Al-Ghazali

Al-Ghazali, (Persian: ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد غزالی توسی, romanized: Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad Ghazālī Ṭūsi [lower-alpha 1] (c. 1058 – 19 December 1111), Latinized as Algazelus,[lower-alpha 2] was a Shafi'i Sunni Muslim Iranian scholar and polymath. He is known as one of the most prominent and influential jurisconsults, legal theoreticians, muftis, philosophers, theologians, logicians and mystics in Islamic history.[4][5][6][7]

He is considered to be the 11th century's mujaddid,[8][9] a renewer of the faith, who, according to the prophetic hadith, appears once every 100 years to restore the faith of the Islamic community.[10][11][12] Al-Ghazali's works were so highly acclaimed by his contemporaries that he was awarded the honorific title "Proof of Islam" (Ḥujjat al-Islām).[13] Al-Ghazali was a prominent mujtahid in the Shafi'i school of law.[14]

Much of al-Ghazali's work stemmed around his spiritual crises following his appointment as the head of the Nizamiyya of Baghdad, which was the most prestigious academic position in the Muslim world at the time.[15][16] This led to his eventual disappearance from the Muslim world for over 10 years, realising he chose the path of status and ego over God.[17][18] It was during this period where many of his great works were written.[17] He believed that the Islamic spiritual tradition had become moribund and that the spiritual sciences taught by the first generation of Muslims had been forgotten.[19] This belief led him to write his magnum opus entitled Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm ad-dīn ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences").[20] Among his other works, the Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers") is a landmark in the history of philosophy, as it advances the critique of Aristotelian science developed later in 14th-century Europe.[7]

## Contents

* 1 Biography
* 2 School affiliations
* 3 Decade of seclusion
* 4 Works
* 4.1 Incoherence of the Philosophers
* 4.2 The Revival of Religious Sciences (Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn)
* 4.3 The Alchemy of Happiness
* 4.4 Disciplining the Soul
* 4.5 The Eternity of the World
* 4.6 The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief
* 4.7 Deliverance from Error
* 4.8 Works in Persian
* 5 Influence
* 6 Number of works
* 7 Economic philosophy
* 8 Reception of work
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 10.1 Notes
* 10.2 Citations
* 10.3 Sources
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

## Biography

Al-Ghazali was born in c. 1058 in Tus.[21] He was a Muslim scholar of Persian descent.[22][23][24] He was born in Tabaran, a town in the district of Tus, Khorasan,[21] not long after Seljuks entered Baghdad and ended Shia Buyid Amir al-umaras. This marked the start of Seljuk influence over Caliphate. While the Seljuk dynasty's influence grew, Abu Suleiman Dawud Chaghri Beg married his daughter, Arslan Khatun Khadija[25] to caliph al-Qa'im in 1056.[26][27][28]

A posthumous tradition, the authenticity of which has been questioned in recent scholarship, is that his father died in poverty and left the young al-Ghazali and his brother Ahmad to the care of a Sufi. Al-Ghazali's contemporary and first biographer, 'Abd al-Ghafir al-Farisi, records merely that al-Ghazali began to receive instruction in fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) from Ahmad al-Radhakani, a local teacher and Abu ali Farmadi, a Naqshbandi sufi from Tus.[21]: 26–27 He later studied under al-Juwayni, the distinguished jurist and theologian and "the most outstanding Muslim scholar of his time,"[21] in Nishapur,[29]: 292 perhaps after a period of study in Gurgan. After al-Juwayni's death in 1085, al-Ghazali departed from Nishapur and joined the court of Nizam al-Mulk, the powerful vizier of the Seljuk empire, which was likely centered in Isfahan. After bestowing upon him the titles of "Brilliance of the Religion" and "Eminence among the Religious Leaders", Nizam al-Mulk advanced al-Ghazali in July 1091 to the "most prestigious and most challenging" professorial position at the time: the Nizamiyya of Baghdad.[21]

He underwent a spiritual crisis in 1095, abandoned his career and left Baghdad on the pretext of going on pilgrimage to Mecca. Making arrangements for his family, he disposed of his wealth and adopted an ascetic lifestyle. According to biographer Duncan B. Macdonald, the purpose of abstaining from scholastic work was to confront the spiritual experience and more ordinary understanding of "the Word and the Traditions."[30] After some time in Damascus and Jerusalem, with a visit to Medina and Mecca in 1096, he returned to Tus to spend the next several years in uzla (seclusion). The seclusion consisted in abstaining from teaching at state-sponsored institutions, but he continued to publish, receive visitors and teach in the zawiya (private madrasa) and khanqah (Sufi lodge) that he had built.

Fakhr al-Mulk, grand vizier to Ahmad Sanjar, pressed al-Ghazali to return to the Nizamiyya of Nishapur. Al-Ghazali reluctantly capitulated in 1106, fearing rightly that he and his teachings would meet with resistance and controversy.[21] He later returned to Tus and declined an invitation in 1110 from the grand vizier of the Seljuq Sultan Muhammad I to return to Baghdad. He died on 19 December 1111. According to 'Abd al-Ghafir al-Farisi, he had several daughters but no sons.[21] He was buried near his home in Tus, Iran. [31]

## School affiliations

Template:Ash'arism Al-Ghazali contributed significantly to the development of a systematic view of Sufism and its integration and acceptance in mainstream Islam. As a scholar of Islam,[32][33] he belonged to the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence and to the Asharite school of theology.[34] Al-Ghazali received many titles such as Zayn al-Dīn (زين الدين) and Ḥujjat al-Islām (حجة الإسلام).[13][10][11][12]

Mausoleum of al-Ghazali in Tus

He is viewed as the key member of the influential Asharite school of early Muslim philosophy and the most important refuter of the Mutazilites. However, he chose a slightly different position in comparison with the Asharites. His beliefs and thoughts differ in some aspects from the orthodox Asharite school.[34][35][36]

## Decade of seclusion

In 488 at the peak of his academic career, as the leading scholar of the most prestigious institution in the Islamic world; Al-Ghazālī decided to step down to undertake a journey that would take the next 10 years of his life. It was said that Al-Ghazālī was suffering from both emotional and physical difficulties including loss of appetite, indigestion and struggling to even vocally orate his lectures as he would normally. [37] When the leading medical practitioners could not remedy his ailments and all medicines had failed, they determined the cause to be a psychological and internal spiritual one, and therefore its remedy can only be a spiritual one.[38]

He was critical of the social and spiritual situation of both his academic institution, the scholarly peers and the political class. Initially he mentioned that he was going on a journey to the Hajj pilgrimage, in order to avoid attempts at preventing his decision from the leadership. Al-Ghazālī sold his belongings, distributed all his property, which was said to be so sufficient for his dependents that he donated the rest to charity.[39]

His first stop was Damascus, at the Umayyad Mosque. In Damascus, he found work as a mosque sweeper, and lived in the minaret of the mosque.[40] During this time period, he produced his most celebrated works of Islamic authorship, some that are today a hallmark of that era. He wrote his chief work, Iḥyāʾ ʿulūm al-dīn, in this period. In addition to the works mentioned above related to Bāṭinism, al-Maqṣad al-asnā fī sharḥ asmāʾ Allāh al-ḥusnā, Bidāyat al-hidāya, al-Wajīz, Jawāhir al-Qurʾān, al-Arbaʿīn fī uṣūl al-dīn, al-Maḍnūn bihi ʿalā ghayr ahlih, al-Maẓnūn al-ṣaghīr, Fayṣal al-tafriqa, al-Qānūn al-kullī fī al-taʾwīl (Qānūn al-taʾwīl, p. 95, 111), Kīmiyā-yi Saʿādat, and Ayyuhā al-walad are also among the works he wrote in this period.[41]

Entrance to the Imam al-Ghazali's room inside the Umayyad Mosque

Al-Ghazālī returned to Nishapur in Dhu al-Qa'da 499 (July 1106) and resumed teaching at the Nizamiyya there. As he states in al-Munqidh (pp. 65–68), which is understood to have been written during this period of seclusion:[42]

"Before I was teaching the knowledge that brought prestige and position…; now, however, I am calling to the knowledge that leads one to renounce position."[43]

## Works

A total of about 70 works can be attributed to al-Ghazali.[44][7][45] He is also known to have written a fatwa against the Taifa kings of al-Andalus, declaring them to be unprincipled, not fit to rule and that they should be removed from power. This fatwa was used by Yusuf ibn Tashfin to justify his conquest of al-Andalus.[46]

### Incoherence of the Philosophers

Al-Ghazali's 11th-century book titled Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers") marked a major turn in Islamic epistemology. The encounter with skepticism led al-Ghazali to investigate a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God.

In the next century, Ibn Rushd (or Averroes) drafted a lengthy rebuttal of al-Ghazali's Incoherence entitled The Incoherence of the Incoherence; however, the epistemological course of Islamic thought had already been set.[47] Al-Ghazali gave as an example of the illusion of independent laws of cause the fact that cotton burns when coming into contact with fire. While it might seem as though a natural law was at work, it happened each and every time only because God willed it to happen—the event was "a direct product of divine intervention as any more attention grabbing miracle". Averroes, by contrast insisted while God created the natural law, humans "could more usefully say that fire caused cotton to burn—because creation had a pattern that they could discern."[48][49][50]

The Incoherence also marked a turning point in Islamic philosophy in its vehement rejections of Aristotle and Plato. The book took aim at the Falāsifa, a loosely defined group of Islamic philosophers from the 8th through the 11th centuries (most notable among them Avicenna and al-Farabi) who drew intellectually upon the Ancient Greeks.

The influence of Al-Ghazali's book is still debated. Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science George Saliba in 2007 argued that the decline of science in the 11th century has been overstated, pointing to continuing advances, particularly in astronomy, as late as the 14th century.[51]

Professor of Mathematics Nuh Aydin wrote in 2012 that "it is a widespread belief among orientalists that one of the major factors, if not the single most important reason, for the decline of science in the Islamic world after its golden age is al-Ghazali's attack on philosophers". The attack peaked in his book Incoherence, whose central idea of theological occasionalism implies that philosophers cannot give rational explanations to either metaphysical or physical questions. The idea caught on and nullified the critical thinking in the Islamic world.[52]

On the other hand, author and journalist Hassan Hassan in 2012 argued that while indeed scientific thought in Islam was stifled in the 11th century, the person mostly to blame is not al-Ghazali but Nizam al-Mulk.[53]

### The Revival of Religious Sciences (Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn)

See also: Religion:The Revival of the Religious Sciences

Part of a series on Islam
Sufism

Ideas

* Abdal
* Al-Insān al-Kāmil
* Baqaa
* Dervish
* Dhawq
* Fakir
* Fanaa
* Haal
* Haqiqa
* Ihsan
* Irfan
* Ishq
* Karamat
* Kashf
* Lataif
* Manzil
* Ma'rifa
* Nafs
* Nūr
* Qalandar
* Qutb
* Silsila
* Sufi cosmology
* Sufi metaphysics
* Sufi philosophy
* Sufi poetry
* Sufi psychology
* Salik
* Tazkiah
* Wali
* Yaqeen

Practices

* Anasheed
* Dhikr
* Haḍra
* Muraqabah
* Qawwali
* Sama
* Whirling
* Ziyarat

Sufi orders

* Akbari
* Alians
* Ashrafia
* Azeemia
* Ba 'Alawi
* Bayrami
* Bektashi
* Burhaniyya
* Chishti
* Fultali
* Galibi
* Gulshani
* Haqqani Anjuman
* Hurufi
* Idrisi
* Issawiyya
* Jelveti
* Jerrahi
* Khalidi
* İskenderpaşa
* İsmailağa
* Khalwati
* Kubrawi
* Madari
* Maizbhandari
* Meivazhi
* Malamati
* Mevlevi
* Mouridi
* Noorbakshia
* Naqshbandi
* Naqshbandi Haqqani
* Nasuhi
* Ni'matullāhī
* Nuqtavi
* Qadiri
* Qalandari
* Rifa`i
* Safavi
* Saifia
* Salihiyya
* Senussi
* Shadhili
* Shattari
* Suhrawardi
* Sunbuli
* Sülaymaniyya
* Tijani
* Ussaki
* Uwaisi
* Zahedi
* Zikris

List of sufis

* Notable early
* Notable modern
* Singers

Topics in Sufism

* Tawhid
* Sharia
* Tariqa
* Haqiqa
* Ma'rifa
* Art
* History
* Music
* Shrines

* v
* t
* e

Another of al-Ghazali's major works is Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn (The Revival of Religious Sciences).[54] It covers almost all fields of Islamic sciences: fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), kalam (theology) and sufism. It contains four major sections: Acts of Worship (Rub' al-'ibadat), Norms of Daily Life (Rub' al-'adatat), The Ways to Perdition (Rub' al-muhlikat) and The Ways to Salvation (Rub' al-munjiyat). The Iḥyāʾ became the most frequently recited Islamic text after the Qur'an and the hadith. Its great achievement was to bring orthodox Sunni theology and Sufi mysticism together in a useful, comprehensive guide to every aspect of Muslim life and death.[55] The book was well received by Islamic scholars such as Nawawi who stated that: "Were the books of Islam all to be lost, excepting only the Ihya', it would suffice to replace them all."[56] This reception, however, was not universal as the book was burned in Almoravid Spain in 1109 and 1143 as al-Ghazali criticised the fuqaha for meddling in politics and due to al-Ghazali's syncretism[clarification needed] and support of Sufism.[57][58] Allegedly, being outraged upon hearing of the burning of his book, al-Ghazali foretold the rise of the Almohad dynasty and invested is founder Ibn Tumart with the duty to overthrow the Almoravid rule.[59]

### The Alchemy of Happiness

See also: Religion:The Alchemy of Happiness

The Alchemy of Happiness is a rewritten version of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. After the existential crisis that caused him to completely re-examine his way of living and his approach to religion, al-Ghazali put together The Alchemy of Happiness.[60]

### Disciplining the Soul

One of the key sections of Ghazali's Revival of the Religious Sciences is Disciplining the Soul, which focuses on the internal struggles that every Muslim will face over the course of his lifetime.[61] The first chapter primarily focuses on how one can develop himself into a person with positive attributes and good personal characteristics . The second chapter has a more specific focus: sexual satisfaction and gluttony.[61] Here, Ghazali states that indeed every man has these desires and needs, and that it is natural to want these things.[61] However, the Islamic prophet Muhammad explicitly states that there must be a middle ground for man, in order to practice the tenets of Islam faithfully. The ultimate goal that Ghazali is presenting not only in these two chapters, but in the entirety of The Revival of the Religious Sciences, is that there must be moderation in every aspect of the soul of a man, an equilibrium. These two chapters were the 22nd and 23rd chapters, respectively, in Ghazali's Revival of the Religious Sciences.[61]

### The Eternity of the World

Al-Ghazali crafted his rebuttal of the Aristotelian viewpoint on the creation of the world in The Eternity of the World. Al-Ghazali essentially formulates two main arguments for what he views as a sacrilegious thought process. Central to the Aristotelian approach is the concept that motion will always precede motion, or in other words, a force will always create another force, and therefore for a force to be created, another force must act upon that force.[7] This means that in essence time stretches infinitely both into the future and into the past, which therefore proves that God did not create the universe at one specific point in time. Al-Ghazali counters this by first stating that if the world was created with exact boundaries, then in its current form there would be no need for a time before the creation of the world by God.[7]

### The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief

Al-Ghazali lays out in The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief his approach to Muslim orthodoxy. Ghazali veers from the often hardline stance of many of his contemporaries during this time period and states that as long as one believes in Muhammad and God himself, there are many different ways to practice Islam and that any of the many traditions practiced in good faith by believers should not be viewed as heretical by other Muslims.[21] While Ghazali does state that any Muslim practicing Islam in good faith is not guilty of apostasy, he does outline in The Criterion that there is one standard of Islam that is more correct than the others, and that those practicing the faith incorrectly should be moved to change.[21] In Ghazali's view, only Muhammad himself could deem a faithfully practicing Muslim an infidel, and his work was a reaction to the religious persecution and strife that occurred often during this time period between various Islamic sects.[21]

### Deliverance from Error

Last page of al-Ghazali's autobiography in MS Istanbul, Shehid Ali Pasha no. 1712, dated AH 509 (AD 1115–1116).

The autobiography al-Ghazali wrote towards the end of his life, Deliverance From Error (ar) (المنقذ من الضلال al-Munqidh min al-Dalal), is considered a work of major importance.[62] In it, al-Ghazali recounts how, once a crisis of epistemological skepticism had been resolved by "a light which God Most High cast into my breast ... the key to most knowledge,"[63]: 66 he studied and mastered the arguments of kalam, Islamic philosophy, and Ismailism. Though appreciating what was valid in the first two of these, at least, he determined that all three approaches were inadequate and found ultimate value only in the mystical experience and insight he attained as a result of following Sufi practices. William James, in Varieties of Religious Experience, considered the autobiography an important document for "the purely literary student who would like to become acquainted with the inwardness of religions other than the Christian" because of the scarcity of recorded personal religious confessions and autobiographical literature from this period outside the Christian tradition.[64]: 307

### Works in Persian

Al-Ghazali wrote most of his works in Persian and in Arabic. His most important Persian work is Kimiya-yi sa'adat (The Alchemy of Happiness). It is al-Ghazali's own Persian version of Ihya' 'ulum al-din (The Revival of Religious Sciences) in Arabic, but a shorter work. It is one of the outstanding works of 11th-century-Persian literature. The book was published several times in Tehran by the edition of Hussain Khadev-jam, a renowned Iranian scholar. It is translated to English, Arabic, Turkish, Urdu, Azerbaijani and other languages.[60]

Another authentic work of al-Ghazali is the so-called "first part" of the Nasihat al-muluk (Counsel for kings), addressed to the Saljuqid ruler of Khurasan Ahmad b. Malik-shah Sanjar (r. 490-552/1097-1157).[65] The text was written after an official reception at his court in 503/1109 and upon his request. Al-Ghazali was summoned to Sanjar because of the intrigues of his opponents and their criticism of his student's compilation in Arabic, al-Mankhul min taʿliqat al-usul (The sifted notes on the fundamentals), in addition to his refusal to continue teaching at the Nizamiyya of Nishapur. After the reception, al-Ghazali had, apparently, a private audience with Sanjar, during which he quoted a verse from the Quran 14:24: "Have you not seen how Allah sets forth a parable of a beautiful phrase (being) like a beautiful tree, whose roots are firm and whose branches are in Heaven." The genuine text of the Nasihat al-muluk, which is actually an official epistle with a short explanatory note on al-Manḵul added on its frontispiece.[66]

The majority of other Persian texts, ascribed to him with the use of his fame and authority, especially in the genre of Mirrors for Princes, are either deliberate forgeries fabricated with different purposes or compilations falsely attributed to him. The most famous among them is Ay farzand (O Child!). This is undoubtedly a literary forgery fabricated in Persian one or two generations after al-Ghazali's death. The sources used for the forgery consist of two genuine letters by al-Ghazali's (number 4, in part, and number 33, totally); both appear in the Fazaʾil al-anam.[67] Another source is a letter known as ʿAyniya and written by Muhammad's younger brother Majd al-Din Ahmad al-Ghazali (d. 520/1126) to his famous disciple ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani (492-526/1098-1131); the letter was published in the Majmuʿa-yi athar-i farsi-yi Ahmad-i Ghazali (Collection of the Persian writings of Ahmad Ghazali).[68] The other is ʿAyn al-Quzat's own letter, published in the Namaha-yi ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani (Letters by ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani).[69] Later, Ay farzand was translated into Arabic and became famous as Ayyuha al-walad, the Arabic equivalent of the Persian title. The earliest manuscripts with the Arabic translation date from the second half of the 16th and most of the others from the 17th century.[70] The earliest known secondary translation from Arabic into Ottoman Turkish was done in 983/1575.[71] In modern times, the text was translated from Arabic into many European languages and published innumerable times in Turkey as Eyyühe'l-Veled or Ey Oğul.[72]

A less famous Pand-nama (Book of counsel) also written in the genre of advice literature is a very late compilatory letter of an unknown author formally addressed to some ruler and falsely attributed to al-Ghazali, obviously because it consists of many fragments borrowed mostly from various parts of the Kimiya-yi saʿadat.[73]

## Influence

During his life, Al-Ghazali wrote over seventy books on science, Islamic philosophy, and Sufism.[74][75][76][6][7][62][77][78][79][24][excessive citations] Al-Ghazali played a major role in integrating Sufism with Shariah. He was also the first to present a formal description of Sufism in his works. His works also strengthened the status of Sunni Islam against other schools. The Batinite (Ismailism) had emerged in Persian territories and were gaining more and more power during al-Ghazali's period, as Nizam al-Mulk was assassinated by the members of Ismailis. In his Fada'ih al-Batiniyya (The Infamies of the Esotericists) al-Ghazali declared them unbelievers whose blood may be spilled.[80] Al-Ghazali succeeded in gaining widespread acceptance for Sufism at the expense of philosophy.[81] At the same time, in his refutation of philosophers he made use of their philosophical categories and thus helped to give them wider circulation.[81]

The staple of his religious philosophy was arguing that the creator was the center point of all human life that played a direct role in all world affairs. Al-Ghazali's influence was not limited to Islam, but in fact his works were widely circulated among Christian and Hebrew scholars and philosophers. Western scholars influenced by al-Ghazali include Dante, Thomas Aquinas, and David Hume. Moses Ben Maimon, a Jewish theologian was deeply influenced by the works of al-Ghazali. One of the more notable achievements of al-Ghazali was his writing and reform of education that laid out the path of Islamic Education from the 12th to the 19th centuries. Al-Ghazali's works were heavily relied upon by Islamic mathematicians and astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi.[82]

Al-Ghazali believed himself to be more mystical or religious than he was philosophical; however, he is more widely regarded by some scholars as a leading figure of Islamic philosophy and thought. He describes his philosophical approach as a seeker of true knowledge, a deeper understanding of the philosophical and scientific, and a better understanding of mysticism and cognition.[83] The period following Ghazali "has tentatively been called the Golden Age of Arabic philosophy" initiated by Ghazali's successful integration of logic into the Islamic seminary Madrasah curriculum.[84]

Ghazali was cited by Isaac Abravanel to argue that the Greeks borrowed their scientific and philosophical knowledge from Jewish sources.[85]

## Number of works

Al-Ghazali mentioned the number of his works "more than 70" in one of his letters to Sultan Sanjar in the late years of his life. Some "five dozen" are plausibly identifiable, and several hundred attributed works, many of them duplicates because of varying titles, are doubtful or spurious.

The tradition of falsely attributing works to al-Ghazali increased in the 13th century, after the dissemination of the large corpus of works by Ibn Arabi.[44]

Bibliographies have been published by William Montgomery Watt (The Works Attributed to Al-Ghazali), Maurice Bouyges (Essai de chronologie des oeuvres d'Al-Ghazali) and others.

Abdel Rahman Badawi's bibliography of all works attributed to Al-Ghazali[86] Pages  | Content

|

1–72  | works definitely written by al-Ghazali
73–95  | works of doubtful attribution
96–127  | works which are almost certainly not those of al-Ghazali
128–224  | are the names of the Chapters or Sections of al-Ghazali's books that are mistakenly thought by him
225–273  | books written by other authors on al-Ghazali's works
274–389  | books of other unknown scholars/writers regarding al-Ghazali's life and personality
389–457  | the name of the manuscripts of al-Ghazali's works in different libraries of the world:
Short List of Major Works of Gazali  Title  | Description  | Type

|
|

al-Munqidh min al-dalal | Rescuer from Error  | Theology
Hujjat al-Haq | Proof of the Truth  | Theology
al-Iqtisād fī al-iʿtiqad | The Moderation in Belief  | Theology
Iljām al-Awām an Ilm il-Kalām | Bridling the Common Folk Away From the Science of Theological Speculation  | Theology
al-maqsad al-asna fi sharah asma' Allahu al-husna | The best means in explaining God's Beautiful Names  | Theology
Jawahir al-Qur'an wa duraruh | Jewels of the Qur'an and Its Pearls  | Theology
Faysal al-tafriqa bayn al-Islam wa-l-zandaqa | The Criterion of Distinction between Islam and Clandestine Unbelief  | Theology
al-radd al-jamil li-ilahiyyat ‘Isa bi-sarih al-Injil | The Excellent Refutation of the Divinity of Jesus through the Text of the Gospel  | Theology
Mishkāt al-Anwār[87] | The Niche for Lights, a commentary on the Verse of Light  | Theology
Tafsir al-yaqut al-ta'wil |  | Theology
Mizan al-'amal | Criterion of Action  | Tasawwuf
Ihya'e Ulum-ed'Deen | The Revival of the Religious Sciences | Tasawwuf
Bidayat al-hidayah | The Beginning of Guidance  | Tasawwuf
Kimiya-yi sa'ādat  | The Alchemy of Happiness [a résumé of Ihya'ul ulum, in Persian]  | Tasawwuf
Nasihat al-muluk | Counseling Kings in Persian  | Tasawwuf
al-Munqidh min al-dalal | Rescuer from Error  | Tasawwuf
Minhaj al-'Abidin | Methodology for the Worshipers  | Tasawwuf
Fada'ih al-Batiniyya | The Infamies of the Esotericists, a refutation of esoteric Sufism in general and Isma'ili doctrines in particular  | Tasawwuf
Maqasid al falasifa | Aims of the Philosophers written in the beginning of his life, in favour of philosophy and presenting the basic theories in Philosophy, mostly influenced by Avicenna's works  | Philosophy
Tahāfut al-Falāsifah | The Incoherence of the Philosophers refutes the Greek Philosophy aiming at Avicenna and al-Farabi; and of which Ibn Rushd wrote his famous refutation Tahāfut al-Tahāfut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence)  | Philosophy
Miyar al-Ilm fi fan al-Mantiq | Criterion of Knowledge in the Art of Logic  | Philosophy
Mihak al-Nazar fi al-mantiq | Touchstone of Reasoning in Logic  | Philosophy
al-Qistas al-mustaqim | The Correct Balance  | Philosophy
Fatawy al-Ghazali | Verdicts of al-Ghazali  | Jurisprudence
al-wajiz fi fiqh al-imam al-shafi’i | The Condensed in Imam Shafi’i’s Jurisprudence  | Jurisprudence
Kitab tahzib al-Isul | Prunning on Legal Theory  | Jurisprudence
al-Mustasfa fi 'ilm al-isul | The Clarified in Legal Theory  | Jurisprudence
Asas al-Qiyas | Foundation of Analogical reasoning  | Jurisprudence
The Jerusalem Tract [88] |  | Jurisprudence
Sources:[89][90]: 29

## Economic philosophy

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|

Al-Ghazali's economic philosophy was primarily influenced by his Islamic beliefs. He argued that the importance of economic activity lay both in its benefit to society, as well being necessary for salvation.[91]

He established three goals of economic activity that he believed were part of one's religious obligation: "achievement of self-sufficiency for one's survival; provision for the well-being of one's progeny; and provision for assisting those in economic need."[91] He argued that subsistence living, or living in a way that provides the basic necessities for only one's family, would not be an acceptable practice to be held by the general population because of the detrimental results that he believed that would bring upon the economy, but he acknowledged that some people may choose to live the subsistence lifestyle at their own will for the sake of their personal religious journey. Conversely, he discouraged people from purchasing or possessing excessive material items, suggesting that any additional money earned could be given to provide for the poor.[91]

Al-Ghazali believed that the imposition of income equality in society should not be a necessity. Instead, he advocated for individuals to be guided by the "spirit of Islamic brotherhood," encouraging them to willingly share their wealth. However, he acknowledged that this ideal isn't universally practiced. According to him, earned wealth can serve two potential purposes. The first is for the good of oneself, which includes maintaining one's own health and that of their family, as well as extending care to others and engaging in actions beneficial to the Islamic community. The other is what al-Ghazali would consider misuse, spending it selfishly on extravagant or unnecessary material items.[91]

In terms of trade, al-Ghazali discussed the necessity of exchanging goods across close cities as well as larger borders because it allows more goods, which may be necessary and not yet available, to be accessible to more people in various locations. He recognized the necessity of trade and its overall beneficial effect on the economy, but making money in that way might not be considered the most virtuous in his beliefs. He did not support people taking "excessive" profits from their trade sales.[91]

## Reception of work

According to William Montgomery Watt, al-Ghazali was considered to be the mujaddid ("Reviver") of his age.[8][92] Many, perhaps most, later Muslims concurred and, according to Watt, some have even considered him to be the greatest Muslim after Muhammad.[8]

As an example, the Islamic scholar al-Safadi stated:

“  | Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad, the Proof of Islam, Ornament of the Faith, Abu Hamid al-Tusi (al-Ghazali) the Shafi'ite jurist, was in his later years without rival.[93] | ”

|
|

and the jurist, al-Yafi'i stated:

“  | He was called The Proof of Islam and undoubtedly was worthy of the name, absolutely trustworthy (in respect of the Faith) How many an epitome (has he given) us setting forth the basic principles of religion: how much that was repetitive has he summarised, and epitomised what was lengthy. How many a simple explanation has he given us of what was hard to fathom, with brief elucidation and clear solution of knotty problems. He used moderation, being quiet but decisive in silencing an adversary, though his words were like a sharp sword-thrust in refuting a slanderer and protecting the high-road of guidance.[94] | ”

|
|

The Shafi'i jurist al-Subki stated:

“  | "If there had been a prophet after Muhammad, al-Ghazali would have been the man".[95][96] | ”

|
|

Also a widely considered Sunni scholar, al-Dhahabi, in his praise of al-Ghazali wrote: "Al-Ghazzaali, the imaam and shaykh, the prominent scholar, Hujjat al-Islam, the wonder of his time, Zayn al-Deen Abu Haamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Toosi al-Shaafa'i al-Ghazzaali, the author of many books and one possessed of utter intelligence. He studied fiqh in his own town, then he moved to Nisapur in the company of a group of students. He stayed with the Imaam al-Haramayn and gained a deep knowledge of fiqh within a short period. He became well-versed in 'ilm al-kalaam and debate, until he became the best of debater."[97]

Ibn Rushd (Averroes), a rationalist, famously responded that "to say that philosophers are incoherent is itself to make an incoherent statement." Rushd's book, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, attempted to refute al-Ghazali's views, but the work was not well received in the Muslim community.[98]

According to historian Firas Alkhateeb, "When one reads Imam al-Ghazali's works at a very superficial level, one can easily misunderstand what he is saying as anti-scientific in general. The truth, however, is that al-Ghazali's only warning to students is to not fully accept all the beliefs and ideas of a scholar simply because of his achievements in mathematics and science. By issuing such a warning, al-Ghazali is in fact protecting the scientific enterprise for future generations by insulating it from being mixed with theoretical philosophy that could eventually dilute science itself to a field based on conjecture and reasoning alone."[99]

Al-Ghazali has been seen by Orientalist scholars as causing a decline in scientific advancement in Islam, because of his refutation of the new philosophies of his time. He purportedly saw danger in the statements made by philosophers that suggested that God was not all-knowing or even non-existent, which strongly contradicted his conservative Islamic belief.[99] This position has been challenged, however.[100][101] The following statement made by al-Ghazali has been described as evidence that he was not against scientific advancement: "Great indeed is the crime against religion committed by anyone who supposes that Islam is to be championed by the denial of mathematical sciences."[46] This sentence, the source of which is not indicated in the cited book, is taken from Deliverance from Error.[102] Ghazali does not mean that neglecting the study of mathematics would be a crime against science or against reason, but that rejecting them is a crime against religion. Its aim is not to promote the study of mathematics: it is to condemn the attitude which consists in considering them as rivals of religion. For him, religion has nothing to fear from them, because they do not deal with the same subjects. To condemn the study of mathematics for fear that it endangers religion is to mistake the place of each of them. This is clarified by the sentence which immediately follows: "For the revealed Law nowhere undertakes to deny or affirm these sciences, and the latter nowhere address themselves to religious matters.[102]" A few pages later,[103] he writes that the books of the philosophers must be banned - he defines philosophy as composed of six branches: mathematical, logical, physical, metaphysical, political, and moral.[104] Al-Ghazali notably influenced Ibn Rushd,[105] Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani,[106] al-Nawawi,[107] Ibn Tumart,[108] Fakhruddin Razi,[109] Suyuti,[110] Tan Malaka,[111] Thomas Aquinas,[112][113] David Hume,[114] Sayf al-Din al-Amidi,[115] Asad Mayhani,[116] Ali al-Qari,[117] Muhammad Ibn Yahya al-Janzi.[118]

## See also

* List of Ash'aris and Maturidis
* List of Muslim theologians
* List of Sufis
* Mujaddid
* Nasîhatnâme

## References

### Notes

1. ↑ In Arabic: أُبُو حَامِدِ مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ مُحَمَّدِ بْنِ مُحَمَّدِ بْنِ أَحْمَدَ الغَزَالِيُّ الطُوسِيُّ الشَّافِعِيُّ, romanized: Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Ghazālī al-Ṭūsī al-Shāfiʿī. Pronunciation: UK: /ælˈɡɑːzɑːli/,[1] US: /ˌælɡəˈzɑːli, -zæl-/.[2][3]
2. ↑ Also frequently Algazel.

### Citations

1. ↑ "Ghazali". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ghazali.
2. ↑ "Al-Ghazali". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2014. https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Al-Ghazali.
3. ↑ "Ghazālī, al-". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Ghazālī,+al-. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
4. ↑ Banuazizi, Ali; Weiner, Myron (March 1994). The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. Syracuse University Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780815626091.
5. ↑ "Ghazali, al-". The Columbia Encyclopedia. http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/al-Ghazali.aspx. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Adamec, Ludwig W. (2009). Historical Dictionary of Islam. Scarecrow Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0810861619.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Griffel, Frank (2016). "Al-Ghazali". in Zalta, Edward N.. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/al-ghazali/.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 William Montgomery Watt, Al-Ghazali: The Muslim Intellectual, p. 180. Edinburgh University Press, 1963.
9. ↑ Rosmizi, Mohd; Yucel, Salih (2016). "The Mujaddid of his age: Al-Ghazali and his inner spiritual journey" (in English). UMRAN - International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies 3 (2): 1–12. doi:10.11113/umran2016.3n2.56. ISSN 2289-8204. https://researchoutput.csu.edu.au/en/publications/the-mujaddid-of-his-age-al-ghazali-and-his-inner-spiritual-journe.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Smith, Jane I. (19 November 2009). Islam in America. Columbia University Press. p. 36. ISBN 978-0231519991.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Dhahabi, Siyar, 4.566
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Oxtoby, Willard Gurdon (1996). Oxford University Press. p. 421.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Janin, Hunt (2005). The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World. McFarland. p. 83. ISBN 0786419547.
14. ↑ Al Beirawi, Abu Ismael (12 April 2016). Essays on Ijtihad in the 21st Century. CreateSpace. p. 35. ISBN 9781539995036.
15. ↑ Joseph E. B. Lumbard, Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars p90. ISBN 0941532607
16. ↑ George Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges, p27
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2014). "Happiness and the Attainment of Happiness: An Islamic Perspective". Journal of Law and Religion. 29 (1): 76–91 [80]. doi:10.1017/jlr.2013.18. JSTOR 24739088.
18. ↑ "Al-Ghazali's Turning Point: On the Writings on his Personal Crisis". https://www.ghazali.org/articles/crisis.htm.
19. ↑ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan; Kadi, Wadad; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim; Stewart, Devin J. (2013) (in en). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 191. ISBN 978-0691134840. https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&q=Ghazali+Revival+Sciences&pg=PA191.
20. ↑ Sonn, Tamara (1996-10-10) (in en). Interpreting Islam: Bandali Jawzi's Islamic Intellectual History. Oxford University Press. pp. 30. ISBN 9780195356564. https://archive.org/details/interpretingisla00zhuz. "Ghazali Revival ihya."
21. ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 Griffel, Frank (2009). Al-Ghazālī's Philosophical Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195331622.
22. ↑ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica" (in en-US). https://iranicaonline.org/. "A man of Persian descent, Ḡazālī (variant name Ḡazzālī; Med. Latin form, Algazel; honorific title, Ḥojjat-al-Eslām"The Proof of Islam”), was born at Ṭūs in Khorasan in 450/1058 and grew up as an orphan together with his younger brother Aḥmad Ḡazālī (d. 520/1126; q.v.)."
23. ↑ Rahman, Yucel (2016). The Mujaddid of His Age.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Bloch, Ernst (2019). Avicenna and the Aristotelian Left. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 77. ISBN 9780231175357. "Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali (ca.1058-1111) was a Persian antirationalist philosopher and theologian."
25. ↑ Bosworth, C. E. (1968). "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World". in Boyle, J. A.. The Cambridge History of Iran. 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 48.
26. ↑ Bosworth, C. E. (1970). "Dailamīs in Central Iran: The Kākūyids of Jibāl and Yazd". Iran 8 (1): 73–95 [p. 86]. doi:10.2307/4299634. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/05786967.1970.11834791.
27. ↑ Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of Al-Ghazali". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 68 (1): 65–78. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00076358. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25182038.
28. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `www.ghazali.org`
29. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Meri`
30. ↑ Nicholson, Reynold Alleyne. (1966). "A literary history of the Arabs." London: Cambridge University Press. p. 382.
31. ↑ zirrar (2019-05-21). "Finding Imam Al-Ghazali" (in en-US). https://zirrar.com/at-the-feet-of-al-ghazali/.
32. ↑ Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K. Taylor and Francis. p. 293. ISBN 978-0415966917.
33. ↑ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 191. ISBN 978-0691134840. "Ghazali (ca. 1058–1111) Abu Hamid Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Ghazali al-Tusi (the "Proof of Islam") is the most renowned Sunni theologian of the Seljuq period (1038–1194)."
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 R.M. Frank, Al-Ghazali and the Ashʿarite School, Duke University Press, London 1994
35. ↑ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2009). Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World (Foundations of Islam). Oneworld Publications. p. 179. ISBN 978-1851686636.
36. ↑ Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 84. ISBN 978-0415326391. https://archive.org/details/quranencyclopedi2006unse/page/84.
37. ↑ "GAZZÂLÎ" (in tr). https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/gazzali.
38. ↑ "GAZZÂLÎ" (in tr). https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/gazzali.
39. ↑ "GAZZÂLÎ" (in tr). https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/gazzali.
40. ↑ "Tracing the history behind the great Umayyad mosque of Damascus" (in en). https://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/syria-great-umayyad-mosque-damascus-tracing-history.
41. ↑ "GAZZÂLÎ" (in tr). https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/gazzali.
42. ↑ "GAZZÂLÎ" (in tr). https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/gazzali.
43. ↑ Heck, Paul L. (2020-05-26), "Teaching Ignorance: The Case of al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111)", Knowledge and Education in Classical Islam: Religious Learning between Continuity and Change (2 vols) (BRILL): pp. 223–243, ISBN 978-90-04-41321-4, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004413214_012, retrieved 2026-02-22
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "about five dozen authentic works, in addition to which some 300 other titles of works of uncertain, doubtful, or spurious authorship, many of them duplicates owing to varying titles, are cited in Muslim bibliographical literature. [...] Already Ebn Ṭofayl (d. 581/1185, q.v.) observed that Ḡazālī wrote for different audiences, ordinary men and the elite (pp. 69-72), and Ḡazālī himself completed the rather moderate theological treatise, Eljām al-ʿawāmmʿan ʿelm al-kalām "The restraining of ordinary men from theology," in the last month before his death" Encyclopedia Iranica.
45. ↑ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan; Kadi, Wadad; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim; Stewart, Devin J. (2013) (in en). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. pp. 191. ISBN 978-0691134840. https://books.google.com/books?id=q1I0pcrFFSUC&q=Ghazali+Revival+Sciences&pg=PA191.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Alkhateeb, Firas (2017-11-15) (in en). Lost Islamic History: Reclaiming Muslim Civilisation from the Past. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-84904-977-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=X5RODwAAQBAJ.
47. ↑ Craig, William Lane (2001). The cosmological argument from Plato to Leibniz. Eugene, OR.: Wipf and Stock. p. 89. ISBN 978-1579107871.
48. ↑ Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia ... Macmillan. pp. 118–9. ISBN 9780099523277. https://books.google.com/books?id=ztCRZOhJ10wC&q=Heaven+on+Earth:+A+Journey+Through+Shari'a+Law.
49. ↑ For al-Ghazali's argument see The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Translated by Michael E. Marmura. 2nd ed, Provo Utah, 2000, pp.116-7.
50. ↑ For Ibn Rushd's response, see Khalid, Muhammad A., ed (2005). Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings. Cambridge UK. p. 162.
51. ↑ "Many orientalists argue that Ghazali's Tahafut is responsible for the age of decline in science in the Muslim World. This is their key thesis as they attempt to explain the scientific and intellectual history of the Islamic world. It seems to be the most widely accepted view on the matter not only in the Western world but in the Muslim world as well. George Saliba, a Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at Columbia University who specializes in the development of astronomy within Islamic civilization, calls this view the "classical narrative" (Saliba, 2007)".
52. ↑ Aydin, Nuh. "Did al-Ghazali kill the science in Islam?". http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/did-al-ghazali-kill-the-science-in-islam-may-june-2012.
53. ↑ Hasan, Hasan (9 February 2012). "How the decline of Muslim scientific thought still haunts". The National. https://www.thenationalnews.com/opinion/comment/how-the-decline-of-muslim-scientific-thought-still-haunts-1.382129#:~:text=It reported that India and,and is of lower quality.
54. ↑ Sonn, Tamara (1996-10-10) (in en). Interpreting Islam: Bandali Jawzi's Islamic Intellectual History. Oxford University Press. pp. 30. ISBN 9780195356564. https://archive.org/details/interpretingisla00zhuz. "Ghazali Revival ihya."
55. ↑ Hunt Janin, The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World 610-2003, p 83. ISBN 0786429046
56. ↑ Lumbard, Joseph E. B. (2004). Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars. World Wisdom. p. 291. ISBN 0941532607.
57. ↑ Clancy-Smith, Julia (5 November 2013) (in en). North Africa, Islam and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War. Routledge. p. 67. ISBN 978-1-135-31213-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=seH9AQAAQBAJ. Retrieved 26 February 2025.
58. ↑ Bennison, Amira K. (5 July 2016) (in en). Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 243–244. ISBN 978-0-7486-4682-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=19JVDwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 26 February 2025.
59. ↑ Fromherz, Allen J. (30 July 2010) (in en). The Almohads: The Rise of an Islamic Empire. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-85771-207-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=AA6MDwAAQBAJ. Retrieved 26 February 2025.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Translated into English by Mohammed Asim Bilal and available at archive.org
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 Winter, T.J (2016). Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires. The Islamic Text Society.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Böwering, Gerhard. "ḠAZĀLĪ". Encyclopædia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gazali-i-biography. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
63. ↑ McCarthy, Richard Joseph (1980). Freedom and fulfillment: "al-Munqidh min al-Dalal" and other relevant works. Boston: Twayne. ISBN 978-0805781670. https://archive.org/details/freedomfulfillme0000ghaz.
64. ↑ James, William (2012). Bradley, Matthew. ed. The Varieties of Religious Experience. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199691647.
65. ↑ "SANJAR, Aḥmad b. Malekšāh". 11 August 2020. https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/sanjar-ahmad-b-maleksah-COM_10458#.
66. ↑ Makatib-i farsi-yi Ghazali ba nam-i Faza’il al-anam min rasa’il Ḥujjat al-Islam, ed. ʿAbbas Iqbal Ashtiyani, Tehran, 1954, pp. 11-12
67. ↑ Makatib-i farsi-yi Ghazali ba nam-i Faza’il al-anam min rasa’il Hujjat al-Islam, ed. ʿAbbas Iqbal Ashtiyani, Tehran, 1954, pp. 13-23, 83-85
68. ↑ Majmuʿa-yi athar-i farsi-yi Ahmad-e Ghazali, ed. A. Mujahid, Tehran, 1979, 2nd ed., Tehran, 1991, pp. 191-238
69. ↑ Namaha-yi ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani, ed. ʿAli Naqi Monzawi and ʿAfif ʿUsayran, 2 vols., Tehran, 1983, II, p.103, no 73
70. ↑ George Henry Scherer, Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha’l-walad, Ph.D. diss., Chicago University, 1930; Beirut, 1933, p. 27
71. ↑ Hilmi Ziya Ülken, Gazali’nin bazi eserlerinin Türkçe tercümeleri. Les traductions en Turc de certains livres d’al-Ghazali, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 9/1, 1961, p. 61
72. ↑ Günaydin, Gazâlî tercümeleri: Osmanli devri ve 1928 sonrasi için bir bibliyografya denemesi, Dîvân: Disiplinlerarası Çalışmalar Dergisi 16, 2011, pp. 70-73
73. ↑ "Kimiā-Ye Saʿādat". 29 June 2021. https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/kimia-ye-saadat-COM_362424.
74. ↑ Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of Al-Ghazali". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 65–78.
75. ↑ Banuazizi, Ali; Weiner, Myron (March 1994). The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. Syracuse University Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780815626091.
76. ↑ "Ghazali, al-". The Columbia Encyclopedia. http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/al-Ghazali.aspx. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
77. ↑ The Spirit of Creativity: Basic Mechanisms of Creative Achievements "Persian polymath Al-Ghazali published several treatises...."
78. ↑ http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ghazalie.pdf « Al-Ghazali was born in A.D. 1058 (A.H. 450) in or near the city of Tus in Khurasan to a Persian family of modest means... »
79. ↑ The Ethics of Suicide: Historical Sources "A native of Khorassan, of Persian origin, the Muslim theologian, sufi mystic, and philosopher Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali is one of the great figures of Islamic religious thought...."
80. ↑ Adang, Camilla; Ansari, Hassan; Fierro, Maribel (2015). Accusations of Unbelief in Islam: A Diachronic Perspective on Takfīr. Brill. p. 19. ISBN 9789004307834. https://books.google.com/books?id=nf_dCgAAQBAJ&q=takfir+in+islam. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Sells, Michael Anthony (1996). Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qurʼan, Miraj, Poetic and Theological Writings. New York: Paulist. ISBN 9780809136193. https://books.google.com/books?id=BrU54SYQSyoC&pg=PA24.
82. ↑ "AL-Ghazali". Quarterly Review of Comparative Education 23: 3–4. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ghazalie.pdf.
83. ↑ Louchakova-Schwartz, Olga (2011). "The Self and the World: Vedanta, Sufism, and the Presocratics in a Phenomenological View" (in en). Phenomenology/Ontopoiesis Retrieving Geo-cosmic Horizons of Antiquity. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 423–438. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1691-9_33. ISBN 9789400716902.
84. ↑ "Ghazâlî had successfully introduced logic into the madrasa (though it was studied in other venues as well (Endress 2006)). What happened to it after this time was the result of the activities of logicians much more gifted than Ghazâlî. This period has tentatively been called the Golden Age of Arabic philosophy (Gutas 2002). It is in this period, and especially in the thirteenth century, that the major changes in the coverage and structure of Avicennan logic were introduced; these changes were mainly introduced in free-standing treatises on logic. It has been observed that the thirteenth century was the time that "doing logic in Arabic was thoroughly disconnected from textual exegesis, perhaps more so than at any time before or since" (El-Rouayheb 2010b: 48–49). Many of the major textbooks for teaching logic in later centuries come from this period. [...] For all his historical importance in the process of introducing logic into the madrasa, the logic that Ghazâlî defended was too dilute to be recognizably Farabian or Avicennan." Street, Tony (July 23, 2008). "Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-language. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
85. ↑ Fuss, Abraham M. (1994). "The Study of Science and Philosophy Justified by Jewish Tradition". The Torah U-Madda Journal 5: 101–114. ISSN 1050-4745. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40914819.
86. ↑ A. Badawi, Mu'allafat al-Ghazali, 2 vols. (Cairo, 1961).
87. ↑ Hesova, Zora (2012). "The Notion of illumination in the perspective of Ghazali's Mishkat Al-Anwar". Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization 2 (2): 65–85. doi:10.32350/jitc.22.04.
88. ↑ At the insistence of his students in Jerusalem, al-Ghazali wrote a concise exposition of Islam Khalidi, Walid (1984). Before their diaspora : a photographic history of the Palestinians, 1876–1948. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 978-0887281433. http://btd.palestine-studies.org/content/introduction-last-days-ottoman-rule-1876-1918. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
89. ↑ "The Mishkat al-Anwar of al-Ghazzali Index". http://www.ghazali.org/books/mishkat/index.html.
90. ↑ At the insistence of his students in Jerusalem, al-Ghazali wrote a concise exposition of Islam. Khalidi, Walid (1984). Before their diaspora: a photographic history of the Palestinians, 1876–1948. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 978-0887281433. http://btd.palestine-studies.org/content/introduction-last-days-ottoman-rule-1876-1918. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 91.3 91.4 Ghazanfar, Shaikh Mohammad; Islahi, Abdul Azim (1997). Economic Thought of Al-Ghazali. Islamic Economics Research Series, King Abdulaziz University. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Scientific Publishing Centre, King Abdulaziz University. pp. 13. ISBN 978-9960-06-574-8. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/213955194.pdf.
92. ↑ Rosmizi, Mohd; Yucel, Salih (2016). "The Mujaddid of his age: Al-Ghazali and his inner spiritual journey" (in English). UMRAN - International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies 3 (2): 1–12. doi:10.11113/umran2016.3n2.56. ISSN 2289-8204. https://researchoutput.csu.edu.au/en/publications/the-mujaddid-of-his-age-al-ghazali-and-his-inner-spiritual-journe.
93. ↑ al-Wafa bi'l wafayat, p. 274 - 277. Also see Tabaqat al-Shafiyya, subki, 4, 101.
94. ↑ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali, The Mystic, p. 47
95. ↑ Tabaqat al-Shafi’iyyah al-Kubra, Cairo, 1324/1906, Vol. IV, p. 101
96. ↑ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali, The Mystic, p. 48
97. ↑ al-Dhahabi. Siyar A'laam al-Nubala'. 9. Lebanon: Dar al-Hadith. pp. 323.
98. ↑ Menocal, Maria Rosa (29 November 2009). The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Little, Brown. ISBN 9780316092791. https://books.google.com/books?id=4dxbqEmU-OkC.
99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 "Al-Ghazali and the Revival of Islamic Scholarship". 22 May 2013. http://lostislamichistory.com/al-ghazali/.
100. ↑ Jamil Ragep (February 2008). "When did Islamic science die (and who cares)?". Viewpoint (85). https://islamsci.mcgill.ca/Viewpoint_ragep.pdf. Retrieved 2023-03-23.
101. ↑ Saliba, George (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262195577. https://books.google.com/books?id=Boc0JjGRPF0C.
102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error, p. 9, §41.
103. ↑ Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error, § 59, p. 13.
104. ↑ Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error, § 36, p. 8.
105. ↑ Griffel 2009, p. 62.
106. ↑ Griffel 2009, p. 81.
107. ↑ Griffel 2009, p. 76.
108. ↑ Griffel 2009, p. 77.
109. ↑ Griffel 2009, p. 75.
110. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Andrew Rippin`
111. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `plato.stanford.edu`
112. ↑ Muslim Philosophy , Islamic Contributions to Science & Math, netmuslims.com
113. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Heinrichs-2013`
114. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `James Robert Brown`
115. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Sayf Din al`
116. ↑ Griffel 2009, p. 71.
117. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `Ayn al`
118. ↑ Griffel 2009, p. 74.

### Sources

* Haque, Amber (2004). "Psychology from Islamic perspective: contributions of early Muslim scholars and challenges to contemporary Muslim psychologists". Journal of Religion & Health 43 (4): 357–377. doi:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z.
* Savage-Smith, Emilie (1995). "Attitudes toward dissection in medieval Islam". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 50 (1): 67–110. doi:10.1093/jhmas/50.1.67. PMID 7876530.
* Abd Rahman, Mohd Rosmizi Bin; Yucel, Salih (2016). "The Mujaddid of His Age: Al-Ghazali and His Inner Spiritual Journey". UMRAN - International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies 3 (2). doi:10.11113/umran2016.3n2.56.
* Saritoprak, Zeki (2018). "Al-Ghazali". Islamic Spirituality: Theology and Practice for the Modern World. doi:10.5040/9781474297820.0013. ISBN 978-1-4725-7204-2.
* Parrott, Justin (2017). "Al-Ghazali and the Golden Rule: Ethics of Reciprocity in the Works of a Muslim Sage". Journal of Religious & Theological Information 16 (2): 68–78. doi:10.1080/10477845.2017.1281067. http://archive.nyu.edu/handle/2451/38266.
* Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of al-Ghazālī". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1): 65–78.

## Further reading

* Al-Ghazali (book), Shibli Nomani
* Macdonald, Duncan B. (1899). "The life of al-Ghazzali", in Journal of the American Oriental Society. 20, p. 122 sqq.
* Laoust, H: La politique de Gazali, Paris 1970
* Campanini, M.: Al-Ghazzali, in Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman, History of Islamic Philosophy 1996
* Campanini, Massimo, Ghazali, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1610691776
* Watt, W. M.: Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali, Edinburgh 1963
* Zwemer, S. M. A Moslem Seeker after God, New York 1920
* Nakamura, K. "Al-Ghazali", Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* Dougan, A. The Glimpse: The Inner teaching of Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazzali's Mishkat al-Anwar (The Niche for Lights) by Abdullah Dougan ISBN 0-9597566-6-3
* A comparison between the philosophy of Ghazali and the Copenhagen Interpretation: Harding, Karen (1993). "Causality Then and Now: al-Ghazali and Quantum Theory". American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 1 (2): 165–177. doi:10.35632/ajis.v10i2.2505. http://i-epistemology.net/attachments/401_V10N2 Summer 93 - Harding - Causality Then and Now.pdf.
* Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazali. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.. http://www.ghazali.org/works/watt3.htm.

## External links

* Translation of the Ihya ulum al-din (The Revival of Religious Sciences), Vol 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Vol.4
* "Al-Ghazālī". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://www.iep.utm.edu/al-ghazali.
* Griffel, Frank. "Al-Ghazali". in Zalta, Edward N.. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-ghazali/.
* Full French text of the Deliverance from error, Préservatif contre l'erreur[Usurped!]
* Al-Ghazali website
* Ghazali Series page at the Islamic Texts Society
* Ghazali Book Series from Fons Vitae non-profit publishers
* Works by Al-Ghazali at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
* A detailed biography on Imam Ghazzali (450-505H) الغزَّالِي
* Error in Template:Internet Archive author: Al-Ghazali doesn't exist.
* Ghazali and Islamic reform
* Ghazali and the Revival of Islamic Scholarship
* Full text of Incoherence of the Philosophers, from Al-Ghazali website
* Short commentary on The Alchemy of Happiness
* The Alchemy of Happiness, by Mohammed Al-Ghazzali, the Mohammedan Philosopher, trans. Henry A. Homes (Albany, N.Y.: Munsell, 1873). See original text in The Online Library of Liberty .
* "Al-Ghazali Contra Aristotle: An Unforeseen Overture to Science In Eleventh-Century Baghdad". Richard P. Aulie. PSCF 45. March 1994. pp. 26–46.
* Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali, in Intellectual Encounters
* (in French) Profession de Foi de l'Imam Al Ghazali

Links to related articles

Template:Islam scholars diagram Template:Ash'ari

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* Al-Ghazali
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* Hajji Bektash Wali
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14th–16th|

* Ibn Khaldun
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17th–19th|

* Mir Damad
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20th–present|

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* v
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Islamic|

| Early|

* Al-Jahiz
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* Ibn Masarra
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|

High|

* Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna)
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Late|

* Ibn Sab'in
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11–12th
century|

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13–14th
century|

* Robert Grosseteste
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Late|

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See also Renaissance philosophy

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Philosophers|

| Antiquity|

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|

Middle Ages|

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centuries|

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centuries|

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* Democracy in America (1835–1840)
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* The Revolt of the Masses (1929)
* The Road to Serfdom (1944)
* The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)
* The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
* The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
* A Theory of Justice (1971)
* The End of History and the Last Man (1992)

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* State atheism
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* Category:Political philosophy

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Islamic theology

* Fields
* Theologians
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|

Philosophy|

* ‘Aql
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Science|

* Astronomy
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Sufism|

* Cosmology
* Metaphysics
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Theologians|

| Ash'ari
(Al-Ash'ari)|

* Al-Bayhaqi
* Al-Baqillani
* Al-Juwayni
* Al-Qushayri
* Al-Shahrastani
* Al-Ghazali
* Al-Maziri
* Ibn Furak
* Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani
* Zakariyya al-Ansari
* Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi
* Abu Ishaq al-Isfara'ini
* Ibn Aqil
* Ibn Tumart
* Abdul Qadir Gilani
* Abu al-Walid al-Baji
* Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi
* Ibn al-Jawzi
* Qadi Ayyad
* Ahmad al-Rifa'i
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
* Sayf al-Din al-Amidi
* Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam
* Taqi al-Din al-Subki
* Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi
* Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati
* Al-Baydawi
* Ibn Khaldun
* Ibn Arafa
* Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi
* Ibn Hajar al-Haytami
* Al-Sha'rani
* Jalal al-Din al-Dawani
* Al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani
* Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi
* Ibn Ashir
* Al-Bahūtī
* Muhammad Mayyara
* Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi
* 'Illish
* Ibrahim al-Bajuri
* Abdullah ibn Alawi al-Haddad
* Ahmad al-Dardir
* Muhammad Arafa al-Desouki
* Muhammad Zahid al-Kawthari
* Ahmad Zayni Dahlan

|

Early Sunni|

* Abū Ḥanīfah al-Nu'mān ibn Thābit (Hanafiyah)
* Malik ibn Anas (Maliki)
* Al-Shafi‘i (Shafi‘i)

Maturidi
(Al-Maturidi)|

* Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi
* Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi
* Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi
* Abu Ishaq al-Saffar al-Bukhari
* Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi
* 'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
* Al-Taftazani
* Al-Sharif al-Jurjani
* Akmal al-Din al-Babarti
* Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi
* Nur al-Din al-Sabuni
* Najm al-Din 'Umar al-Nasafi
* Siraj al-Din al-Ushi
* Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
* Khidr Bey
* Ibn Kemal
* Ali Qushji
* Ali al-Qari
* Al-Maydani
* Ahmad Sirhindi
* Anwar Shah Kashmiri
* Shah Waliullah Dehlawi
* Shah Abdul Aziz
* Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri
* Muhammad Zakariya Kandhlawi
* Rahmatullah Kairanawi
* Murtada al-Zabidi
* Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi
* Muhammad Abu Zahra
* Ahmed Deedat
* Kanthapuram A. P. Aboobacker Musliyar

Mu'attila|

* Al-Ja'd ibn Dirham
* Ja'dīyya
* Abū Muḥrīz Jahm ibn Ṣafwān ar-Rāsibī as-Samarqāndī at-Tirmidhī
* Jahmīyya
* Abū Abdirrahmān Bishr ibn Ghiyāth ibn Abī Karīma al-Marīsī al-Baghdādī (Hanafi-Marīsīyyah/Jahmī-Murji'ah)

Mu'jassimā|

* Abū Muḥāmmad (Abū’l-Hākem) Heshām ibn Sālem al-Jawālikī al-Juzjanī al-Kūfī
* Jawālikīyya
* Rûm Abdals

Murji'ah|

* Abū Marwān Gaylān ibn Mūslīm ad-Dimashqī an-Nabati al-Qībtī (Murjī-Qadariyah)
* Abu’l-Hassan Muqātil ibn Sulaymān ibn Bashīr al-Azdī al-Balkhī (Muqātilīyyah)

Mu'tazila
(Wasil ibn 'Ata')|

* Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm ibn Sayyār ibn Hāni’ an-Nazzām (Nazzāmīyya)
* Abū Bakr Abdurrahmān ibn Kaysān al-Asāmm
* Abū Mūsā Isā ibn Subeyh (Sabīh) al-Murdār al-Bāsrī (Murdārīyya)
* Hīshām ibn Amr al-Fuwātī ash-Shaybānī (Hīshāmīyya)
* Abū Sahl Abbād ibn Sulaimān (Salmān) as-Sāymarī
* Abū Alī Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb ibn Sallām al-Jubbā'ī (Jubbāīyya)
* Abū’l-Hūsayn Abdūrrāhīm ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Uthmān al-Hayyāt (Hayyātīyya)
* Ja'far ibn Harb
* Ja'far ibn Mūbassīr
* Abū Uthmān Amr ibn Bhār ibn Māhbūb al-Jāhiz al-Kinānī (Jāhizīyya)
* Al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar
* Abu al-Husayn al-Basri
* Al-Zamakhshari
* Amr ibn Ubayd
* Ibn Abi'l-Hadid
* Sahib ibn Abbad
* Abū Amr Ḍirār ibn Amr al-Gatafānī al-Kūfī (Ḍirārīyya)

Najjārīyya|

* Abū ʿAbdillāh al-Husayn ibn Muḥāmmad ibn ʿAbdillāh an-Najjār ar-Rāzī
* Abū Amr (Abū Yahyā) Hāfs al-Fard
* Muḥāmmad ibn ʿĪsā (Burgūsīyya)
* Abū ʿAbdallāh Ibnū’z-Zā‘farānī (Zā‘farānīyya)
* Mustadrakīyya

Salafi theologists|

* Hanbalis
* Ibn Taymiyyah
* Ibn al Qayyim

Shi’a-Imamiyyah
(Wilayat al-faqih)|

* The Twelve Imams
* Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid
* Sharif al-Murtaza
* Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
* Allamah Al-Hilli
* Muhammad Baqir Majlisi
* Zurarah ibn A'yan
* Hisham ibn Hakam
* Agha Zia ol Din Araghi
* Ja'far Sobhani
* Ruhollah Khomeini

Shi’a-Ismailiyyah
(Ibn Maymūn)|

* Ibn Ismāʿīl
* Maymūn al-Qaddāḥ's Ismā'īlī doctrine
* Al-Qadi al-Nu'man
* Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani
* Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani
* Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi
* Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi
* Arwa al-Sulayhi
* Tayyibi Ismā'īlī doctrine
* Dhu'ayb ibn Musa
* Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam
* Nizārī Ismāʿīlī doctrine
* Idris Imad al-Din
* Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid

Key books|

| Sunni books|

* Al-Baz al-Ashhab
* Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq
* Al-Milal wa al-Nihal
* Al-Irshad
* Al-Aqidah al-Tahawiyyah
* Al-Sawad al-A'zam
* Kitab al-Tawhid
* Tabsirat al-Adilla
* The Moderation in Belief

|

Shia books|

* Tajrid al-I'tiqad

Independent|

* Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
* Kitab al-Majmu of Alawis
* Malfūzāt of Ahmadiyya
* Rasa'il al-Hikma of Druze
* Umm al-Kitab of Musta'li Isma'ilism

* Early Muslim scholars
* List of contemporary Muslim scholars of Islam

Schools

| Ahl us-
Sunnah
wa’l-
Jama’ah|

| Ahl al-Hadith
(Traditionalism)|

* Kullabiyya
* Ibn Kullab
* Hanbalis
* Ibn Hanbal
* Al-Qadi Abu Ya'la
* Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
* Zahiris
* Dawud al-Zahiri
* Salafism
* Ahl-i Hadith
* Syed Nazeer Husain / Siddiq Hasan Khan
* Wahhabism
* Ibn Abd al-Wahhab
* Ibn Baz
* Ibn al Uthaymeen
* Nasiruddin al-Albani
* Other Salafi trends
* Jihadism
* Madkhalism
* Sahwa
* Salafi Modernism
* Muhammad bin Dawud
* Maqrizi

|

Ahl ar-Ra'y
(Ilm al-Kalam)|

* Ashʿari
* Malikis
* Shafi'is
* Abdullah al-Harari – Al-Ahbash
* Maturidi
* Hanafis
* Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi / Rashid Ahmad Gangohi – Deobandi
* Necmettin Erbakan – Millî Görüş

Shia Islam|

| Zaydi Shi'a|

* Zayd bin Ali
* Jarudi
* Batriyya
* Alid dynasties of northern Iran
* Hasan al-Utrush
* Yahya ibn Umar
* Imams of Yemen
* Extinct Zaydi Shi'a sects
* Dukayniyya
* Khalafiyya

|

Imami
Mahdiist
Shi'ite
Sects in
Islam|

| Imami
Twelver|

* Theology of Twelvers
* Ja'fari
* Akhbari
* Usuli
* Shaykhism
* Qizilbash
* Sheikh Haydar / Shah Ismail / Pir Sultan / Kul Nesîmî – Safavid Islam
* Ghulat
* al-Khaṣībī / ibn Nusayr – Alawites
* Astarabadi (Naimi) / Imadaddin Nasimi – Hurufism / Bektashism
* Baktāshism
* Demir Bābā – Alians
* Bābā Rexheb – Hārābātīs

|

Imami
Isma'ilism|

* Fathite
* Abdullah al-Aftah
* Batiniyyah
* Hamdan Qarmat – Sevener Qarmatians
* Hamza / al-Muqtana Baha'uddin / ad-Darazi – Druzes
* Fatimids
* Musta'li
* Tayyibi
* Alavi
* Dawoodi
* Sulaymani
* Hafizi
* Nasir Khusraw al-Qubadiani – Badakhshan Alevism
* Nizari
* Hassan-i Sabbah – Assassins
* Aga Khans – Khojas
* Pir Sadardin – Satpanth

Kaysanites
Shia|

* Mukhtār
* Abū ʿAmra Kaysān
* Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah – Hashimiyya
* Hārbīyya
* ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Hārb ibn al-Kindi
* Janāhiyya
* Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya
* Hārithīyya
* Riyāhīyya
* Sam‘ānīyya
* Bayān ibn Sam‘ān
* Rawendis
* Rezāmīyya
* Abu Muslim
* Sunpadh
* Muḥammirah
* Khurramites
* Babak
* Mazyar
* al-Muqanna
* Ishaq al-Turk
* Khashabiyya Shia

Other Mahdiists|

* An-Nafs Az-Zakiyyah
* Hurufiyya
* Maḥmūd Pasīkhānī – Nuktawiyya
* Shayki
* Nuqta-yi Ula – Bábīyya
* Tawussite Shia
* ʿAjlan ibn Nawus
* Waqifite Shia

Muhakkima
(Arbitration)|

| Kharijites|

* Ajardi
* Abd al-Karīm ibn Adjrād
* Maymunīyyah
* Sa'labīyyah
* Azariqa
* Nafi ibn al-Azraq al-Hānafī al-Handhalī
* Bayhasīyyah
* Abu Bayhas al-Hāytham ibn Jābir
* Najdat
* Najdah ibn 'Amir al-Hānafī
* Sufri
* Abu Qurra
* Abū Yazīd Mukhallad ibn Kayrād al-Nukkari

|

Ibadism|

* 'Abdullāh ibn Ibāḍ al-Tamimi
* Jābir ibn Zayd
* Abu Qudama Yazid ibn Fandin al-Ifrani

Murji'ah
(Hasan ibn
Muḥāmmad
ibn al-
Hanafiyyah)|

| Karrāmīyya|

* Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥāmmad ibn Karrām ibn Arrāk ibn Huzāba ibn al-Barā’ as-Sijjī
* ʿĀbidīyya (ʿUthmān al-ʿĀbid)
* Dhīmmīyya
* Hakāiqīyya
* Haisamīyya (Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad ibn al-Haisam)
* Hīdīyya (Hīd ibn Saif)
* Ishāqīyya (Abū Yaʿqūb Ishāq ibn Mahmashādh)
* Maʿīyya
* Muhājirīyya (Ibrāhīm ibn Muhājir)
* Nūnīyya
* Razīnīyya
* Sauwāqīyya
* Sūramīyya
* Tarā'ifīyya (Ahmad ibn ʿAbdūs at-Tarā'ifī)
* Tūnīyya (Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbdallāh)
* Wāhidīyya
* Zarībīyya

|

Other sects|

* Gaylānīyya
* Gaylān ibn Marwān
* Yūnusīyya
* Yūnus ibn Awn an-Namīrī
* Gassānīyya
* Gassān al-Kūfī
* Tūmanīyya
* Abū Muāz at-Tūmanī
* Sawbānīyya
* Abū Sawbān al-Murjī
* Sālehīyya
* Sāleh ibn Umar
* Shamrīyya
* Abū Shamr
* Ubaydīyya
* Ubayd al-Mūktaib
* Ziyādīyya
* Muhammad ibn Ziyād al-Kūfī

Other Murjīs|

* Al-Harith ibn Surayj
* Sa'id ibn Jubayr
* Hammād ibn Abū Sūlaimān
* Muhārīb ibn Dithār
* Sābit Kutna
* Awn ibn Abdullāh
* Mūsā ibn Abū Kasīr
* Umar ibn Zar
* Salm ibn Sālem
* Hālaf ibn Ayyūb
* Ibrāhim ibn Yousūf
* Nusayr ibn Yahyā
* Ahmad ibn Hārb
* Amr ibn Murrah

Mu'shabbiha|

| Tamsīl|

* Jawārībīyya
* Dāwūd al-Jawāribî
* Hāshwīyya
* Hulmānīyya
* Abū Hulmān al-Fārisī ad-Dimashqī
* Kalandars
* Bārāq Bābā

|

Tasjīm|

* Khāttabīyya
* Bāzīghīyya
* Bāzīgh ibn Mūsā
* Muʿāmmarīyya
* Muʿāmmar ibn Ahmar
* ʿIjlīyya/Umayrīyya
* Umayr ibn Bayān al-ʿIjlī
* Mufāddālīyya
* Mufāddāl ibn Umār as-Sāyrāfī
* Ghurābīyya
* Mānsūrīyya
* Abū Mānsūr al-ʿIjlī
* Mughīrīyya
* Abū Abdillāh Mugīre ibn Sāīd al-ʿIjlī el-Bajalī
* Mukhāmmīsa
* Namiriya
* ‘Ulyanīyya/'Alyaīyya
* Saba'īyya

Qadariyah
(Ma'bad
al-Juhani)|

| Alevism|

* Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar – Malamatiyya / Qalandariyya
* Baba Ishak – Babai revolt
* Balım Sultan – Bektashi Order
* Galip Hassan Kuscuoglu – Rifa`i / Galibi Order

|

Muʿtazila
(Rationalism)|

* Mā’marīyya
* Abū Amr (Abū Mu‘tamīr) Muāmmar ibn Abbād as-Sūlamī
* Bishriyya
* Abū Sahl Bīshr ibn al-Mu‘tamīr al-Hilālī al-Baghdādī
* Abū Abdi’l-Lāh Ahmad ibn Abī Du'ad Faraj ibn Carīr ibn Mâlik al-Iyādī
* Bahshamiyya
* Abū Hāshīm Abdu’s-Salām ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb al-Jubbā'ī
* Huzaylīyya
* Abū’l-Huzayl Muḥāmmad ibn al-Huzayl ibn Abdillāh al-Allāf al-Abdī al-Bāsrī
* Abū Ma‘n Sūmāma ibn Ashras an-Nūmayrī al-Bāsrī al-Baghdādī
* Ikhshīdiyya
* Nazzāmīyya
* Ali al-Aswarī
* Abū Bakr Muḥāmmad ibn Abdillāh ibn Shabīb al-Basrī
* Hābītīyya
* Ahmad ibn Hābīt
* Sumamīyya
* Sumāma ibn Ashras
* Kā‘bīyya
* Abū’l-Kāsīm Abdullāh ibn Ahmad ibn Māhmūd al-Balhī al-Kā‘bī

Quranism|

* Ahle Qur'an
* Kala Kato
* Tolu-e-Islam
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Ghulam Ahmed Pervez
* United Submitters International
* Rashad Khalifa
* Edip Yüksel

Independent
Muslim
beliefs|

| Messianism|

* Ahmadiyya
* Mirza Ghulam
* Kabbalist Dönmes
* Sabbatai Zevi – Sabbatean
* Mahdavīyya
* Muhammad Jaunpuri – Zikris
* Nation of Islam
* Wallace Fard Muhammad's doctrine
* Nur movement
* Said Nursî / Fethullah Gülen – Hizmet

|

Modernism|

* Modernist Salafism
* Muhammad Abduh
* Muhammad Asad
* Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani
* Rashid Rida
* Other Islamic modernists

Taṣawwuf|

* Ṭarīqah
* Ahmed Raza Khan – Barelvi
* Hilmi Tunahan – Süleymancı
* Other orders
* Tawassul

Other beliefs|

* Sadaqah
* Sunnah
* Taqwa
* Tawakkul
* Tewafuq
* Thawab

* Other scholars of Sunni schools of jurisprudence:
* Hanafi
* Hanbali
* Maliki
* Shafi'i
* Zahiri

Template:Shafi'i scholars

* v
* t
* e

People of Khorasan

Scientists|

* Abu Hatam Isfizari
* Abu Maʿshar
* Abu Wafa
* Abu Ubayd Juzjani
* Abu Zayd Balkhi
* Alfraganus
* Ali Qushji
* Avicenna
* Birjandi
* Biruni
* Hasib Marwazi
* Ibn Hayyan
* Abu Ja'far al-Khazin
* Khazini
* Khojandi
* Khwarizmi
* Nasawi
* Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
* Omar Khayyam
* Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī
* Sijzi

Philosophers|

* Algazel
* Amiri
* Avicenna
* Farabi
* Haji Bektash Veli
* Nasir Khusraw
* Sijistani
* Shahrastani

Islamic scholars|

* Abu Dawood
* Abu Hanifa
* Ansari
* Baghavi
* Bayhaqi
* Bazdawi
* Bukhari
* Ghazali
* Hakim Nishapuri
* Ibn Tayfour Sajawandi
* Juwayni
* Marghinani
* Maturidi
* Ibn Mubarak
* Mulla al-Qari
* Muqatil
* Muslim
* Nasafi
* Nasa'i
* Qushayri
* Razi
* Siraj ud-Din Sajawandi
* Sarakhsi
* Shaykh Tusi
* Taftazani
* Tha'labi Nishapuri
* Tirmidhi
* Zamakhshari

Poets and artists|

* Abū-Sa'īd Abul-Khayr
* Anvari
* Aruzi Samarqandi
* Asadi Tusi
* Attar Nishapuri
* Behzad
* Daqiqi
* Farrukhi Sistani
* Ferdowsi
* Jami
* Nasir Khusraw
* Rabia Balkhi
* Rudaki
* Rumi
* Sanā'ī

Historians and
political scientists|

* Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi
* Abu'l-Hasan Isfaraini
* Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah
* Abu Muslim Khorasani
* Abu Sa'id Gardezi
* Ali-Shir Nava'i
* Ata-Malik Juvayni
* Aufi
* Muhammad Bal'ami
* Gawhar Shad
* Ibn Khordadbeh
* Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani
* Khalid ibn Barmak
* Nizam al-Mulk
* Tahir ibn Husayn
* Yahya Barmaki
* Ahmad ibn Nizam al-Mulk
* Shihab al-Nasawi

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