. The vector  r -> {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}} goes to  r -> ′ {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}'} under reflection in a plane. The unit vector  n ^ {\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\hat {\mathbf {n} }}} is normal to mirror plane.

## Reflection in a plane[edit]

If  n ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {n} }}} is a unit vector normal (perpendicular) to a plane--the mirror plane--then  ( n ^ ⋅ r -> ) n ^ {\displaystyle ({\hat {\mathbf {n} }}\cdot {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}){\hat {\mathbf {n} }}} is the projection of  r -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}} on this unit vector. From the figure it is evident that

r -> − r -> ′ = 2 ( n ^ ⋅ r -> ) n ^ ⟹ r -> ′ = r -> − 2 ( n ^ ⋅ r -> ) n ^ {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}-{\vec {\mathbf {r} }}\,'=2({\hat {\mathbf {n} }}\cdot {\vec {\mathbf {r} }})\,{\hat {\mathbf {n} }}\;\Longrightarrow \;{\vec {\mathbf {r} }}\,'={\vec {\mathbf {r} }}-2({\hat {\mathbf {n} }}\cdot {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}){\hat {\mathbf {n} }}}

If a non-unit normal  n -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {n} }}} is used then substitution of

n ^ = n -> | n -> | ≡ n -> n {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {n} }}={\frac {\vec {\mathbf {n} }}{|{\vec {\mathbf {n} }}|}}\equiv {\frac {\vec {\mathbf {n} }}{n}}}

gives the mirror image,

r -> ′ = r -> − 2 ( n -> ⋅ r -> ) n -> n 2 {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}\,'={\vec {\mathbf {r} }}-2{\frac {({\vec {\mathbf {n} }}\cdot {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}){\vec {\mathbf {n} }}}{n^{2}}}}

Sometimes it is convenient to write this as a matrix equation. Introducing the dyadic product, we obtain

r -> ′ = [ E − 2 n 2 n -> ⊗ n -> ] r -> , {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}\,'=\left[\mathbf {E} -{\frac {2}{n^{2}}}{\vec {\mathbf {n} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {n} }}\right]\;{\vec {\mathbf {r} }},}

where E is the 3×3 identity matrix.

Dyadic products satisfy the matrix multiplication rule

[ a -> ⊗ b -> ] [ c -> ⊗ d -> ] = ( b -> ⋅ c -> ) ( a -> ⊗ d -> ) . {\displaystyle [{\vec {\mathbf {a} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {b} }}]\,[{\vec {\mathbf {c} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {d} }}]=({\vec {\mathbf {b} }}\cdot {\vec {\mathbf {c} }}){\big (}{\vec {\mathbf {a} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {d} }}{\big )}.}

By the use of this rule it is easily shown that

[ E − 2 n 2 n -> ⊗ n -> ] 2 = E , {\displaystyle \left[\mathbf {E} -{\frac {2}{n^{2}}}{\vec {\mathbf {n} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {n} }}\right]^{2}=\mathbf {E} ,}

which confirms that reflection is involutory.

PD Image
Fig. 2. The vector  s -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}} goes to  s -> ′ {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}\,'} under reflection

## Reflection in a plane not through the origin[edit]

In Figure 2 a plane, not containing the origin O, is considered that is orthogonal to the vector  t -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {t} }}} . The length of this vector is the distance from O to the plane. From Figure 2, we find

r -> = s -> − t -> , r -> ′ = s -> ′ − t -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}={\vec {\mathbf {s} }}-{\vec {\mathbf {t} }},\quad {\vec {\mathbf {r} }}\,'={\vec {\mathbf {s} }}\,'-{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}}

Use of the equation derived earlier gives

s -> ′ − t -> = s -> − t -> − 2 ( n ^ ⋅ ( s -> − t -> ) ) n ^ . {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}\,'-{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}={\vec {\mathbf {s} }}-{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}-2{\big (}{\hat {\mathbf {n} }}\cdot ({\vec {\mathbf {s} }}-{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}){\big )}{\hat {\mathbf {n} }}.}

And hence the equation for the reflected pair of vectors is,

s -> ′ = s -> − 2 ( n ^ ⋅ ( s -> − t -> ) ) n ^ , {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}\,'={\vec {\mathbf {s} }}-2{\big (}{\hat {\mathbf {n} }}\cdot ({\vec {\mathbf {s} }}-{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}){\big )}{\hat {\mathbf {n} }},}

where  n ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {n} }}} is a unit vector normal to the plane. Obviously  t -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {t} }}} and  n ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathbf {n} }}} are proportional, they differ only by scaling. Therefore, the equation can be written solely in terms of  t -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {t} }}} ,

s -> ′ = s -> − 2 t -> ⋅ ( s -> − t -> ) t 2 t -> , t 2 ≡ t -> ⋅ t -> . {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}\,'={\vec {\mathbf {s} }}-2{\frac {{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}\cdot ({\vec {\mathbf {s} }}-{\vec {\mathbf {t} }})}{t^{2}}}{\vec {\mathbf {t} }},\quad t^{2}\equiv {\vec {\mathbf {t} }}\cdot {\vec {\mathbf {t} }}.}

## Two consecutive reflections[edit]

PD Image
Fig. 3. Two reflections. Left drawing: 3-dimensional drawing. Right drawing: view along the PQ axis, drawing projected on the plane through ABC. This plane intersect the line PQ in the point P′

Two consecutive reflections in two intersecting planes give a rotation around the line of intersection. This is shown in Figure 3, where PQ is the line of intersection. The drawing on the left shows that reflection of point A in the plane through PMQ brings the point A to B. A consecutive reflection in the plane through PNQ brings B to the final position C. In the right-hand drawing it is shown that the rotation angle φ is equal to twice the angle between the mirror planes. Indeed, the angle ∠ AP'M = ∠ MP'B = α and ∠ BP'N = ∠ NP'C = β. The rotation angle ∠ AP'C ≡ φ = 2α \+ 2β and the angle between the planes is α+β = φ/2.

It is obvious that the product of two reflections is a rotation. Indeed, a reflection is an isometry and has determinant −1\. The product of two isometric operators is again an isometry and the rule for determinants is det(AB) = det(A)det(B), so that the product of two reflections is an isometry with unit determinant, i.e., a rotation.

Let the normal of the first plane be  s -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}} and of the second  t -> {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathbf {t} }}} , then the rotation is represented by the matrix

[ E − 2 t 2 t -> ⊗ t -> ] [ E − 2 s 2 s -> ⊗ s -> ] = E − 2 t 2 t -> ⊗ t -> − 2 s 2 s -> ⊗ s -> + 4 t 2 s 2 ( t -> ⋅ s -> ) ( t -> ⊗ s -> ) {\displaystyle \left[\mathbf {E} -{\frac {2}{t^{2}}}{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {t} }}\right]\,\left[\mathbf {E} -{\frac {2}{s^{2}}}{\vec {\mathbf {s} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}\right]=\mathbf {E} -{\frac {2}{t^{2}}}{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {t} }}-{\frac {2}{s^{2}}}{\vec {\mathbf {s} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}+{\frac {4}{t^{2}s^{2}}}({\vec {\mathbf {t} }}\cdot {\vec {\mathbf {s} }})\;{\big (}{\vec {\mathbf {t} }}\otimes {\vec {\mathbf {s} }}{\big )}}

The (i,j) element if this matrix is equal to

δ i j − 2 t i t j t 2 − 2 s i s j s 2 + 4 t i s j ( ∑ k t k s k ) t 2 s 2 . {\displaystyle \delta _{ij}-{\frac {2t_{i}t_{j}}{t^{2}}}-{\frac {2s_{i}s_{j}}{s^{2}}}+{\frac {4t_{i}s_{j}(\sum _{k}t_{k}s_{k})}{t^{2}s^{2}}}.}

This formula is used in vector rotation.