Joseph Smith

Short description: Founder of the Latter Day Saint movement (1805–1844)

Template:Infobox Latter Day Saint biography

Joseph Smith Jr. (December 23, 1805 - June 27, 1844) was an American religious leader and founder of Mormonism and the Latter Day Saint movement. When he was 24, Smith published the Book of Mormon. By the time of his death, 14 years later, he had attracted tens of thousands of followers and founded a religion that continues to the present with millions of global adherents.

Smith was born in Sharon, Vermont. By 1817, he had moved with his family to Western New York, the site of intense religious revivalism during the Second Great Awakening. Smith said he experienced a series of visions, including one in 1820 during which he saw "two personages" (whom he eventually described as God the Father and Jesus Christ), and another in 1823 in which an angel directed him to a buried book of golden plates inscribed with a Judeo-Christian history of an ancient American civilization. In 1830, Smith published what he said was an English translation of these plates called the Book of Mormon. The same year he organized the Church of Christ, calling it a restoration of the early Christian church. Members of the church were later called "Latter Day Saints" or "Mormons", and Smith announced a revelation in 1838 that renamed the church as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.

In 1831, Smith and his followers moved west, planning to build a communal American Zion. They first gathered in Kirtland, Ohio, and established an outpost in Independence, Missouri, which was intended to be Zion's "center place". During the 1830s, Smith sent out missionaries, published revelations, and supervised construction of the Kirtland Temple. Because of the collapse of the church-sponsored Kirtland Safety Society Anti-Banking Company, violent skirmishes with non-Mormon Missourians, and the Mormon extermination order, Smith and his followers established a new settlement at Nauvoo, Illinois, where he became a spiritual and political leader. In 1844, when the Nauvoo Expositor criticized Smith's power and practice of polygamy, Smith and the Nauvoo city council ordered the destruction of their printing press, inflaming anti-Mormon sentiment.[1] Fearing an invasion of Nauvoo, Smith rode to Carthage, Illinois, to stand trial, but he was killed when a mob stormed the jailhouse.

Smith published many revelations and other texts that his followers regard as scripture. His teachings discuss the nature of God, cosmology, family structures, political organization, and religious collectivism. His followers regard him as a prophet comparable to Moses and Elijah. Several religious denominations identify as the continuation of the church that he organized, including The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Community of Christ.

## Contents

* 1 Life
* 1.1 Early years (1805–1827)
* 1.2 Founding a church (1827–1830)
* 1.3 Life in Ohio (1831–1838)
* 1.4 Life in Missouri (1838–39)
* 1.5 Life in Nauvoo, Illinois (1839–1844)
* 1.6 Death
* 2 Legacy
* 2.1 Impact and assessment
* 2.2 Religious denominations
* 3 Family and descendants
* 4 Revelations
* 4.1 Book of Mormon
* 4.2 Moses and Abraham
* 4.3 Other revelations
* 5 Views and teachings
* 5.1 Cosmology and theology
* 5.2 Religious authority and ritual
* 5.3 Theology of family
* 5.3.1 Polygamy
* 5.4 Political views
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 Works
* 10 External links

## Life

### Early years (1805–1827)

Smith was born on December 23, 1805, on the border between South Royalton and Sharon, Vermont, to Lucy Mack Smith and her husband Joseph Smith Sr., a merchant and farmer.[2][3] He was one of 11 children. At the age of seven Smith suffered a crippling bone infection and, after receiving surgery, used crutches for three years.[4] After an ill-fated business venture and three successive years of crop failures culminating in the 1816 Year Without a Summer, the Smith family left Vermont and moved to Western New York, taking out a mortgage on a 100-acre (40 ha) farm in the townships of Palmyra and Manchester.

The region was a hotbed of religious enthusiasm during the Second Great Awakening.[5][6][7][8][9] Between 1817 and 1825, there were several camp meetings and revivals in the Palmyra area.[10][11] Smith's parents disagreed about religion, but the family was caught up in this excitement.[12] Smith said that he became interested in religion by age 12. As a teenager, he may have been sympathetic to Methodism.[13] With other family members, Smith also engaged in religious folk magic, which was a relatively common practice in that time and place.[14] Both his parents and his maternal grandfather reportedly had visions or dreams that they believed communicated messages from God.[15] Smith said that, although he had become concerned about the welfare of his soul, he was confused by the claims of competing religious denominations.[16]

Years later, Smith wrote that he had received a vision that resolved his religious confusion.[17] He said that in 1820, while he had been praying in a wooded area near his home, God and Jesus Christ appeared to him and told him his sins were forgiven and that all contemporary churches had "turned aside from the gospel."[18] Smith said he recounted the experience to a preacher, who dismissed the story with contempt.[19] This first vision would later grow in importance to Smith's followers, who now regard it as the first event in the restoration of Christ's church to Earth. Until the 1840s, however, Smith's accounts of the vision were largely unknown to most Mormons,[20] and Smith himself may have originally considered it a personal conversion.[21]

Smith said he received golden plates from the angel Moroni at the Hill Cumorah.

According to his later accounts, Smith was visited by an angel named Moroni, while praying one night in 1823. Smith said that this angel revealed the location of a buried book made of golden plates, as well as other artifacts, including a breastplate and a set of interpreters composed of two seer stones set in a frame, which had been hidden in a hill near his home.[22] Smith said he attempted to remove the plates the next morning, but was unsuccessful because the angel returned and prevented him.[23] Smith reported that during the next four years, he made annual visits to the hill, but, until the fourth and final visit, each time he returned without the plates.[24]

Meanwhile, the Smith family faced financial hardship, due in part to the death of Smith's oldest brother Alvin, who had assumed a leadership role in the family.[25] Family members supplemented their meager farm income by hiring out for odd jobs and working as treasure seekers, a type of magical supernaturalism common during the period.[26] Smith was said to have an ability to locate lost items by looking into a seer stone, which he also used in treasure hunting, including several unsuccessful attempts to find buried treasure sponsored by a wealthy farmer in Chenango County, New York.[27] In 1826, Smith was brought before a Chenango County court for "glass-looking", or pretending to find lost treasure.[28] The result of the proceeding remains unclear as primary sources report various conflicting outcomes.[29]

Emma Hale Smith married Joseph Smith in 1827.

While boarding at the Hale house in Harmony, Pennsylvania, Smith met and began courting Emma Hale. When Smith proposed marriage, Emma's father, Isaac Hale objected, in part because he believed Smith had no means to support Emma.[30] In his sworn testimony, Isaac Hale wrote that, in addition, he had other reasons for not giving consent to Smith to marry his daughter, one of which was that Smith's "appearance at this time, was that of a careless young man—not very well educated, and very saucy and insolent to his father."[31] Smith and Emma eloped and married on January 18, 1827, after which the couple began boarding with Smith's parents in Manchester. Later that year, when Smith promised to abandon treasure seeking, Hale offered to let the couple live on his property in Harmony and help Smith get started in business.[32]

Smith made his last visit to the hill on September 22, 1827, taking Emma with him.[33] This time, he said he successfully retrieved the plates. He said the angel commanded him not to show the plates to anyone else, but to translate them and publish their translation. Smith said the translation was a religious record of Middle-Eastern indigenous Americans,[34] and were engraved in an unknown language, called reformed Egyptian. He also told associates that he was capable of reading and translating them.[35]

Although Smith had left his treasure hunting company, his former associates believed he had double crossed them and taken the golden plates for himself, which they believed should be joint property.[36] After they ransacked places where they believed the plates could be hidden, Smith decided to leave Palmyra.[37]

### Founding a church (1827–1830)

In October 1827, Smith and Emma moved from Palmyra to Harmony (now Oakland), Pennsylvania, aided by a relatively prosperous neighbor, Martin Harris.[38] Living near his in-laws, Smith transcribed some characters that he said were engraved on the plates and then dictated a translation to Emma.[39]

In February 1828, Harris arrived to assist Smith by transcribing his dictation. Harris also took a sample of the characters to a few prominent scholars, including Charles Anthon. Harris said Anthon initially authenticated the characters and their translation, but then retracted his opinion after learning that Smith claimed to have received the plates from an angel.[40] Anthon denied Harris's account of the meeting, claiming instead that he had tried to convince Harris that he was the victim of a fraud. In any event, Harris returned to Harmony in April 1828, seemingly convinced, and continued as Smith's scribe.[41]

However, by June 1828, Harris began having doubts about the project, fueled in part by his wife's skepticism. Harris persuaded Smith to let him take the existing 116 pages of manuscript to Palmyra to show a few family members, including his wife.[42] Harris lost the manuscript, of which there was no other copy. Smith was devastated not only by the loss of the manuscript, but also the loss of his first son who had died shortly after birth.[43] As punishment for losing the manuscript, Smith said that the angel returned and took away the plates, and revoked his ability to translate. During this period, Smith briefly attended Methodist meetings with his wife, until a cousin of hers objected to inclusion of a "practicing necromancer" on the Methodist class roll.[44]

Cover page of the Book of Mormon, original 1830 edition

Smith said that the angel returned the plates to him in September 1828.[45] In April 1829, he met Oliver Cowdery, who replaced Harris as his scribe, and resumed dictation.[46] They worked full time on the manuscript between April and early June 1829, and then moved to Fayette, New York, where they continued to work at the home of Cowdery's friend, Peter Whitmer.[47] When the narrative described an institutional church and a requirement for baptism, Smith and Cowdery baptized each other.[48] Dictation was completed about July 1, 1829.[49]

Although Smith had previously refused to show the plates to anyone, he told Martin Harris, Oliver Cowdery, and David Whitmer that they would be allowed to see them.[50] These men, known collectively as the Three Witnesses, signed a statement stating that they had been shown the golden plates by an angel, and that the voice of God had confirmed the truth of their translation. Later, a group of Eight Witnesses — composed of male members of the Whitmer and Smith families — issued a statement that they had been shown the golden plates by Smith.[51] According to Smith, the angel Moroni took back the plates once Smith finished using them.

The completed work, titled the Book of Mormon, was published in Palmyra on March 26, 1830, by printer E. B. Grandin. Soon after, on April 6, 1830, Smith and his followers formally organized the Church of Christ, and small branches were established in Palmyra, Fayette, and Colesville, New York.[52] The Book of Mormon brought Smith regional notoriety and opposition from those who remembered the 1826 Chenango County trial.[53] After Cowdery baptized several new church members, the Mormons received threats of mob violence; before Smith could confirm the newly baptized members, he was arrested and brought to trial as a disorderly person.[54] He was acquitted, but soon both he and Cowdery fled to Colesville to escape a gathering mob. In probable reference to this period of flight, Smith said that Peter, James, and John had appeared to him and had ordained him and Cowdery to a higher priesthood.[55]

Smith's authority was undermined when Oliver Cowdery, Hiram Page, and other church members also claimed to receive revelations.[56] In response, Smith dictated a revelation which clarified his office as a prophet and an apostle, and which declared that only he held the ability to give doctrine and scripture for the entire church.[57] Shortly after the conference, Smith dispatched Cowdery, Peter Whitmer, and others on a mission to proselytize Native Americans.[58] Cowdery was also assigned the task of locating the site of the New Jerusalem.[59]

On their way to Missouri, Cowdery's party passed through northeastern Ohio, where Sidney Rigdon and over a hundred followers of his variety of Campbellite Restorationism converted to Mormonism, more than doubling the size of the church.[60] Rigdon soon visited New York and quickly became Smith's primary assistant.[61] With growing opposition in New York, Smith gave a revelation stating that Kirtland was the eastern boundary of the New Jerusalem, and that his followers must gather there.[62]

### Life in Ohio (1831–1838)

When Smith moved to Kirtland, Ohio in January 1831, he encountered a religious culture that included enthusiastic demonstrations of spiritual gifts, including fits and trances, rolling on the ground, and speaking in tongues.[63] Smith brought the Kirtland congregation under his own authority and tamed these outbursts. Rigdon's followers had also been practicing a form of communalism, which Smith adopted, calling it the United Order.[64] Smith had promised church elders that in Kirtland they would receive an endowment of heavenly power, and at the June 1831 general conference, he introduced the greater authority of a High ("Melchizedek") Priesthood to the church hierarchy.[65]

A mob tarred and feathered Smith in 1832.

Converts poured into Kirtland. By the summer of 1835, there were fifteen hundred to two thousand Mormons in the vicinity, many expecting Smith to lead them shortly to the Millennial kingdom.[66] Though his mission to the Indians had been a failure, Cowdery reported that he had found the site of the New Jerusalem in Jackson County, Missouri.[67] After Smith visited in July 1831, he agreed, pronouncing the frontier hamlet of Independence the "center place" of Zion.[68] Rigdon, however, disapproved, and for most of the 1830s the church remained divided between Ohio and Missouri.[69] Smith continued to live in Ohio, but visited Missouri again in early 1832 to prevent a rebellion of prominent church members who believed the church in Missouri was being neglected.[70] Smith's trip was also hastened by a mob of Ohio residents who were incensed over the United Order and Smith's political power; the mob beat Smith and Rigdon unconscious, tarred and feathered them, and left them for dead.[71]

In Jackson County, existing Missouri residents resented the Mormon newcomers for both political and religious reasons.[72] Tension increased until July 1833, when non-Mormons forcibly evicted the Mormons and destroyed their property. Smith advised them to bear the violence patiently until after they were attacked multiple times, after which they could fight back.[73] After armed bands exchanged fire, killing one Mormon and two non-Mormons, the old settlers brutally expelled the Mormons from the county.[74]

Smith ended the communitarian experiment and changed the name of the church to the "Church of Latter Day Saints", before leading a small paramilitary expedition called Zion's Camp, to aid the Missouri Mormons.[75] As a military endeavor, the expedition was a failure; the men were outnumbered and suffered from dissension and a cholera outbreak.[76] Nevertheless, Zion's Camp transformed Mormon leadership, and many future church leaders came from among the participants.[77]

After the Camp returned, Smith drew heavily from its participants to establish five governing bodies in the church, all originally of equal authority to check one another. Among these five groups was a quorum of twelve apostles.[78] Smith gave a revelation saying that to redeem Zion, his followers would have to receive an endowment in the Kirtland Temple.[79] In March 1836, at the temple's dedication, many participants in the endowment reported seeing visions of angels, speaking in tongues, and prophesying.[80]

Smith dedicated the Kirtland Temple in 1836.

In late 1837, a series of internal disputes led to the collapse of the Kirtland Mormon community.[81] Smith was blamed for having promoted a church-sponsored bank that failed. He was also being accused by Assistant President of the Church Oliver Cowdery[82] of engaging in a sexual relationship with a teenage servant in his home, Fanny Alger.[83] Building the temple had left the church deeply in debt, and Smith was hounded by creditors.[84] Having heard of a large sum of money supposedly hidden in Salem, Massachusetts, Smith traveled there and received a revelation that God had "much treasure in this city".[85] After a month, however, he returned to Kirtland empty-handed.[86]

In January 1837, Smith and other church leaders created a joint stock company, called the Kirtland Safety Society Anti-Banking Company, to act as a quasi-bank; the company issued bank notes capitalized in part by real estate.[87] Smith encouraged the Latter Day Saints to buy the notes, and he invested heavily in them himself, but the bank failed within a month.[88] As a result, the Latter Day Saints in Kirtland suffered intense pressure from debt collectors and severe price volatility. Smith was held responsible for the failure, and there were widespread defections from the church, including many of Smith's closest advisers.[89] After a warrant was issued for Smith's arrest on a charge of banking fraud, Smith and Rigdon fled Kirtland for Missouri in January 1838.[90]

### Life in Missouri (1838–39)

By 1838, Smith had abandoned plans to redeem Zion in Jackson County, and after Smith and Rigdon arrived in Missouri, the town of Far West became the new "Zion".[91] In Missouri, the church also took the name "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints", and construction began on a new temple.[92] In the weeks and months after Smith and Rigdon arrived at Far West, thousands of Latter Day Saints followed them from Kirtland.[93] Smith encouraged the settlement of land outside Caldwell County, instituting a settlement in Adam-ondi-Ahman, in Daviess County.

During this time, a church council expelled many of the oldest and most prominent leaders of the church, including John Whitmer, David Whitmer, W. W. Phelps, and Oliver Cowdery.[94] Smith explicitly approved of the expulsion of these men, who were known collectively as the "dissenters".[95]

Political and religious differences between old Missourians and newly arriving Mormon settlers provoked tensions between the two groups, much as they had years earlier in Jackson County. By this time, Smith's experiences with mob violence led him to believe that his faith's survival required greater militancy against anti-Mormons.[96] Around June 1838, recent convert Sampson Avard formed a covert organization called the Danites to intimidate Mormon dissenters and oppose anti-Mormon militia units.[97] Though it is unclear how much Smith knew of the Danites' activities, he clearly approved of those of which he did know.[98] After Rigdon delivered a sermon that implied dissenters had no place in the Mormon community, the Danites forcibly expelled them from the county.[99]

In a speech given at the town's Fourth of July celebration, Rigdon declared that Mormons would no longer tolerate persecution by the Missourians and spoke of a "war of extermination" if Mormons were attacked.[100] Smith implicitly endorsed this speech,[101] and many non-Mormons understood it to be a thinly veiled threat. They unleashed a flood of anti-Mormon rhetoric in newspapers and in stump speeches given during the 1838 election campaign.[102]

On August 6, 1838, non-Mormons in Gallatin tried to prevent Mormons from voting,[103] and the election-day scuffles initiated the 1838 Mormon War. Non-Mormon vigilantes raided and burned Mormon farms, while Danites and other Mormons pillaged non-Mormon towns.[104] In the Battle of Crooked River, a group of Mormons attacked the Missouri state militia, mistakenly believing them to be anti-Mormon vigilantes. Governor Lilburn Boggs then ordered that the Mormons be "exterminated or driven from the state".[105] On October 30, a party of Missourians surprised and killed seventeen Mormons in the Haun's Mill massacre.[106]

Smith was held for four months in Liberty jail.

The following day, the Latter Day Saints surrendered to 2,500 state troops and agreed to forfeit their property and leave the state.[107] Smith was immediately brought before a military court, accused of treason, and sentenced to be executed the next morning; Alexander Doniphan, who was Smith's former attorney and a brigadier general in the Missouri militia, refused to carry out the order.[108] Smith was then sent to a state court for a preliminary hearing, where several of his former allies testified against him.[109] Smith and five others, including Rigdon, were charged with "overt acts of treason", and transferred to the jail at Liberty, Missouri, to await trial.[110]

Smith's months in prison with an ill and whining Rigdon strained their relationship. Meanwhile, Brigham Young, the president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, rose to prominence when he organized the move of about 14,000 Mormon refugees to Illinois and eastern Iowa.[111]

Smith bore his imprisonment stoically. Understanding that he was effectively on trial before his own people, many of whom considered him a fallen prophet, he wrote a personal defense and an apology for the activities of the Danites. "The keys of the kingdom," he wrote, "have not been taken away from us".[112] Though he directed his followers to collect and publish their stories of persecution, he also urged them to moderate their antagonism toward non-Mormons.[113] On April 6, 1839, after a grand jury hearing in Davis County, Smith and his companions escaped custody, almost certainly with the connivance of the sheriff and guards.[114]

### Life in Nauvoo, Illinois (1839–1844)

Many American newspapers criticized Missouri for the Haun's Mill massacre and the state's expulsion of the Latter Day Saints. Illinois accepted Mormon refugees who gathered along the banks of the Mississippi River,[115] where Smith purchased high-priced, swampy woodland in the hamlet of Commerce.[116] Smith also attempted to portray the Latter Day Saints as an oppressed minority, and unsuccessfully petitioned the federal government for help in obtaining reparations.[117] During the summer of 1839, while Latter Day Saints in Nauvoo suffered from a malaria epidemic, Smith sent Brigham Young and other apostles to missions in Europe, where they made numerous converts, many of them poor factory workers.[118]

Depiction of Smith at head of the Nauvoo Legion

Smith also attracted a few wealthy and influential converts, including John C. Bennett, the Illinois quartermaster general.[119] Bennett used his connections in the Illinois legislature to obtain an unusually liberal charter for the new city, which Smith renamed "Nauvoo" (Hebrew נָאווּ, meaning "to be beautiful").[120] The charter granted the city virtual autonomy, authorized a university, and granted Nauvoo habeas corpus power—which allowed Smith to fend off extradition to Missouri.[121] Though Mormon authorities controlled Nauvoo's civil government, the city promised an unusually liberal guarantee of religious freedom.[122] The charter also authorized the Nauvoo Legion, an autonomous militia whose actions were limited only by state and federal constitutions. "Lieutenant General" Smith and "Major General" Bennett became its commanders, thereby controlling by far the largest body of armed men in Illinois.[123] Smith made Bennett Assistant President of the church, and Bennett was elected Nauvoo's first mayor.[124]

In 1841, Smith began revealing the doctrine of plural marriage to a few of his closest male associates, including Bennett, who used it as an excuse to seduce numerous women wed and unwed.[125] When embarrassing rumors of "spiritual wifery" got abroad, Smith forced Bennett's resignation as Nauvoo mayor. In retaliation, Bennett left Smith's following and wrote "lurid exposés of life in Nauvoo".[126]

Smith planned the construction of the Nauvoo Temple, which was completed after his death.

The early Nauvoo years were a period of doctrinal innovation. Smith introduced baptism for the dead in 1840, and in 1841, construction began on the Nauvoo Temple as a place for recovering lost ancient knowledge.[127] An 1841 revelation promised the restoration of the "fulness of the priesthood"; and in May 1842, Smith inaugurated a revised endowment or "first anointing".[128] The endowment resembled rites of freemasonry that Smith had observed two months earlier when he had been initiated "at sight" into the Nauvoo Masonic lodge.[129] At first, the endowment was open only to men, who were initiated into a special group called the Anointed Quorum. For women, Smith introduced the Relief Society, a service club and sorority within which Smith predicted women would receive "the keys of the kingdom".[130] Smith also elaborated on his plan for a millennial kingdom. No longer envisioning the building of Zion in Nauvoo, Smith viewed Zion as encompassing all of North and South America, with Mormon settlements being "stakes" of Zion's metaphorical tent.[131] Zion also became less a refuge from an impending tribulation than a great building project.[132] In the summer of 1842, Smith revealed a plan to establish the millennial Kingdom of God, which would eventually establish theocratic rule over the whole Earth.[133]

By mid-1842, popular opinion had turned against the Mormons. After an unknown assailant shot and wounded Missouri governor Lilburn Boggs in May 1842, anti-Mormons circulated rumors that Smith's bodyguard, Porter Rockwell, was the shooter.[134] Though the evidence was circumstantial, Boggs ordered Smith's extradition. Certain he would be killed if he ever returned to Missouri, Smith went into hiding twice during the next five months, before the U.S. district attorney for Illinois argued that Smith's extradition to Missouri would be unconstitutional.[135] (Rockwell was later tried and acquitted.) In June 1843, enemies of Smith convinced a reluctant Illinois Governor Thomas Ford to extradite Smith to Missouri on an old charge of treason. Two law officers arrested Smith, but were intercepted by a party of Mormons before they could reach Missouri. Smith was then released on a writ of habeas corpus from the Nauvoo municipal court.[136] While this ended the Missourians' attempts at extradition, it caused significant political fallout in Illinois.[137]

In December 1843, Smith petitioned Congress to make Nauvoo an independent territory with the right to call out federal troops in its defense.[138] Smith then wrote to the leading presidential candidates and asked them what they would do to protect the Mormons. After receiving noncommittal or negative responses, Smith announced his own independent candidacy for President of the United States, suspended regular proselytizing, and sent out the Quorum of the Twelve and hundreds of other political missionaries.[139] In March 1844 — following a dispute with a federal bureaucrat — Smith organized the secret Council of Fifty. Smith said the Council had authority to decide which national or state laws Mormons should obey.[140] The Council was also to select a site for a large Mormon settlement in Texas , California , or Oregon, where Mormons could live under theocratic law beyond other governmental control.[141]

### Death

A 19th-century painting depicting the mob attack inside Carthage Jail

By early 1844, a rift developed between Smith and a half dozen of his closest associates.[142] Most notably, William Law, Smith's trusted counselor, and Robert Foster, a general of the Nauvoo Legion, disagreed with Smith about how to manage Nauvoo's economy.[143] Both also said that Smith had proposed marriage to their wives.[144] Believing the dissidents were plotting against his life, Smith excommunicated them on April 18, 1844.[145] These dissidents formed a competing church and the following month, at Carthage, the county seat, they procured indictments against Smith for perjury and polygamy.[146]

On June 7, the dissidents published the first (and only) issue of the Nauvoo Expositor, calling for reform within the church and appealing to the political views of the county's other faiths as well as those of former Mormons.[147] The paper decried Smith's new "doctrines of many Gods", alluded to Smith's theocratic aspirations, and called for a repeal of the Nauvoo city charter.[148] It also attacked Smith's practice of polygamy, implying that Smith was using religion as a pretext to draw unassuming women to Nauvoo in order to seduce and marry them.[149]

Fearing the newspaper would bring the countryside down on the Mormons, the Nauvoo city council declared the Expositor a public nuisance and ordered the Nauvoo Legion to destroy the press.[150] Smith, who feared another mob attack, supported the action, not realizing that destroying a newspaper was more likely to incite an attack than any of the Expositor accusations.[151]

Smith was shot multiple times before and after falling from the window.[152]

Destruction of the newspaper provoked a strident call to arms from Thomas C. Sharp, editor of the Warsaw Signal and longtime critic of Smith.[153] Fearing an uprising, Smith mobilized the Nauvoo Legion on June 18 and declared martial law. Officials in Carthage responded by mobilizing their small detachment of the state militia, and Governor Thomas Ford appeared, threatening to raise a larger militia unless Smith and the Nauvoo city council surrendered themselves.[154] Smith initially fled across the Mississippi River, but shortly returned and surrendered to Ford.[155] On June 23, Smith and his brother Hyrum rode to Carthage to stand trial for inciting a riot.[156] Once the Smiths were in custody, the charges were increased to treason, preventing them from posting bail.[157]

Gravesite of Joseph, Emma, and Hyrum Smith, in Nauvoo, Illinois

On June 27, 1844, an armed mob with blackened faces stormed Carthage Jail where Joseph and Hyrum were being held. Hyrum, who was trying to secure the door, was killed instantly with a shot to the face. Smith fired three shots from a pepper-box pistol that his friend, Cyrus Wheelock, had lent him, wounding three men,[158][159] before he sprang for the window.[160] He was shot multiple times before falling out the window, crying, "Oh Lord my God!" He died shortly after hitting the ground, but was shot several more times before the mob dispersed.[161] Five men were later tried for Smith's murder, but were all acquitted.[162] Smith was buried in Nauvoo, and is interred there at the Smith Family Cemetery.[163]

After his death, non-Mormon newspapers were almost unanimous in portraying Smith as a religious fanatic.[164] Conversely, within Mormonism, Smith was remembered first and foremost as a prophet, martyred to seal the testimony of his faith.[165]

## Legacy

### Impact and assessment

Smith attracted thousands of devoted followers before his death in 1844, and millions in the century that followed.[166] Among Mormons, he is regarded as a prophet on par with Moses and Elijah.[167] In a 2015 compilation of the 100 Most Significant Americans of All Time, Smithsonian magazine ranked Smith first in the category of religious figures.[168]

Mormons and non-Mormons have produced a large amount of scholarly work about Smith. To a large extent two discordant pictures have emerged of very different men: a man of God on the one hand, and on the other, a fraud preying on the ignorance of his followers.[169] Believers tend to focus on Smith's achievements and religious teachings, minimizing his personal defects, while detractors focus on his mistakes, legal troubles, and controversial doctrines. During the first half of the 20th century, some writers suggested that Smith might have suffered from epileptic seizures or from psychological disorders, such as paranoid delusions or bipolar disorder (manic-depressive) illness that might explain his visions and revelations.[170] Many modern biographers disagree with these ideas.[171] More nuanced interpretations include viewing Smith as: a prophet who had normal human weaknesses; a "pious fraud" who believed he was called of God to preach repentance and felt justified inventing visions in order to convert people;[172] or a gifted "mythmaker" who was the product of his Yankee environment.[173] Biographers – Mormon and non-Mormon alike – agree that Smith was one of the most influential, charismatic, and innovative figures in American religious history.[174]

Buildings named in honor of Smith

The Joseph Smith Memorial Building in Salt Lake City

The Joseph Smith Building on the campus of Brigham Young University

Memorials to Smith include the Joseph Smith Memorial Building in Salt Lake City, Utah, the Joseph Smith Building on the campus of Brigham Young University, and a granite obelisk marking his birthplace.

### Religious denominations

Smith's death resulted in a succession crisis.[175] Smith had proposed several ways to choose his successor, but had never clarified his preference.[176] Smith's brother Hyrum, had he survived, would have had the strongest claim, followed by Smith's brother Samuel, who died mysteriously a month after his brothers.[177] Another brother, William, was unable to attract a sufficient following.[178] Smith's sons Joseph III and David would also have claims, but Joseph III was too young and David was born after Smith's death.[179] The Council of Fifty had a theoretical claim to succession, but it was a secret organization.[180] Some of Smith's chosen successors, such as Oliver Cowdery and David Whitmer, had already left the church.[181]

The two strongest succession candidates were Brigham Young, senior member and president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, and Sidney Rigdon, the senior member of the First Presidency. In a church-wide conference on August 8, most of the Latter Day Saints elected Young, who led them to the Salt Lake Valley as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).[182] Membership in Young's denomination surpassed 16 million members in 2018.[183] Smaller groups followed Sidney Rigdon and James J. Strang, who had based his claim on an allegedly forged letter of appointment.[184] Others followed Lyman Wight and Alpheus Cutler.[185] Many members of these smaller groups, including most of Smith's family, eventually coalesced in 1860 under the leadership of Joseph Smith III and formed what was known for more than a century as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (now the Community of Christ), which now has about 250,000 members. As of 2013[update], members of the denominations originating from Smith's teachings number approximately 16.3 million.[186]

## Family and descendants

The first of Smith's wives, Emma Hale, gave birth to nine children during their marriage, five of whom died before the age of two. The eldest, Alvin (born in 1828), died within hours of birth, as did twins Thaddeus and Louisa (born in 1831). When the twins died, the Smiths adopted another set of twins, Julia and Joseph, whose mother had recently died in childbirth; Joseph died of measles in 1832.[187] In 1841, Don Carlos, who had been born a year earlier, died of malaria. In 1842, Emma gave birth to a stillborn son. Joseph and Emma had four sons who lived to maturity: Joseph Smith III, Frederick Granger Williams Smith, Alexander Hale Smith, and David Hyrum Smith.[188] Some historians have speculated--based on journal entries and family stories--that Smith fathered children with his plural wives. However, all DNA testing of potential Smith descendants from wives other than Emma has been negative.[189]

Throughout her life, Emma Smith frequently denied that her husband had ever taken additional wives.[190] Emma said that the very first time she ever became aware of a polygamy revelation being attributed to Smith by Mormons was when she read about it in Orson Pratt's periodical The Seer in 1853.[191] Emma campaigned publicly against polygamy, and was the main signatory of a petition in 1842, with a thousand female signatures, denying that Smith was connected with polygamy. As president of the Ladies' Relief Society, Emma authorized publishing a certificate in the same year denouncing polygamy, and denying her husband as its creator or participant.[192] Even on her deathbed, Emma denied Joseph's involvement with polygamy, stating, "No such thing as polygamy, or spiritual wifery, was taught, publicly or privately, before my husband's death, that I have now, or ever had any knowledge of ... He had no other wife but me; nor did he to my knowledge ever have".[193]

After Smith's death, Emma Smith quickly became alienated from Brigham Young and the church leadership.[194] Young, whom Emma feared and despised, was suspicious of her desire to preserve the family's assets from inclusion with those of the church, and thought she would be even more troublesome because she openly opposed plural marriage.[195] When most Latter Day Saints moved west, she stayed in Nauvoo, married a non-Mormon, Major Lewis C. Bidamon,[196] and withdrew from religion until 1860, when she affiliated with the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, first headed by her son, Joseph Smith III. Emma never denied Smith's prophetic gift or repudiated her belief in the authenticity of the Book of Mormon.[197]

## Revelations

An artistic representation of the golden plates with the Urim and Thummim connected to a breastplate, based on descriptions by Smith and others

According to the American historian and Mormonism expert Richard Bushman, the "signal feature" of Smith's life was "his sense of being guided by revelation". Instead of presenting his ideas with logical arguments, Smith dictated authoritative scripture-like "revelations" and let people decide whether to believe.[198] Smith and his followers treated his revelations as being above teachings or opinions, and Smith acted as though he believed in his revelations as much as his followers.[199] In fact Smith's first recorded revelation was a rebuke chastising Smith for having let Martin Harris lose 116 pages of Book of Mormon manuscript.[200] The revelation was written as if God were talking rather than as a declaration mediated through Smith; and subsequent revelations assumed a similar authoritative style, often opening with words such as "Hearken O ye people which profess my name, saith the Lord your God."[201]

### Book of Mormon

Main article: Religion:Book of Mormon

The Book of Mormon has been called the longest and most complex of Smith's revelations.[202] It is organized as a compilation of smaller books, each named after its main named narrator or a prominent leader. It tells the story of the rise and fall of a religious civilization beginning about 600 BC and ending in 421 AD.[203] The story begins with a family that leaves Jerusalem, just before the Babylonian captivity.[204] They eventually construct a ship and sail to a "promised land" in the Western Hemisphere.[205] There, they are divided into two factions: Nephites and Lamanites. The Nephites become a righteous people who build a temple and live the law of Moses, though their prophets teach a Christian gospel. The book explains itself to be largely the work of Mormon, a Nephite prophet and military figure. The book closes when Mormon's son, Moroni, finishes engraving and buries the records written on the golden plates.[206]

Christian themes permeate the work; for instance, Nephite prophets in the Book of Mormon teach of Christ's coming, and talk of the star that will appear at his birth.[207] After the crucifixion and resurrection in Jerusalem, Jesus appears in the Americas, repeats the Sermon on the Mount, blesses children, and appoints twelve disciples. The book ends with Moroni's exhortation to "come unto Christ".[208]

Early Mormons understood the Book of Mormon to be a religious history of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Smith's followers view it as a companion to the Bible and an additional witness of Christ, akin to a large apocryphal work.[209] Modern historian Fawn Brodie has called the Book of Mormon a response to pressing cultural and environmental issues of Smith's times, saying that Smith composed the Book of Mormon drawing from scraps of information available to him. Dan Vogel, another historian, says that the work is autobiographical in nature.[210]

According to some accounts, including that of his wife Emma, Smith dictated most of the Book of Mormon by looking into a seer stone placed in a stovepipe hat.

Smith never said how he produced the Book of Mormon, saying only that he translated by the power of God and implying that he had transcribed the words.[211] The Book of Mormon itself states only that its text will "come forth by the gift and power of God unto the interpretation thereof".[212] Accordingly, there is considerable disagreement about the actual method used. For at least some of the earliest dictation, Smith is said to have used the "Urim and Thummim", a pair of seer stones he said were buried with the plates.[213] Later, however, he is said to have used a chocolate-colored stone he had found in 1822 that he had used previously for treasure hunting.[214] Joseph Knight said that Smith saw the words of the translation while he gazed at the stone or stones in the bottom of his hat, excluding all light, a process similar to divining the location of treasure.[215] Sometimes, Smith concealed the process by raising a curtain or dictating from another room, while at other times he dictated in full view of witnesses while the plates lay covered on the table.[216] After completing the translation, Smith gave the brown stone to Cowdery, but continued to receive revelations using another stone until about 1833 when he said he no longer needed it.[217]

Although the Book of Mormon drew many converts to the church, Fawn Brodie argued that the "book lives today because of the prophet, not he because of the book."[218] Smith had assumed a role as prophet, seer, and apostle of Jesus Christ, and by early 1831, he was introducing himself as "Joseph the Prophet".[219] The language of authority in Smith's revelations was appealing to converts, and the revelations were given with the confidence of an Old Testament prophet.[220]

### Moses and Abraham

Main articles: Religion:Book of Moses and Religion:Book of Abraham

Smith said that in June 1830, he received a "revelation of Moses" in which Moses saw "the world and the ends thereof" and asked God questions about the purpose of creation and man's relationship to God. This revelation initiated a revision of the Bible on which Smith worked sporadically until 1833 and which remained unpublished at his death.[221] Smith said that the Bible had been corrupted through the ages, and that his revision worked to restore the original intent; it added long passages rewritten "according to his inspiration".[222] While many changes involved straightening out seeming contradictions or making small clarifications, other changes added large "lost" portions to the text.[223] For instance, Smith's revision nearly tripled the length of the first five chapters of Genesis in what would become the Book of Moses.[224]

The Book of Moses begins with Moses' asking God about the purpose of creation. Moses is told in this account that God made the Earth and heavens to bring humans to eternal life. The book also provides an enlarged account of the Genesis creation narrative and expands the story of Enoch, the ancestor of Noah. In the narrative, Enoch speaks with God, receives a prophetic calling, and eventually builds a city of Zion so righteous that it was taken to heaven.[225] The book also elaborates and expands upon foreshadowing the coming of Christ, in effect Christianizing the Old Testament.[226]

In 1835, Smith encouraged some Latter Day Saints in Kirtland to purchase rolls of ancient Egyptian papyri from a traveling exhibitor. Smith said they contained the writings of the ancient patriarchs Abraham and Joseph. Over the next several years, Smith worked to produce what he reported was a translation of one of these rolls, which was published in 1842 as the Book of Abraham.[227] The Book of Abraham speaks of the founding of the Abrahamic nation, astronomy, cosmology, lineage and priesthood, and gives another account of the creation story.[228] The papyri from which Smith dictated the Book of Abraham were thought to have been lost in the Great Chicago Fire. However, several fragments were rediscovered in the 1960s, were translated by Egyptologists, and were determined to be part of the Book of Breathing with no connection to Abraham.[229] The LDS Church has proposed that Smith might have been inspired by the papyri rather than have been translating them literally,[230] but prominent Egyptologists note that Smith copied characters from the scrolls and was specific about their meaning.[231]

### Other revelations

[The Holy Spirit] may give you sudden strokes of ideas, so that by noticing it, you may find it fulfilled the same day or soon; those things that were presented unto your minds by the Spirit of God, will come to pass.

—Joseph Smith[232]

According to Parley P. Pratt, Smith dictated revelations orally, and they were recorded by a scribe without revisions or corrections.[233] Revelations were immediately copied, and then circulated among church members. Smith's revelations often came in response to specific questions. He described the revelatory process as having "pure Intelligence" flowing into him. Smith, however, never viewed the wording to be infallible. The revelations were not God's words verbatim, but "couched in language suitable to Joseph's time".[234] In 1833, Smith edited and expanded many of the previous revelations, publishing them as the Book of Commandments, which later became part of the Doctrine and Covenants.[235]

Smith gave varying types of revelations. Some were temporal, while others were spiritual or doctrinal. Some were received for a specific individual, while others were directed at the whole church. An 1831 revelation called "The Law" contained: directions for missionary work; rules for organizing society in Zion; a reiteration of the Ten Commandments; an injunction to "administer to the poor and needy"; and an outline for the law of consecration.[236] An 1832 revelation called "The Vision" added to the fundamentals of sin and atonement, and introduced doctrines of life after salvation, exaltation, and a heaven with degrees of glory.[237] Another 1832 revelation "on Priesthood" was the first to explain priesthood doctrine.[238] Three months later, Smith gave a lengthy revelation called the "Olive Leaf" containing themes of cosmology and eschatology, and discussing subjects such as light, truth, intelligence, and sanctification; a related revelation given in 1833 put Christ at the center of salvation.[239]

Also in 1833, at a time of temperance agitation, Smith delivered a revelation called the "Word of Wisdom", which counseled a diet of wholesome herbs, fruits, grains, a sparing use of meat. It also recommended that Latter Day Saints avoid "strong" alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and "hot drinks" (later interpreted to mean tea and coffee).[240] The Word of Wisdom was not originally framed as a commandment, but a recommendation. As such, it was not strictly followed by Smith and other Latter Day Saints, though it later became a requirement in the LDS Church.[241] In 1835, Smith gave the "great revelation" that organized the priesthood into quorums and councils, and functioned as a complex blueprint for church structure.[242] Smith's last revelation, on the "New and Everlasting Covenant", was recorded in 1843, and dealt with the theology of family, the doctrine of sealing, and plural marriage.[243]

Before 1832, most of Smith's revelations dealt with establishing the church, gathering his followers, and building the City of Zion. Later revelations dealt primarily with the priesthood, endowment, and exaltation.[244] The pace of formal revelations slowed during the autumn of 1833, and again after the dedication of the Kirtland Temple.[245] Smith moved away from formal written revelations spoken in God's voice, and instead taught more in sermons, conversations, and letters.[246] For instance, the doctrines of baptism for the dead and the nature of God were introduced in sermons, and one of Smith's most famed statements about there being "no such thing as immaterial matter" was recorded from a casual conversation with a Methodist preacher.[247]

## Views and teachings

Smith's later theology described Jesus and God the Father as two distinct physical beings.

### Cosmology and theology

Smith taught that all existence was material, including a world of "spirit matter" so fine that it was invisible to all but the purest mortal eyes.[248] Matter, in Smith's view, could be neither created nor destroyed; the creation involved only the reorganization of existing matter. Like matter, Smith saw "intelligence" as co-eternal with God, and taught that human spirits had been drawn from a pre-existent pool of eternal intelligences.[249] Nevertheless, spirits could not experience a "fullness of joy" unless joined with corporeal bodies, according to Smith. The work and glory of God, then, was to create worlds across the cosmos where inferior intelligences could be embodied.[250]

Though Smith initially viewed God the Father as a spirit,[251] he eventually began teaching that God was an advanced and glorified man,[252] embodied within time and space.[253] By the end of his life, Smith was teaching that both God the Father and Jesus were distinct beings with physical bodies, but the Holy Spirit was a "personage of Spirit".[254] Through the gradual acquisition of knowledge, according to Smith, those who received exaltation could eventually become like God.[255] These teachings implied a vast hierarchy of gods, with God himself having a father.[256] In Smith's cosmology, those who became gods would reign, unified in purpose and will, leading spirits of lesser capacity to share immortality and eternal life.[257]

In Smith's view, the opportunity to achieve exaltation extended to all humanity; those who died with no opportunity to accept saving ordinances could achieve exaltation by accepting them in the afterlife through proxy ordinances performed on their behalf.[258] Smith said that children who died in their innocence would be guaranteed to rise at the resurrection and receive exaltation. Apart from those who committed the eternal sin, Smith taught that even the wicked and disbelieving would achieve a degree of glory in the afterlife.[259]

### Religious authority and ritual

Smith's teachings were rooted in dispensational restorationism.[260] He taught that the Church of Christ restored through him was a latter-day restoration of the early Christian faith, which had been lost in the Great Apostasy.[261] At first, Smith's church had little sense of hierarchy; his religious authority was derived from visions and revelations.[262] Though Smith did not claim exclusive prophethood, an early revelation designated him as the only prophet allowed to issue commandments "as Moses".[263] This religious authority encompassed economic and political as well as spiritual matters. For instance, in the early 1830s, he temporarily instituted a form of religious communism, called the United Order, that required Latter Day Saints to give to the church all their property, to be divided among the faithful.[264] He also envisioned that the theocratic institutions he established would have a role in the worldwide political organization of the Millennium.[265]

By the mid-1830s, Smith began teaching a hierarchy of three priesthoods—the Melchizedek, the Aaronic, and the Patriarchal.[266] Each priesthood was a continuation of biblical priesthoods through patrilineal succession or ordination by biblical figures appearing in visions.[267] Upon introducing the Melchizedek or "High" Priesthood in 1831, Smith taught that its recipients would be "endowed with power from on high", thus fulfilling a need for a greater holiness and an authority commensurate with the New Testament apostles.[268] This doctrine of endowment evolved through the 1830s, until in 1842, the Nauvoo endowment included an elaborate ceremony containing elements similar to Freemasonry and the Jewish tradition of Kabbalah.[269] The endowment was extended to women in 1843, though Smith never clarified whether women could be ordained to priesthood offices.[270]

Smith taught that the High Priesthood's endowment of heavenly power included the sealing powers of Elijah, allowing High Priests to effect binding consequences in the afterlife.[271] For example, this power would enable proxy baptisms for the dead and priesthood marriages that would be effective into the afterlife.[272] Elijah's sealing powers also enabled the second anointing, or "fulness [sic] of the priesthood", which, according to Smith, sealed married couples to their exaltation.[273]

### Theology of family

During the early 1840s, Smith unfolded a theology of family relations called the "New and Everlasting Covenant" that superseded all earthly bonds.[274] He taught that outside the Covenant, marriages were simply matters of contract, and that in the afterlife individuals married outside the Covenant or not married would be limited in their progression.[275] To fully enter the Covenant, a man and woman must participate in a "first anointing", a "sealing" ceremony, and a "second anointing" (also called "sealing by the Holy Spirit of Promise").[276] When fully sealed into the Covenant, Smith said that no sin nor blasphemy (other than the eternal sin) could keep them from their exaltation in the afterlife.[277] According to Smith, only one person on Earth at a time—in this case, Smith—could possess this power of sealing.[278]

Profile portrait of Smith, by Bathsheba W. Smith, created circa 1843

Smith taught that the highest level of exaltation could be achieved through "plural marriage" (polygamy), which was the ultimate manifestation of this New and Everlasting Covenant.[279] Plural marriage, according to Smith, allowed an individual to transcend the angelic state and become a god, accelerating the expansion of one's heavenly kingdom.[280]

#### Polygamy

By some accounts, Smith had been teaching a polygamy doctrine as early as 1831, and there is unconfirmed evidence that Smith was a polygamist by 1835.[281][282] Although the church had publicly repudiated polygamy, in 1837 there was a rift between Smith and Oliver Cowdery over the issue.[283] Cowdery suspected Smith had engaged in a relationship with his serving girl, Fanny Alger.[284] Smith never denied a relationship, but insisted it was not adulterous, presumably because he had taken Alger as an additional wife.[285]

In April 1841, Smith wed Louisa Beaman. During the next two-and-a-half years he married or was sealed to about 30 additional women,[286] ten of whom were already married to other men. Some of these polyandrous marriages were done with the consent of the first husbands, and some plural marriages may have been considered "eternity-only" sealings (meaning that the marriage would not take effect until after death).[287] Ten of Smith's plural wives were between the ages of fourteen and twenty; others were over fifty.[288] The practice of polygamy was kept secret from both non-Mormons and most members of the church during Smith's lifetime.[289]

Polygamy caused a breach between Smith and his first wife, Emma.[290] Although Emma knew of some of her husband's marriages, she almost certainly did not know the extent of his polygamous activities.[291] In 1843, Emma temporarily accepted Smith's marriage to four women boarded in the Smith household, but soon regretted her decision and demanded the other wives leave.[292] In July 1843, Smith dictated a revelation directing Emma to accept plural marriage,[293] but the two were not reconciled until September 1843, after Emma began participating in temple ceremonies.[294]

### Political views

While campaigning for President of the United States in 1844, Smith had opportunity to take political positions on issues of the day. Smith considered the U.S. Constitution, and especially the Bill of Rights, to be inspired by God and "the [Latter Day] Saints' best and perhaps only defense."[295] He believed a strong central government was crucial to the nation's well-being, and thought democracy better than tyranny—although he also taught that a theocratic monarchy was the ideal form of government.[296] In foreign affairs, Smith was an expansionist, though he viewed "expansionism as brotherhood".[297]

Smith favored a strong central bank and high tariffs to protect American business and agriculture. He disfavored imprisonment of convicts except for murder, preferring efforts to reform criminals through labor; he also opposed courts-martial for military deserters. He supported capital punishment but opposed hanging, preferring execution by firing squad or beheading.[298]

On the issue of slavery, Smith took different positions.[299] Initially he opposed it, but during the mid-1830s when the Mormons were settling in Missouri (a slave state), Smith cautiously justified slavery in an anti-abolitionist essay.[300] Then in the early 1840s, after Mormons had been expelled from Missouri, he once again opposed slavery. During his presidential campaign of 1844, he proposed ending slavery by 1850 and compensating slaveholders for their loss.[301] Smith said that blacks were not inherently inferior to whites, and he welcomed slaves into the church.[302] However, he opposed baptizing them without permission of their masters, and he opposed interracial marriage.[303]

Smith declared that he would be one of the instruments in fulfilling Nebuchadnezzar's statue vision in the Book of Daniel: that secular government would be destroyed without "sword or gun", and would be replaced with a "theodemocratic" Kingdom of God.[304] Smith taught that this kingdom would be governed by theocratic principles, but that it would also be multidenominational and democratic, so long as the people chose wisely.[305]

## See also

* 1844 United States presidential election
* Chronology of Mormonism
* History of the Latter Day Saint movement
* List of founders of religious traditions
* Outline of Joseph Smith
* Smith family (Latter Day Saints)

## Notes

1. ↑ History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. VI. 1912. pp. 430–432. https://books.google.com/books?id=pGi-iiz6juYC&pg=PA430.
2. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Smith 1832)
3. ↑ Modern DNA testing of Smith's relatives suggests that his family were of Irish descent. Perego, Ugo A.; Myres, Natalie M.; Woodward, Scott R. (2005). "Reconstructing the Y-Chromosome of Joseph Smith: Genealogical Applications". Journal of Mormon History (Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois Press) 31 (2): 42–60. ; De Groote, Michael (August 8, 2008). "DNA shows Joseph Smith was Irish". Deseret News (Salt Lake City, Utah). https://www.deseretnews.com/article/700249298/DNA-shows-Joseph-Smith-was-Irish.html. ; "Joseph Smith DNA Revealed: New Clues from the Prophet's Genes – FairMormon". FairMormon. https://www.fairmormon.org/conference/august-2008/joseph-smith-dna-revealed-new-clues-from-the-prophets-genes.
4. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
5. ↑ "An Overview of the Burned-Over District by John H. Martin". http://www.crookedlakereview.com/books/saints_sinners/martin1.html.
6. ↑ Tyler, Alice Felt (2007). Freedom's Ferment – Phases of American Social History to 1860. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9781406706949. OCLC 950400769.
7. ↑ Sweet, William W (1950). The Story of Religion In America. New York City: Harper & Row. ISBN 9780060677909. https://archive.org/details/storyofreligioni0000swee.
8. ↑ Sperry, Willard (1946). Religion in America. Cambridge: Macmillan. ISBN 9781107665293. OCLC 864086498. https://archive.org/details/religioninameric0000sper.
9. ↑ Barkun, Michael (1986). Crucible of the millennium : the burned-over district of New York in the 1840s (1st ed.). Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0815623712. OCLC 13359708.
10. ↑ (Bushman 2005)
11. ↑ (Quinn 1998)
12. ↑ (Vogel 2004); (Hill 1989); (Brooke 1994)
13. ↑ (Vogel 2004); D. Michael Quinn (December 20, 2006). "Joseph Smith's Experience of a Methodist "Camp-Meeting" in 1820". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought. p. 3. http://www.dialoguejournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/QuinnPaperless.pdf.
14. ↑ (Quinn 1998) ("Joseph Smith's family was typical of many early Americans who practiced various forms of Christian folk magic."); (Bushman 2005) ("Magic and religion melded in the Smith family culture."); (Shipps 1985); (Remini 2002); (Hill 1977) ("Even the more vivid manifestations of religious experience, such as dreams, visions and revelations, were not uncommon in Joseph's day, neither were they generally viewed with scorn.")
15. ↑ (Quinn 1998); (Bushman 2005); (Brooke 1994); (Mack 1811); (Smith 1853).
16. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("He had two questions on his mind: which church was right, and how to be saved."); (Vogel 2004) (saying Smith's first vision was "preceded by Bible reading and a sudden awareness of his sins"); (Quinn 1998) (saying that Smith was concerned with obtaining a forgiveness of sins); (Brodie 1971) (Smith wrote that he was troubled by religious revivals and went into the woods to seek guidance of the Lord); (Remini 2002) ("He wanted desperately to join a church but could not decide which one to embrace.")
17. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("Probably in early 1820, Joseph determined to pray"); (Brodie 1971) (when he was fourteen years old); (Vogel 2004) (dating the vision to 1820–21 and rejecting the suggestion that the story was invented later); (Quinn 1998) (dating the first vision to 1820).
18. ↑ (Remini 2002); (Bushman 2005) (When Smith first described the vision twelve years after the event, "[h]e explained the vision as he must have first understood it, as a personal conversion"); (Vogel 2004) (the vision confirmed to Smith what he and his father already suspected: that the world was spiritually dead).
19. ↑ (Vogel 2004); (Remini 2002) ("The clergyman, Joseph later reported, was aghast at what he was told and treated the story with contempt. He said that there were no such things as visions or revelations ... that they ended with the Apostles)
20. ↑ (Allen 1966) ("... it would appear that the general church membership did not receive information about the first vision until 1840s and that the story certainly did not hold the prominent place in Mormon thought that it does today.")
21. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Vogel 2004) ("Joseph's 1832 account [of his vision] is typical of a conversion experience as described by many others in the early nineteenth century"); (Remini 2002) ("Joseph's experience in 1820 is known today by Mormons as the First Vision ... the beginning of the restoration of the Gospel and the commencement of a new dispensation. Not that Joseph realized these implications at the time. His full understanding of what had happened to him came later").
22. ↑ (Quinn 1998); (Bushman 2005).
23. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
24. ↑ (Quinn 1998); (Bushman 2005).
25. ↑ (Bushman 2005)
26. ↑ (Bushman 2008); (Bushman 2005)
27. ↑ (Brooke 1994); (Quinn 1998); (Bushman 2005), (Persuitte 2000), (Newell Avery).
28. ↑ Butler, Benjamin Franklin; Spencer, John Canfield (1829), Revised Statutes of the State of New York, 1, Albany, NY: Packard and Van Benthuysen, p. 638: part I, title 5, § 1, https://books.google.com/books?id=RX84AAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA638 (According to New York law at the time "[A]ll persons pretending to tell fortunes, or where lost or stolen goods may be found, ... shall be deemed disorderly persons."); According to Bushman, this practice was "an illegal activity in New York because it was often practiced by swindlers". (Bushman 2008)
29. ↑ For a survey of the primary sources, see Dan Vogel, "Rethinking the 1826 Judicial Decision" , Mormon Scripture Studies.
30. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Vogel 2004); (Quinn 1998)
31. ↑ "E. D. Howe's Mormonism Unvailed, Part 5 of 5)". http://www.solomonspalding.com/docs/1834howf.htm#pg231.
32. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
33. ↑ (Quinn 1998) Smith had presumably learned from his stone that Emma was the key to obtaining the plates; (Bushman 2005) (noting accounts stating that Emma was the key).
34. ↑ (Bushman 2005)
35. ↑ "Book of Mormon Translation", Gospel Topics, LDS Church, https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics-essays/book-of-mormon-translation?lang=eng
36. ↑ (Harris 1859).
37. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Remini 2002).
38. ↑ (Remini 2002); (Newell Avery); (Bushman 2005); (Smith 1853); (Howe 1834).
39. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Remini 2002); (Roberts 1902);(Howe 1834) (Smith sat behind a curtain and passed transcriptions to his wife or her brother); Smith called the characters he translated "reformed Egyptian".
40. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (the plan to use a scholar to authenticate the characters was part of a vision received by Harris; author notes that Smith's mother said the plan to authenticate the characters was arranged between Smith and Harris before Harris left Palmyra); (Remini 2002).
41. ↑ (Howe 1834) (Anthon's description of his meeting with Harris). But see (Vogel 2004) (arguing that Anthon's initial assessment was likely more positive than he would later admit); (Roberts 1902).
42. ↑ (Smith 1853); (Roberts 1902).
43. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
44. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
45. ↑ (Phelps 1833) (revelation dictated by Smith stating that his gift to translate was temporarily revoked); (Smith 1832) (stating that the angel had taken away the plates and the Urim and Thummim); (Smith 1853).
46. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (Smith had dictated some, with Emma as scribe, but preparations for winter took precedence); (Bushman 2005) (Smith and Cowdery began dictation where the narrative left off after the lost 116 pages, now representing the Book of Mosiah. A revelation would later direct them not to re-translate the lost text, to ensure that the lost pages could not later be found and compared to the re-translation); (Bushman 2005) (Cowdery was a school teacher who had previously boarded with the Smith family); (Bushman 2005) ("Cowdery was open to belief in Joseph's powers because he had come to Harmony the possessor of a supernatural gift alluded to in a revelation ..." and his family had apparently engaged in treasure seeking and other magical practices); (Quinn 1998).
47. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
48. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005).
49. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
50. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
51. ↑ (Bushman 2005). The two testimonies are undated, and the exact dates on which the Witnesses are said to have seen the plates is unknown.
52. ↑ (Phelps 1833) (noting that by July 1830, the church was "in Colesville, Fayette, and Manchester").
53. ↑ (Bushman 2005)(noting that area residents connected the discovery of the Book of Mormon with Smith's past career as a money digger); (Brodie 1971) (discussing organized boycott of Book of Mormon by Palmyra residents, and opposition by Colesville and Bainbridge residents who remembered the 1826 trial).
54. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
55. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005).
56. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("Oliver Cowdery and the Whitmer family began to conceive of themselves as independent authorities with the right to correct Joseph and receive revelation.")
57. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Phelps 1833) ("[N]o one shall be appointed to receive commandments and revelations in this church, excepting my servant Joseph, for he receiveth them even as Moses.")
58. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
59. ↑ (Phelps 1833) ("The New Jerusalem 'shall be on the borders by the Lamanites.'); (Bushman 2005) (church members knew that 'on the borders by the Lamanites' referred to western Missouri, and Cowdery's mission in part was to 'locate the place of the New Jerusalem along this frontier'").
60. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Roberts 1902); F. Mark McKiernan, "The Conversion of Sidney Rigdon to Mormonism", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, 5 (Summer 1970): 77. Parley Pratt said that the Mormon mission baptized 127 within two or three weeks "and this number soon increased to one thousand"."
61. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005).
62. ↑ (Brodie 1971) (citing letter by Smith to Kirtland converts). In 1834, Smith designated Kirtland as one of the "stakes" of Zion, referring to the tent–stakes metaphor of Isaiah 54:2. (Phelps 1833) ("And again, a commandment I give unto the church, that it is expedient in me that they should assemble together in the Ohio, until the time that my servant Oliver Cowdery shall return unto them."); (Bushman 2005).
63. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971) (The "gifts" included hysterical fits and trances, frenzied rolling on the floor, loud and extended glossalalia, grimacing, and visions taken from parchments hanging in the night sky); (Remini 2002) ("Joseph quickly settled in and assumed control of the Kirtland Church.")
64. ↑ (Brodie 1971) (stating that the United Order of Enoch was Rigdon's conception (p. 108)); (Bushman 2005); (Hill 1977) (Rigdon's communal group was called "the family")
65. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Phelps 1833); (Bushman 2005); (Quinn 1994); (Roberts 1902).
66. ↑ (Brodie 1971).
67. ↑ (Brodie 1971) (describing the mission as a "flat failure"); (Bushman 2005) (Richard W. Cummins, U.S. Agent to the Shawnee and Delaware tribes issued an order to desist because the men had not received official permission to meet with and proselytize the tribes under his authority).
68. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971); (Smith Cowdery).
69. ↑ (Brodie 1971).
70. ↑ (Brodie 1971).
71. ↑ (Remini 2002); (Brodie 1971) (noting that Smith may have narrowly escaped being castrated); (Bushman 2005).
72. ↑ These reasons included the settlers' understanding that the Mormons intended to appropriate their property and establish a Millennial political kingdom ((Brodie 1971); (Remini 2002)), their friendliness with the Indians ((Brodie 1971)); (Remini 2002)), their perceived religious blasphemy (Remini 2002), and especially the belief that they were abolitionists ((Brodie 1971); (Remini 2002)). Additionally, their rapid growth aroused fears that they would soon constitute a majority in local elections, and thus "rule the county." (Bushman 2005).
73. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971))(Quinn 1994) (Smith's August 1833 revelation said that after the fourth attack, "the [Latter Day] Saints were "justified" by God in violence against any attack by any enemy "until they had avenged themselves on all their enemies, to the third and fourth generation", citing (Smith Cowdery)).
74. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971) (noting that the brutality of the Jackson Countians aroused sympathy for the Mormons and was almost universally deplored by the press).
75. ↑ (Smith Cowdery); (Roberts 1904);(Brodie 1971); (Remini 2002).
76. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (The leaders learned that the "governor would not escort them back to their lands; they would have to fight their way into [Jackson] county", which made a campaign of "self defense" impossible); (Brodie 1971) (Smith provided a revelation explaining that the church was unworthy to redeem Zion, in part because of the failure of the United Order); (Roberts 1904) (quoting text of revelation); (Hill 1989) (noting that in addition to failure to unite under the celestial order, God was displeased the church had failed to make Zion's army sufficiently strong).
77. ↑ (Brodie 1971) (describing Zion's Camp as Smith's "second major failure"); (Bushman 2005); (Quinn 1994), (Quinn 1994).
78. ↑ (Brodie 1971) (The five equal councils were "the presidency, the apostles, the seventies, and the two high councils of Kirtland and Missouri").
79. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Roberts 1904) (text of revelation); (Smith Cowdery) (Kirtland Temple "design[ed] to endow those whom [God] ha[s] chosen with power on high"); (Prince 1995) (quoting revelation dated June 12, 1834 (Kirtland Revelation Book pp. 97–100) stating that the redemption of Zion "cannot be brought to pass until mine elders are endowed with power from on high; for, behold, I have prepared a greater endowment and blessing to be poured out upon them [than the 1831 endowment]").
80. ↑ (Remini 2002) ("The ultimate cost came to approximately $50,000, an enormous sum for a people struggling to stay alive."); (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971) ("Five years before ... [Joseph] had found a spontaneous orgiastic revival in full progress and had ruthlessly stamped it out. Now he was intoxicating his followers with the same frenzy he had once so vigorously denounced.")
81. ↑ (Brooke 1994)
82. ↑ Cluff, Randall (February 2000). Cowdery, Oliver (1806–1850), Mormon leader. American National Biography Online. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0802307.
83. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Compton1997 {{{2}}}) (saying that Alger was "one of Joseph Smith's earliest plural wives"); (Bushman 2005) (speculating that Smith felt innocent of adultery presumably because he had married Alger).
84. ↑ (Bushman 2005) The temple left a debt of $13,000, and Smith borrowed tens of thousands more to make land purchases and purchase inventory for a merchandise store. By 1837, Smith had run up a debt of over $100,000.
85. ↑ (Quinn 1998); (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005). Rigdon, Cowdery, and Smith's brother Hyrum accompanied him on this trip.
86. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971).
87. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
88. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005).
89. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
90. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005); (Hill 1977).
91. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Hill 1977) (noting an account that Smith predicted in 1834 that Jackson County would be redeemed "within three years"); (Roberts 1905); (Bushman 2005).
92. ↑ (Roberts 1905); (Quinn 1994); (Brodie 1971).
93. ↑ (Remini 2002); (Brodie 1971) (Bushman 2005).
94. ↑ (Marquardt 2005) ; (Remini 2002); (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005) (The former three were excommunicated for various land purchases and sales they had made, which called their faithfulness into question. Cowdery, whose relationship with the church had been growing more strained for about a year, was charged with denying the faith, leaving his calling to make money, insinuating that Smith was guilty of adultery, and urging vexatious lawsuits against Mormons).
95. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
96. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Brodie 1971) ("From the bottom of his heart Joseph hated violence, but ... Joseph came to realize that in a country where a man's gun spoke faster than his wits, to be known as a pacifist was to invite plundering."); (Bushman 2005).
97. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Brodie 1971); (Remini 2002).
98. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("Although Avard may have concealed the [full extent of Danite activity] ... , Joseph certainly favored evicting dissenters and resisting mobs."); (Quinn 1994) (arguing that Smith and Rigdon were aware of the Danite organization and sanctioned their activities); (Brodie 1971)(arguing that Sampson Avard had Smith's sanction); (Hill 1977) (concluding that Smith had at least peripheral involvement and gave early approval to Danite activities).
99. ↑ Rigdon said that "if the salt have lost its savor, wherewith shall it be salted? It is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be cast out, and to be trodden under foot of men."; (Brodie 1971) (The Danites issued a written death threat, and when that did not work they surrounded the dissenters' homes and "ordered their wives to pack their blankets and leave the county immediately"); (Quinn 1994).
100. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Remini 2002).
101. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005) (Smith allowed the speech to be published as a pamphlet, and encouraged others to read it).
102. ↑ (Remini 2002).
103. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (noting that in Daviess County, Missouri, non-Mormons "watched local government fall into the hands of people they saw as deluded fanatics").
104. ↑ (Remini 2002); (Quinn 1994) (Mormon forces, primarily the Danites, pillaged Millport and Gallatin, and when apostles Thomas B. Marsh and Orson Hyde prepared an affidavit against these Mormon attacks, they were excommunicated); (Brodie 1971) (Wagons returned from Millport and Gallatin "piled high with 'consecrated property'".); (Bushman 2005)); (Bushman 2005).
105. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("Resisting a band of vigilantes was justifiable, but attacking a militia company was resistance to the state."); (Quinn 1994) (stating that the Extermination Order and the Haun's Mill massacre resulted from Mormon actions at the Battle of Crooked River); (Brodie 1971) (noting that Boggs was also told about Mormon admissions that they had plundered Millport and Gallatin). In 1976, Missouri issued a formal apology for this order (Bushman 2005).
106. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Quinn 1994).
107. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971).
108. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (noting that Smith was saved by Alexander Doniphan, a Missouri militia leader who had acted as the Latter Day Saints' legal council (pp. 242, 344)); (Brodie 1971).
109. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971).
110. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
111. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005))
112. ↑ (Remini 2002); (Brodie 1971). The Danites dissolved in 1838, though their members formed the backbone of Smith's security force in Nauvoo. (Quinn 1998).
113. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
114. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971) (Saying that Smith bribed the guards with whiskey and money); (Bushman 2005) (noting that the prisoners believed they were an embarrassment to Missouri officials, and that Boggs' Extermination Order would cause a scandal if widely publicized); Bentley, Joseph I. (1992), "Smith, Joseph: Legal Trials of Joseph Smith", in Ludlow, Daniel H, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Macmillan Publishing, pp. 1346–1348, ISBN 0-02-879602-0, OCLC 24502140, http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/4208 .
115. ↑ (Brodie 1971) (noting rebukes by Missouri and Illinois newspapers, and "press all over the country"); (Bushman 2005) (Mormons were depicted as a persecuted minority); (Bushman 2005) (Latter Day Saints gathered near Quincy, Illinois).
116. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
117. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971) (Smith "saw to it that the sufferings of his people received national publicity").
118. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971).
119. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
120. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005). A similar Hebrew word appears in Isaiah 52: 7.
121. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005). Prior to the charter, Smith had narrowly avoided two extradition attempts ((Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005)).
122. ↑ (Quinn 1998).
123. ↑ (Brodie 1971)(The Legion had 2,000 troops in 1842, 3,000 by 1844, compared to less than 8,500 soldiers in the entire United States Army.)
124. ↑ (Bushman 2005)
125. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005) (Bennett told women he was seducing that illicit sex was acceptable among Latter Day Saints so long as it was kept secret). Bennett, a minimally trained doctor, also promised abortions to any who might become pregnant.
126. ↑ (Ostling Ostling); (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971).
127. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
128. ↑ D&C 124:28; (Quinn 1994).
129. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Quinn 1994).
130. ↑ (Quinn 1994).
131. ↑ (Bushman 2005); The tent–stake metaphor was derived from Isaiah 54:2.
132. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (noting that the time when the Millennium was to occur lengthened to "more than 40 years".)
133. ↑ (Quinn 1994).
134. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971); (Quinn 1994).
135. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (United States district attorney Justin Butterfield argued that Smith was not a "fugitive from justice" because he was not in Missouri when the crime occurred.)
136. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
137. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
138. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Quinn 1994).
139. ↑ (Quinn 1994) (the Anointed Quorum chose Sidney Rigdon as Smith's running mate);(Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971).
140. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Quinn 1994).
141. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
142. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
143. ↑ (Brodie 1971) (Law believed that Smith was misappropriating donations for the Nauvoo House hotel and neglecting other building projects, despite the acute housing shortage, while Smith had no respect for building projects by Law and Foster.); (Bushman 2005) (noting that Law had been was a member of the Anointed Quorum); (Quinn 1994) (Law was criticized in 1843 and then dropped from the Anointed Quorum in January 1844, but after being defended by Hiram Smith, he rejected an April 1844 offer by Joseph Smith to be restored to church positions if he ended his opposition to polygamy).
144. ↑ (Ostling Ostling): "there is evidence that at some point Smith propositioned the wives of both Law and Foster"; (Brodie 1971) (saying Smith had proposed to Foster's wife at a private dinner); (Van Wagoner 1992); (Bushman 2005) (noting that Smith recounted that Jane Law had proposed to him (660–61), citing Journal of Alexander Neibaur, May 24, 1844.
145. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("The dissenters troubled Joseph mainly because he feared plots to haul him away to certain death in Missouri"); Williams, A.B. (May 15, 1844), "Affidavit", Times and Seasons 5 (10): 541, http://www.centerplace.org/history/ts/v5n10.htm (Affidavit stating, "Joseph H. Jackson said that Doctor Foster, Chauncy Higbee and the Laws were red-hot for a conspiracy, and he should not be surprised if in two weeks there should be not one of the Smith family left in Nauvoo").
146. ↑ (Brodie 1971) (Smith denied he had more than one wife.); (Bushman 2005) (arguing that Smith may have felt justified denying polygamy and "spiritual wifeism" because he thought it was based on a different principle than "plural marriage"); (Roberts 1912)); (Bushman 2005).
147. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971) (arguing that given its authors' intentions to reform the church, the paper was "extraordinarily restrained" given the explosive allegations it could have raised); (Quinn 1994) A prospectus for the newspaper was published on May 10, and referred to Smith as a "self-constituted monarch".
148. ↑ Smith had recently given his King Follett discourse, in which he taught that God was once a man, and that men and women could become gods. (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971); (Marquardt 1999); (Quinn 1994) (noting that the publishers intended to emphasize the details of Smith's delectable plan of government" in later issues).
149. ↑ Nauvoo Expositor, retrieved from Wikisource November 29, 2013; (Oaks Hill).
150. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971); (Marquardt 2005); (Marquardt 1999). At the city council meeting, Smith said the 1843 revelation on polygamy referred to in the Expositor "was in answer to a question concerning things which transpired in former days, and had no reference to the present time" (Brodie 1971).
151. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (Smith "did not grasp the enormity of destroying a press, especially one that was attacking him.")
152. ↑ (Brodie 1971)
153. ↑ Warsaw Signal, June 14, 1844. ("Citizens arise, one and all!!! Can you stand by, and suffer such Infernal Devils! to rob men of their property and rights without avenging them. We have no time for comment, every man will make his own. Let it be made with Powder and Ball!!!"
154. ↑ (Ostling Ostling).
155. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
156. ↑ Ostlings, 17; Bushman, 546. Eight Mormon leaders accompanied Smith to Carthage: Hyrum Smith, John Taylor, Willard Richards, John P. Greene, Stephen Markham, Dan Jones, John S. Fullmer, Dr. Southwick, and Lorenzo D. Wasson. (History of the Church Vol.6 Ch.30) All of Smith's associates left the jail, except his brother Hyrum, Richards and Taylor. (Richards and Taylor were not prisoners, but stayed voluntarily.)
157. ↑ Bentley, Joseph I. (1992), "Smith, Joseph: Legal Trials of Joseph Smith", in Ludlow, Daniel H, Encyclopedia of Mormonism, New York: Macmillan Publishing, pp. 1346–1348, ISBN 0-02-879602-0, OCLC 24502140, http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/EoM/id/4208 ;(Oaks Hill).
158. ↑ Oaks, Dallin H.; Hill, Marvin S. (1979). Carthage Conspiracy, the Trial of the Accused Assassins of Joseph Smith. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. pp. 52. ISBN 025200762X.
159. ↑ A friend of Smith's, Cyrus H. Wheelock, had smuggled the pistol into the jail. "CES Slide Set G-68 – Pepperbox Pistol", Religious Education LDS Church History and Doctrine collection (photographs) (Harold B. Lee Library and Department of Religious Education, Brigham Young University), http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/cdm/ref/collection/RelEd/id/1439, "This is likely the original six-shooter which was smuggled into Carthage Jail to Joseph Smith. Joseph shot and wounded three mob members with the gun during the attack on the jail." .
160. ↑ (Brodie 1971) ("Joseph discharging all six barrels down the passageway. Three of them missed fire, but the other three found marks."); (Bushman 2005) (Smith and his companions were staying in the jailer's bedroom, which did not have bars on the windows).
161. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005).
162. ↑ (Oaks Hill).
163. ↑ Mackay, Lachlan (2002). "A Brief History of the Smith Family Nauvoo Cemetery". Mormon Historic Sites Foundation. http://mormonhistoricsites.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/MHS3.2Fall2002SmithFamilyNauvooCemetery.pdf.
164. ↑ (Bushman 2005) "The newspaper editors, almost without exception, thought of him as a religious fanatic."
165. ↑ (Bushman 2005) "His followers had thought of him first and foremost as a prophet"; (Brodie 1971).
166. ↑ (Brodie 1971); Weber, Max (1978), Economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology, 1, University of California Press, p. 446, ISBN 0-520-03500-3 ; (Bushman 2005).
167. ↑ (Widmer 2000); (Shipps 1985) (making comparisons with Moses (law-giver), Joshua (commander of the "armies of Israel"), and Solomon (king));(Bushman 2005) (describing Smith as "a biblical-style prophet—one who spoke for God with the authority of Moses or Isaiah".); (Brodie 1971)(quoting a tribute to Smith, probably by Taylor, stating that Smith "has done more, (save Jesus only,) for the salvation of men in this world, than any other man that ever lived in it".); Smith, Joseph Fielding (December 1941), "The Historical Background of the Prophet Joseph Smith", Improvement Era: 717 ("No prophet since the days of Adam, save, of course, our Redeemer, has been given a greater mission.")
168. ↑ R. Scott Lloyd, "Joseph Smith, Brigham Young rank first and third in magazine's list of significant religious figures", Church News, January 12, 2015.
169. ↑ Shipps, Jan (1974), "The Prophet Puzzle:Suggestions Leading toward a More Comprehensive Interpretation of Joseph Smith", Journal of Mormon History
170. ↑ I Woodbridge Riley (1903), The Founder of Mormonism ; Bernard DeVoto (1930), The Centennial of Mormonism ; Robert D. Anderson (1994), "Toward an Introduction to a Psychobiography of Joseph Smith", Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought (27)
171. ↑ (Vogel 2004)
172. ↑ (Vogel 2004).
173. ↑ (Brodie 1971).
174. ↑ (Bloom 1992) (Smith "surpassed all Americans, before or since, in the possession and expression of what could be called the religion-making imagination", and had charisma "to a degree unsurpassed in American history".); (Abanes 2003) (noting that even Smith's harshest critics acknowledge his creative genius); (Persuitte 2000) (calling Smith "one of the most controversial and enigmatic figures ever to appear in American history"); (Remini 2002) (Calling Smith "the most important reformer and innovator in American religious history).
175. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Brodie 1971).
176. ↑ (Shipps 1985) (discussing several of the succession options); (Quinn 1994).
177. ↑ (Quinn 1994) (after Smith was crowned king, Hyrum referred to himself as "President of the Church"), and Brigham Young agreed Hyrum would have been the natural successor; (Bushman 2005).
178. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005) (William Smith "made a bid for the Church presidency, but his unstable character kept him from being a serious contender".)
179. ↑ (Quinn 1994) (outlining the sons' claims and noting, "Even Brigham Young acknowledged the claims of patrilineal succession and as a result never argued that the Quorum of Twelve had exclusive right of succession."); (Ostling Ostling).
180. ↑ (Quinn 1994) (before his death, Smith had charged the Fifty with the responsibility of establishing the Millennial kingdom in his absence; the Quorum of Twelve would eventually claim this "charge" as their own).
181. ↑ (Quinn 1994).
182. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
183. ↑ Tad Walsh, "LDS Church membership officially surpasses 16 million", Deseret News, March 31, 2018.
184. ↑ (Bushman 2005): The largest existing Rigdonite church is the Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite); Strang's following largely dissipated after his assassination in 1856. (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005); Strang's current followers consist of the small Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite).
185. ↑ (Quinn 1994).
186. ↑ Current statistics published by the LDS Church show 16.1 million members of that denomination. "Facts and Statistics: Worldwide Statistics", Newsroom (MormonNewsroom.org) (LDS Church), March 27, 2019, https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics . This total membership number includes these 16.1 million, as well as 250,000 members of the Community of Christ, and much smaller numbers of members of other denominations.
187. ↑ (Brodie 1971); The adopted twins were born of Julia Clapp Murdock and John Murdock.
188. ↑ "Joseph and Emma", www.josephsmith.net, http://www.josephsmith.net/josephsmith/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=031f001cfb340010VgnVCM1000001f5e340aRCRD&vgnextfmt=tab4, retrieved October 31, 2012 .
189. ↑ "Research focuses on Smith family". Deseret News. May 28, 2005. http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,600137517,00.html. ; "DNA tests rule out 2 as Smith descendants: Scientific advances prove no genetic link". Deseret News. November 10, 2007. http://deseretnews.com/article/1,5143,695226318,00.html. ; Perego, Ugo A.; Myers, Natalie M.; Woodward, Scott R. (Summer 2005), "Reconstructing the Y-Chromosome of Joseph Smith, Jr.: Genealogical Applications", Journal of Mormon History 32 (2), http://mha.wservers.com/pubs/TOC/05_July_Journal_TOC.pdf
190. ↑ History of the Church 1844–1872, Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, 1908, pp. 355–356, https://books.google.com/books?id=GboUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA355 .
191. ↑ Saints' Herald 65:1044–1045.
192. ↑ Times and Seasons 3 [August 1, 1842]: 869; Times and Seasons 3 [October 1, 1842]: 940.
193. ↑ Church History 3: 355–356. Even when her sons Joseph III and Alexander presented her with specific written questions about polygamy, she continued to deny that their father had been a polygamist.(Van Wagoner 1992); (Brodie 1971) (Brodie speculates that this denial was "her revenge and solace for all her heartache and humiliation. ... This was her slap at all the sly young girls in the Mansion House who had looked first so worshipfully and then so knowingly at Joseph. She had given them the lie. Whatever formal ceremony he might have gone through, Joseph had never acknowledged one of them before the world."
194. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Avery Newell).
195. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("Her known opposition to plural marriage made her doubly troublesome.")
196. ↑ (Bushman 2005). Emma Smith married Major Lewis Bidamon, an "enterprising man who made good use of Emma's property". Although Bidamon sired an illegitimate child when he was 62 (whom Emma reared), "the couple showed genuine affection for each" other.
197. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
198. ↑ (Bushman 2005) Smith "never presented his ideas systematically in clear, logical order; they came in flashes and bursts. ... Assembling a coherent picture out of many bits and pieces leaves room for misinterpretations and forced logic. Even his loyal followers disagree about the implications of his teaching."
199. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Vogel 2004) (saying that Smith's private beliefs were revealed through his revelations); (Vogel 2004) (arguing that Smith believed he was called of God, but occasionally engaged in fraudulent activities in order to preach God's word more effectively).
200. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("The revelation gave the first inkling of how Joseph would speak in his prophetic voice. The speaker stands above and outside Joseph, sharply separated emotionally and intellectually"); (Vogel 2004); (Brodie 1971) ("Although he may not have sensed their significance, these, Joseph's first revelations, marked a turning-point in his life. For they changed the Book of Mormon from what might have been merely an ingenious speculation into a genuinely religious book").
201. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Bushman 2005).
202. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
203. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Smith 1830).
204. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Vogel 2004).
205. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
206. ↑ (Smith 1830).
207. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Vogel 2004).
208. ↑ (Smith 1830).
209. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
210. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Vogel 2004).
211. ↑ (Bushman 2005) "Joseph himself said almost nothing about his method but implied transcription when he said that 'the Lord had prepared spectacles for to read the Book.'"
212. ↑ Book of Mormon, title page.
213. ↑ (Remini 2002) (noting that Emma Smith said that Smith started translating with the Urim and Thummim and then eventually used his dark seer stone exclusively); (Bushman 2005); (Quinn 1998) (noting that, according to witnesses, Smith's early translation with the two-stone Urim and Thummim spectacles involved placing the spectacles in his hat, and that the spectacles were too large to actually wear). In one 1842 statement, Smith said that "[t]hrough the medium of the Urim and Thummim I translated the record by the gift, the power of God." (Smith 1842).
214. ↑ (Quinn 1998) (witnesses said that Smith shifted from the Urim and Thummim to the single brown seer stone after the loss of the earliest 116 manuscript pages).
215. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Marquardt Walters); (Van Wagoner Walker) (citing numerous witnesses of the translation process).
216. ↑ (Van Wagoner Walker) ("The plates could not have been used directly in the translation process."); (Bushman 2005) (Joseph did not pretend to look at the 'reformed Egyptian' words, the language on the plates, according to the book's own description. The plates lay covered on the table, while Joseph's head was in the hat looking at the seerstone ..."); (Marquardt Walters) ("When it came to translating the crucial plates, they were no more present in the room than was John the Beloved's ancient 'parchment', the words of which Joseph also dictated at the time.")
217. ↑ (Quinn 1998); (Bushman 2005) (while making revisions to the Bible, Smith still "relied on inspiration to make the changes, but he gave up the Urim and Thumm, as Orson Pratt later explained, because he had become acquainted with 'the Spirit of Prophecy and Revelation' and no longer needed it.")
218. ↑ (Brodie 1971).
219. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005).
220. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005) ("He experienced revelation like George Fox, the early Quaker, who heard the Spirit as 'impersonal prophecy,' not from his own mind but as 'a word from the Lord as the prophets and the apostles had.'"); (Bushman 2005).
221. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (noting that though Smith declared the work finished in 1833, the church lacked funds to publish it during his lifetime); (Brodie 1971) (Brodie suggests that Rigdon may have prompted Smith to revise the Bible in response to an 1827 revision by Rigdon's former mentor Alexander Campbell).
222. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (Smith said later in life, "I believe the Bible, as it ought to be, as it came from the pen of the original writers.")
223. ↑ (Hill 1977) (Although Smith described his work beginning in April 1831 as a "translation", "he obviously meant a revision by inspiration").
224. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
225. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (in Genesis, Enoch is summarized in five verses. Joseph Smith's revision extends this to 110 verses).
226. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("Joseph Smith's Book of Moses fully Christianized the Old Testament. Rather than hinting of the coming of Christian truth, the Book of Moses presents the whole Gospel. God teaches Adam to believe, repent, 'and be baptized even by water'").
227. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005).
228. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
229. ↑ John A. Wilson, "The Joseph Smith Egyptian Papyri: Translations and Interpretations, Dialogue 3 (Summer 1968): 73–88. The papyri were prepared for the funerary rites of one Ta-Shert-Min, daughter of New-Khensu.
230. ↑ "Translation and Historicity of the Book of Abraham". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/topics/translation-and-historicity-of-the-book-of-abraham?lang=eng.
231. ↑ Ritner, Dr. Robert K.. "Translation and Historicity of the Book of Abraham: A Response". https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/Research_Archives/Translation and Historicity of the Book of Abraham final-2.pdf.
232. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
233. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (Referring to Smith dictating revelations, Pratt said, "Each sentence was uttered slowly and very distinctly, and with a pause between each, sufficiently long for it to be recorded, by an ordinary writer, in long hand. This was the manner in which all his revelations were dictated and written. There was never any hesitation, reviewing, or reading back, in order to keep the run of the subject; neither did any of these communications undergo revisions, interlinings, or corrections. As he dictated them so they stood, so far as I have witnessed.")
234. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
235. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Brodie 1971) (Smith "began to efface the communistic rubric of his young theology").
236. ↑ (Brodie 1971); "D&C 42". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/42?lang=eng.
237. ↑ (Brodie 1971); "D&C 76". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/76?lang=eng.
238. ↑ (Bushman 2005); "D&C 84". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/84?lang=eng.
239. ↑ (Bushman 2005); "D&C 93". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/93?lang=eng.
240. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005); "D&C 89". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/89?lang=eng.
241. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005) ("Joseph drank tea and a glass of wine from time to time."); (Ostling Ostling) (Smith "himself liked a nip every now and then, especially at weddings". The Mansion House, which operated a hotel, maintained a fully stocked barroom, and Nauvoo also had a brewery.)
242. ↑ (Bushman 2005); "D&C 107". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/107?lang=eng.
243. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005); "D&C 132". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/132?lang=eng.
244. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
245. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005).
246. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("Joseph spoke like a witness or an initiate in heavenly mysteries, rather than a prophet delivering revelations from the Lord's mouth").
247. ↑ (Bushman 2005) Smith's first mention of baptism for the dead was in a funeral sermon in August 1840. A letter on the subject is contained in "D&C 128". https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/128?lang=eng. .
248. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (arguing that Smith may have been unaware of the other religious materialism arguments circulating in his day, such as those of Joseph Priestley); (Brooke 1994);(Smith 1830) (story from the Book of Ether of Jesus revealing "the body of my spirit" to an especially faithful man, saying humanity was created in the image of his spirit body).
249. ↑ (Widmer 2000).
250. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Bloom 1992) ("Smith's God is hedged in by limitations and badly needs intelligences besides his own.")
251. ↑ Vogel, Dan, The Earliest Mormon Conception of God in (Bergera 1989) (arguing that Smith's original view was modalism, Jesus being the embodied manifestation the spirit Father, and that by 1834 Smith shifted to a binitarian formulation favored by Sidney Rigdon, which also viewed the Father as a spirit); Alexander, Thomas, The Reconstruction of Mormon Doctrine: From Joseph Smith to Progressive Theology in (Bergera 1989) (prior to 1835, Smith viewed God the Father as "an absolute personage of spirit").
252. ↑ (Widmer 2000); Alexander, Thomas, The Reconstruction of Mormon Doctrine: From Joseph Smith to Progressive Theology in (Bergera 1989) (describing Smith's doctrine as "material anthropomorphism"); (Bloom 1992) ("Smith's God, after all, began as a man, and struggled heroically in and with time and space, rather after the pattern of colonial and revolutionary Americans.")
253. ↑ (Bushman 2005) ("Joseph redefined the nature of God, giving Him a form and a body and locating Him in time and space" with a throne situated near a star or planet named Kolob); (Bloom 1992) ("Joseph Smith's God ... is finite ... Exalted now into the heavens, God necessarily is still subject to the contingencies of time and space.")
254. ↑ (Vogel 2004); (Roberts 1909).
255. ↑ (Larson 1978); (Widmer 2000).
256. ↑ (Widmer 2000); (Bushman 2005).
257. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
258. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
259. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
260. ↑ (Brooke 1994).
261. ↑ (Remini 2002).
262. ↑ (Quinn 1994) (describing Smith's earliest authority as charismatic authority).
263. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005); (Phelps 1833) ("[N]o one shall be appointed to receive commandments and revelations in this church, excepting my servant Joseph, for he receiveth them even as Moses.")
264. ↑ (Brodie 1971).
265. ↑ (Quinn 1994) (describing the expected role of the Council of Fifty).
266. ↑ (Quinn 1994); (Bushman 2005).
267. ↑ (Quinn 1994).
268. ↑ (Brodie 1971);(Bushman 2005); (Quinn 1994);(Roberts 1902) (On June 3, 1831, "the authority of the Melchizedek Priesthood was manifested and conferred for the first time upon several of the Elders."); (Prince 1995).
269. ↑ (Ostling Ostling); (Prince 1995); (Bushman 2005) (that the Nauvoo endowment is more akin to aspects of the Kabbalah).
270. ↑ (Prince 1995).
271. ↑ (Brooke 1994) (Smith introduced the sealing power in 1831 as part of the High Priesthood, and then attributed this power to Elijah after he appeared in an 1836 vision in the Kirtland Temple).
272. ↑ (Brooke 1994); (Brooke 1994).
273. ↑ (Brooke 1994); (Bushman 2005) (The second anointing ceremony "was Joseph's attempt to deal with the theological problem of assurance" of one's eternal life).
274. ↑ (Roberts 1909) (1842 revelation describing the New and Everlasting Covenant); (Foster 1981).
275. ↑ (Foster 1981).
276. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (those who were married eternally were then "sealed by the Holy Spirit of Promise" through the second anointing); (Brooke 1994).
277. ↑ (Roberts 1909); (Bushman 2005); (Brooke 1994).
278. ↑ (Roberts 1909) ("I have appointed unto my servant Joseph to hold this power in the last days, and there is never but one on the Earth at a time on whom this power and the keys of this Priesthood are conferred.")
279. ↑ (Foster 1981); (Compton 1997); (Smith 2008); (Brooke 1994); (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005) (noting that a modern Mormon interpretation of Smith's 1843 polygamy revelation ties both polygamy and monogamy to degrees of exaltation).
280. ↑ (Bloom 1992); (Foster 1981) ("[I]f marriage with one wife ... could bring eternal progression and ultimate godhood for men, then multiple wives in this life and the next would accelerate the process, in line with God's promise to Abraham that his seed eventually would be as numerous as the sand on the sea shore."); (Brodie 1971) ("[I]f a man went to heaven with ten wives, he would have more than ten-fold the blessings of a mere monogamist, for all the children begotten through these wives would enhance his kingdom.")
281. ↑ (Compton 1997); (Bushman 2005); (Hill 1977).
282. ↑ "Gospel Topics: Plural Marriage in Kirtland and Nauvoo", churchofjesuschrist.org (LDS Church), https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/topics/plural-marriage-in-kirtland-and-nauvoo
283. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Hill 1977) (noting that Benjamin F. Johnson "realized later that Joseph's polygamy was one cause of disruption and apostasy in Kirtland, although it was rarely discussed in public".)
284. ↑ Probably between 1833 and 1836 (Bushman 2005) (noting that Alger was fourteen in 1830 when she met Smith, and her involvement with Smith was between that date and 1836, and that the relationship may have begun as early as 1831). (Compton 1997); (Bushman 2005) (noting Compton's date and conclusion); (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005); (Smith 2008) (Cowdery questioned whether Smith and Alger were actually married, and called it "a dirty, nasty, filthy affair").
285. ↑ (Bushman 2005): "In 1838, [Cowdery] was charged with 'seeking to destroy the character of President Joseph Smith jr by falsely insinuating that he was guilty of adultery &c.' Fanny Alger's name was never mentioned, but doubtless she was the women in question." Smith "wanted it on record that he had never confessed to such a sin. Presumably, he felt innocent because he had married Alger." "Only Cowdery, who was leaving the Church, asserted Joseph's involvement.")
286. ↑ (Compton 1997) (counting at least 33 total wives); (Smith 1994) (counting 42 wives); (Brodie 1971) (counting 49 wives); (Bushman 2005) (accepting Compton's count, excepting one wife); (Quinn 1994) (counting 46 wives); (Remini 2002) (noting that the exact figure is still debated).
287. ↑ (Foster 1981); (Quinn 1994); (Compton 1997); (Bushman 2005); (Van Wagoner 1992); (Newell Avery); (Hales 2012) (Hales discusses the historical records and context of 5–11 such sealings, which indicate they were eternity-only unions.); (Quinn 2012) (Quinn acknowledged in 2012 that a recently discovered historical record regarding Ruth Sayers indicates that the union applied "only to the eternities after mortal life," disproving his previously-held "decades-long" assumption that excluded eternity-only sealings.).
288. ↑ (Compton 1997); (Remini 2002); (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005); Smith's last marriage was in November 1843 to Fanny Murray, a fifty-six-year-old widow; his youngest plural wife, Helen Mar Kimball, was fourteen.
289. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Roberts 1909); (Bushman 2005) (noting Smith's statements that unless he started to marry plural wives, an angel would slay him); (Brodie 1971) (The 1843 revelation "threatened destruction to any wife who refused to accept the new law".)
290. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
291. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
292. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005); (Remini 2002).
293. ↑ (Hill 1989) ("By assuring Emma that her salvation would be virtually certain and all but the unpardonable sin would be merely visited 'with judgment in the flesh,'" the revelation "placed enormous pressure on [Emma] to accept plural marriage."); (Bushman 2005); (Brodie 1971) (revelation indicated Emma would be "destroyed" if she refused polygamy).
294. ↑ (Bushman 2005) (Saying that Emma's participation in the endowment ceremonies may have contributed to softening her stance on plural marriage); (Quinn 1994) (Emma participated with Smith in the later "sealing" ceremony); (Bushman 2005) (Sealed on May 28, 1843).
295. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
296. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
297. ↑ (Bushman 2005).
298. ↑ (Roberts 1909).
299. ↑ (Harris Bringhurst) (saying that Smith went through a threefold change of position on slavery, initially opposing it in the 1830s, then supporting it with a strong anti-abolitionist position in the mid-1830s, then opposing it again in the early 1840s.
300. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Hill 1977); (Brodie 1971).
301. ↑ (Hill 1977).
302. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Hill 1977).
303. ↑ (Bushman 2005); (Hill 1977).
304. ↑ (Brodie 1971); (Bushman 2005); (Bloom 1992).
305. ↑ (Bushman 2005).

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## Works

* "History of the Latter Day Saints," in I. Daniel Rupp (ed.), He Pasa Ekklessia: An Original History of the Religious Denominations at Present Existing in the United States ... , Philadelphia, J.Y. Humphreys, 1844.

## External links

* Works by Joseph Smith, Jr. at Project Gutenberg
* Works by or about Joseph Smith at Internet Archive
* Works by Joseph Smith at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
* Official LDS Church site about Joseph Smith
* JosephSmithPapers.org—An LDS Church project compiling primary documents relating to Joseph Smith

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