Muhammad Iqbal

Short description: Islamic philosopher and poet (1877–1938)

"Iqbal" redirects here. For other uses, see Iqbal (disambiguation) and Muhammad Iqbal (disambiguation).

Sir
Allama

Muhammad Iqbal

Iqbal in 1931

Born| (1877-11-09)9 November 1877

Sialkot, Punjab, British India
(present-day Punjab, Pakistan)

Died| 21 April 1938(1938-04-21) (aged 60)

Lahore, Punjab, British India
(present-day Punjab, Pakistan)

Alma mater|

* Scotch Mission College (FA)
* Government College (BA, MA)
* University of Cambridge (BA)
* Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (PhD)

Notable work

| Bang-e-Dara, Tarana-e-Milli, The Secrets of the Self, The Secrets of Selflessness, Message from the East, Persian Psalms, Javid Nama, Sare Jahan se Accha
Spouse(s)|

Karim Bibi
(m. 1893, sep)

Sardar Begum
(m. 1910; died 1935)

Mukhtar Begum
(m. 1914; died 1924)

Era| Colonial India
Region| Punjab
School|

* Islamic philosophy
* idealism

Institutions| Jamia Millia Islamia (co-founder)
Thesis| The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908)
Doctoral advisor| Fritz Hommel
Language|

* Urdu
* Arabic
* Persian
* English

Main interests

* Urdu literature
* Persian poetry
* Islamic history
* Islamic revival
* pan-Islamism

Notable ideas

| Allahabad Address (1930)
Signature

Sir Muhammad Iqbal[lower-alpha 1] (9 November 1877 - 21 April 1938) was an Islamic philosopher and poet. His poetry in Urdu is considered to be among the greatest of the 20th century, and his vision of a cultural and political ideal for the Muslims of British India is widely regarded as having animated the impulse for the Pakistan Movement. He is commonly referred to by the honorific Allamah (Persian: علامه, ) and widely considered one of the most important and influential Muslim thinkers and Islamic religious philosophers of the 20th century.

Iqbal was born and raised in Sialkot, Punjab, British India and studied at Scotch Mission College in Sialkot and Government College in Lahore. He taught Arabic at the Oriental College, Lahore, from 1899 until 1903, during which time he wrote prolifically. Notable among his Urdu poems from this period are "Parinde Ki Faryad" ("A Bird's Prayer"), an early contemplation on animal rights, and "Tarana-e-Hindi" ("Anthem of the Indians"), a patriotic poem—both composed for children. In 1905, he departed from India to pursue further education in Europe, first in England and later in Germany. In England, he earned a second BA at Trinity College, Cambridge, and subsequently qualified as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn. In Germany, he obtained a PhD in philosophy at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU), with his thesis focusing on "The Development of Metaphysics in Persia" in 1908. Upon his return to Lahore in 1908, Iqbal established a law practice but primarily focused on producing scholarly works on politics, economics, history, philosophy, and religion. He is most renowned for his poetic compositions, including "Asrar-e-Khudi", "Rumuz-e-Bekhudi", and "Bang-e-Dara." His literary works in the Persian language garnered him recognition in Iran.

An ardent proponent of the political and spiritual revival of the Muslim world, particularly of the Muslims in the Indian subcontinent, the series of lectures Iqbal delivered to this effect were published as The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam in 1930. He was elected to the Punjab Legislative Council in 1927 and held several positions in the All-India Muslim League. In his Allahabad Address, delivered at the League's annual assembly in 1930, he formulated a political framework for the Muslim-majority regions spanning northwestern India, spurring the League's pursuit of the two-nation theory.

In August 1947, nine years after Iqbal's death, the partition of India gave way to the establishment of Pakistan, a newly independent Islamic state in which Iqbal was honoured as the national poet. He is also known in Pakistani society as Hakim ul-Ummat (lit. The Wise Man of the Ummah) and as Mufakkir-e-Pakistan (lit. The Thinker of Pakistan). The anniversary of his birth (Youm-e Weladat-e Muḥammad Iqbal), 9 November, is observed as a public holiday in Pakistan.

## Contents

* 1 Early life and family
* 1.1 Early education
* 1.2 Marriages
* 1.3 Higher education in Europe
* 1.4 Academic career
* 1.5 Legal career
* 1.6 Final years and death
* 2 Efforts and influences
* 2.1 Political
* 2.2 Iqbal, Jinnah, and the concept of "Pakistan"
* 2.3 Madani–Iqbal debate
* 3 Revival of Islamic policy
* 3.1 Patron of Tolu-e-Islam
* 4 Literary work
* 4.1 Persian
* 4.2 Urdu
* 4.3 English
* 4.4 Punjabi
* 5 Modern reputation
* 5.1 "Poet of the East"
* 5.2 Iran
* 5.3 Turkey
* 5.4 Indonesia
* 5.5 Arab world
* 5.6 Western countries
* 6 Legacy
* 7 Gallery
* 8 Bibliography
* 9 English Translations
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 Bibliography
* 12.1 Online
* 13 External links

## Early life and family

Sheikh Noor Muhammad, Iqbal's father

Imam Bibi, Iqbal's mother

Iqbal was born on 9 November 1877 in Sialkot, Punjab Province, British India (now in Pakistan).[1] His family were Kashmiris in Punjab, tracing their ancestry back to the Sapru clan of Kashmiri Pandits who were from a south Kashmiri village in Kulgam and converted to Islam in the 15h-century.[2][3][4] Iqbal's mother-tongue was Punjabi,[5] and he conversed mostly in Punjabi and Urdu in his daily life.[6] In the 19th century, when the Sikh Empire was conquering Kashmir, his grandfather's family migrated to Punjab. Iqbal's grandfather was an eighth cousin of Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, an important lawyer and freedom fighter who would eventually become an admirer of Iqbal.[7] Iqbal often mentioned and commemorated his Kashmiri lineage in his writings.[8] According to scholar Annemarie Schimmel, Iqbal often wrote about his being "a son of Kashmiri-Brahmans but (being) acquainted with the wisdom of Rumi and Tabrizi."[9]

Iqbal's father, Sheikh Noor Muhammad (died 1930), was a tailor, not formally educated, but a religious man.[10][11] Iqbal's mother Imam Bibi, a Kashmiri from Sambrial,[12] was described as a polite and humble woman who helped the poor and her neighbours with their problems. She died on 9 November 1914 in Sialkot.[13][14] Iqbal loved his mother, and on her death he expressed his feelings of pathos in an elegy:[10]

> Who would wait for me anxiously in my native place?

> Who would display restlessness if my letter fails to arrive?
>  I will visit thy grave with this complaint:
>  Who will now think of me in midnight prayers?
>  All thy life thy love served me with devotion—

> When I became fit to serve thee, thou hast departed.[10]

### Early education

Iqbal was four years old when he was sent to a mosque to receive instruction in reading the Qur'an.[15] He learned the Arabic and Persian languages from his teacher, Syed Mir Hassan, the head of the madrasa and professor of Arabic at Scotch Mission College in Sialkot, where he matriculated in 1893.[16] He stood first in grade one and had started versifying under the pen-name of Iqbal while still in class nine, being published in literary journals as a teenager.[17] He received an intermediate level with the Faculty of Arts diploma in 1895.[15][18][19] The same year he enrolled at Government College, Lahore, where in 1897 he obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree in philosophy, English literature, and Arabic, and won the Khan Bahadurddin F.S. Jalaluddin medal for his performance in Arabic.[18] In 1899, he received his Master of Arts degree from the same college and won first place in philosophy in the University of the Punjab.[15][18][19]

### Marriages

Muhammad Iqbal with his son Javed Iqbal in 1930

Iqbal married four times under different circumstances.[20]

* His first marriage was in 1895 when he was 18 years old. His bride, Karim Bibi, was the daughter of Khan Bahadur Ata Muhammad Khan, a leading civil surgeon and fellow Punjabi-Kashmiri based in Gujrat.[21] Her sister was the mother of director and music composer Khwaja Khurshid Anwar.[22][23] Their families arranged the marriage, and the couple had two children; a daughter, Miraj Begum (1895–1915), and a son, Aftab Iqbal (1899–1979), who became a barrister.[20][24] Aftab's son Azad Iqbal is himself a barrister as well a writer and musician, being a singer-composer in both jazz and ghazal genres.[25] Another son is said to have died after birth in 1901.

Iqbal and Karim Bibi separated somewhere between 1910 and 1913. Despite this, he continued to financially support her till his death.[26]

* Iqbal's second marriage took place on 26 August 1910 with the niece[who?] of Hakim Noor-ud-Din.[27]
* Iqbal's third marriage was with Mukhtar Begum, and it was held in December 1914, shortly after the death of Iqbal's mother the previous November.[28][18] They had a son, but both the mother and son died shortly after birth in 1924.[20]
* Later, Iqbal married Sardar Begum, and they became the parents of a son, Javed Iqbal (1924–2015), who became Senior Justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and a daughter, Muneera Bano (born 1930).[20][26] One of Muneera's sons is the philanthropist-cum-socialite Yousuf Salahuddin.[26]

### Higher education in Europe

Iqbal was influenced by the teachings of Sir Thomas Arnold, his philosophy teacher at Government College Lahore, to pursue higher education in the West.[29] In 1905, he travelled to England for that purpose, as Sir Thomas Arnold had advised him to specifically study neo-Hegelian philosophy and law at Cambridge.[30] While already acquainted with Friedrich Nietzsche and Henri Bergson, Iqbal would discover Rumi slightly before his departure to England, and he would teach the Masnavi-e-Ma'navi to his friend Swami Rama Tirtha, who in return would teach him Sanskrit.[31] Iqbal was awarded a scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1906 he graduated Bachelor of Arts there. In the same year, he was called to the bar as a barrister (or advocate) from Lincoln's Inn. In 1907, Iqbal moved to Germany to complete his doctoral studies under the supervision of Friedrich Hommel, and on 4 November 1907 he graduated as a Doctor of Philosophy from the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU) with a doctoral thesis entitled The Development of Metaphysics in Persia. This was published in London in 1908.[15][32][33][34] Among his fellow students in Munich was Hans-Hasso von Veltheim, who later happened to visit Iqbal the day before Iqbal died.[35]

Plaque at Portugal Place, Cambridge, commemorating Iqbal's residence there during his time at Trinity College

In 1907, he had a close friendship with the writer Atiya Fyzee in both Britain and Germany. Atiya would later publish their correspondence.[36] While Iqbal was in Heidelberg in 1907, his German professor Emma Wegenast taught him about Goethe's Faust, Heine and Nietzsche.[37] He mastered German in three months.[38] A street in Heidelberg has been named in his memory, "Iqbal Ufer". During his study in Europe, Iqbal began to write poetry in Persian. He preferred to write in this language because doing so made it easier to express his thoughts. He would write continuously in Persian throughout his life.[15]

### Academic career

Photograph taken during Iqbal's youth in 1899

Iqbal began his career as a reader of Arabic after completing his Master of Arts degree in 1899, at Oriental College and shortly afterward was selected as a junior professor of philosophy at Government College Lahore, where he had also been a student in the past. He worked there until he left for England in 1905. In 1907 he went to Germany for PhD In 1908, he returned from Germany and joined the same college again as a professor of philosophy and English literature.[39] In the same period Iqbal began practising law at the Chief Court of Lahore, but he soon quit law practice and devoted himself to literary works, becoming an active member of Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-Islam.[18] In 1919, he became the general secretary of the same organization. Iqbal's thoughts in his work primarily focus on the spiritual direction and development of human society, centered around experiences from his travels and stays in Western Europe and the Middle East. He was profoundly influenced by Western philosophers such as Nietzsche, Bergson, and Goethe. He also closely worked with Ibrahim Hisham during his stay at the Aligarh Muslim University.[10][37]

The poetry and philosophy of Rumi strongly influenced Iqbal. Deeply grounded in religion since childhood, Iqbal began concentrating intensely on the study of Islam, the culture and history of Islamic civilization and its political future, while embracing Rumi as "his guide".[10] Iqbal's works focus on reminding his readers of the past glories of Islamic civilization and delivering the message of a pure, spiritual focus on Islam as a source for socio-political liberation and greatness. Iqbal denounced political divisions within and amongst Muslim nations, and frequently alluded to and spoke in terms of the global Muslim community or the Ummah.[40][10]

Iqbal's poetry was translated into many European languages in the early part of the 20th century.[41] Iqbal's Asrar-i-Khudi and Javed Nama were translated into English by R. A. Nicholson and A. J. Arberry, respectively.[41][42] Upon the publication of Asrar-i-Khudi, Iqbal was honoured with a British knighthood.[43]

### Legal career

Iqbal as a barrister-at-law

Iqbal was not only a prolific writer but also a known advocate. He appeared before the Lahore High Court in both civil and criminal matters. There are more than 100 reported judgements to his name.[44][45][46][47][48][49]

### Final years and death

The tomb of Muhammad Iqbal at the entrance of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore

In 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afghanistan, Iqbal suffered from a mysterious throat illness.[50] He spent his final years helping Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan to establish the Dar ul Islam Trust Institute at a Jamalpur, Pakistan estate near Pathankot,[51][52] where there were plans to subsidize studies in classical Islam and contemporary social science. He also advocated for an independent Muslim state. Iqbal ceased practising law in 1934 and was granted a pension by the Nawab of Bhopal. In his final years, he frequently visited the Dargah of famous Sufi Ali Hujwiri in Lahore for spiritual guidance. After suffering for months from his illness, Iqbal died in Lahore on 21 April 1938.[40][15] It is maintained that he died listening to a kafi of Bulleh Shah.[53][54] His tomb is located in Hazuri Bagh, the enclosed garden between the entrance of the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort, and official guards are provided by the Government of Pakistan.

## Efforts and influences

### Political

Iqbal with Muslim politicians.
(L to R): M. Iqbal (third), Syed Zafarul Hasan (sixth) at Aligarh Muslim University.

Iqbal first became interested in national affairs in his youth. He received considerable recognition from the Punjabi elite after his return from England in 1908, and he was closely associated with Mian Muhammad Shafi. When the All-India Muslim League was expanded to the provincial level, and Shafi received a significant role in the structural organization of the Punjab Muslim League, Iqbal was made one of the first three joint secretaries along with Shaikh Abdul Aziz and Maulvi Mahbub Alam.[55][56] While dividing his time between law practice and poetry, Iqbal remained active in the Muslim League. He did not support Indian involvement in World War I and stayed in close touch with Muslim political leaders such as Mohammad Ali Jouhar and Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He was a critic of the mainstream Indian National Congress, which he regarded as dominated by Hindus, and was disappointed with the League when, during the 1920s, it was absorbed in factional divides between the pro-British group led by Shafi and the centrist group led by Jinnah.[57] He was active in the Khilafat Movement, and was among the founding fathers of Jamia Millia Islamia which was established at Aligarh in October 1920. He was also given the offer of being the first vice-chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia by Mahatma Gandhi, which he refused.[58]

Muhammad Iqbal, then president of the Muslim League in 1930 and address deliverer

In November 1926, with the encouragement of friends and supporters, Iqbal contested the election for a seat in the Punjab Legislative Assembly from the Muslim district of Lahore, and defeated his opponent by a margin of 3,177 votes.[40][56] He supported the constitutional proposals presented by Jinnah to guarantee Muslim political rights and influence in a coalition with the Congress and worked with the Aga Khan and other Muslim leaders to mend the factional divisions and achieve unity in the Muslim League.[57] While in Lahore he was a friend of Abdul Sattar Ranjoor.[59]

### Iqbal, Jinnah, and the concept of "Pakistan"

Ideologically separated from Congress Muslim leaders, Iqbal had also been disillusioned with the politicians of the Muslim League, owing to the factional conflict that plagued the League in the 1920s. Discontented with factional leaders like Shafi and Fazl-ur-Rahman, Iqbal came to believe that only Jinnah was a political leader capable of preserving unity and fulfilling the League's objectives of Muslim political empowerment. Building a strong, personal correspondence with Jinnah, Iqbal was influential in convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile in London, return to India and take charge of the League. Iqbal firmly believed that Jinnah was the only leader capable of drawing Indian Muslims to the League and maintaining party unity before the British and the Congress:

> I know you are a busy man, but I do hope you won't mind my writing to you often, as you are the only Muslim in India today to whom the community has the right to look up to for safe guidance through the storm which is coming to North-West India and, perhaps, to the whole of India.[60]

While Iqbal espoused the idea of Muslim-majority provinces in 1930, Jinnah would continue to hold talks with the Congress through the decade and only officially embraced the goal of Pakistan in 1940. Some historians postulate that Jinnah always remained hopeful for an agreement with the Congress and never fully desired the partition of India.[61] Iqbal's close correspondence with Jinnah is speculated by some historians as having been responsible for Jinnah's embrace of the idea of Pakistan. Iqbal elucidated to Jinnah his vision of a separate Muslim state in a letter sent on 21 June 1937:

> A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have suggested above, is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of Non-Muslims. Why should not the Muslims of North-West India and Bengal be considered as nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and outside India are.[40]

Iqbal, serving as president of the Punjab Muslim League, criticized Jinnah's political actions, including a political agreement with Punjabi leader Sikandar Hyat Khan, whom Iqbal saw as a representative of feudal classes and not committed to Islam as the core political philosophy. Nevertheless, Iqbal worked constantly to encourage Muslim leaders and masses to support Jinnah and the League. Speaking about the political future of Muslims in India, Iqbal said:

> There is only one way out. Muslims should strengthen Jinnah's hands. They should join the Muslim League. Indian question, as is now being solved, can be countered by our united front against both the Hindus and the English. Without it, our demands are not going to be accepted. People say our demands smack of communalism. This is sheer propaganda. These demands relate to the defense of our national existence. The united front can be formed under the leadership of the Muslim League. And the Muslim League can succeed only on account of Jinnah. Now, none but Jinnah is capable of leading the Muslims.[60]

### Madani–Iqbal debate

A famous debate was held between Iqbal and Hussain Ahmad Madani on the question of nationalism in the late 1930s. Madani's position throughout was to insist on the Islamic legitimacy of embracing a culturally plural, secular democracy as the best and the only realistic future for India's Muslims where Iqbal insisted on a religiously defined, homogeneous Muslim society. Madani and Iqbal both appreciated this point and they never advocated the creation of an absolute 'Islamic State'. They differed only in their first step. According to Madani the first step was the freedom of India for which composite nationalism was necessary. According to Iqbal the first step was the creation of a community of Muslims in the Muslim majority land, i.e. a Muslim India within India.[62][63]

## Revival of Islamic policy

Iqbal in 1935 Iqbal praying at the Cordoba Mosque in Spain, 1933

Iqbal expressed fears that not only would secularism weaken the spiritual foundations of Islam and Muslim society but that India's Hindu-majority population would crowd out Muslim heritage, culture, and political influence. In his travels to Egypt, Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey, he promoted ideas of greater Islamic political co-operation and unity, calling for the shedding of nationalist differences.[10] He also speculated on different political arrangements to guarantee Muslim political power; in a dialogue with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, Iqbal expressed his desire to see Indian provinces as autonomous units under the direct control of the British government and with no central Indian government. He envisaged autonomous Muslim regions in India. Under a single Indian union, he feared for Muslims, who would suffer in many respects, especially concerning their existentially separate entity as Muslims.[40]

Iqbal was elected president of the Muslim League in 1930 at its session in Allahabad in the United Provinces,[64] as well as for the session in Lahore in 1932. In his presidential address on 29 December 1930 he outlined a vision of an independent state for Muslim-majority provinces in north-western India:[64][40][65]

> I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated Northwest Indian Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of Northwest India.[40][65]

In his speech, Iqbal emphasised that, unlike Christianity, Islam came with "legal concepts" with "civic significance", with its "religious ideals" considered as inseparable from social order: "Therefore, if it means a displacement of the Islamic principle of solidarity, the construction of a policy on national lines, is simply unthinkable to a Muslim."[66] Iqbal thus stressed not only the need for the political unity of Muslim communities but the undesirability of blending the Muslim population into a wider society not based on Islamic principles. Even as he rejected secularism and nationalism he would not elucidate or specify if his ideal Islamic state would be a theocracy, and criticized the "intellectual attitudes" of Islamic scholars (ulema) as having "reduced the Law of Islam practically to the state of immobility".[67]

He would serve as president of the Punjab Muslim League, and would deliver speeches and publish articles in an attempt to rally Muslims across India as a single political entity. Iqbal consistently criticized feudal classes in Punjab as well as Muslim politicians opposed to the League. Many accounts of Iqbal's frustration toward Congress leadership were also pivotal in providing a vision for the two-nation theory.[64][68][69]

### Patron of Tolu-e-Islam

Copy of the first issue of Tolu-e-Islam

Iqbal was the first patron of Tolu-e-Islam, an historical, political, religious and cultural journal of the Muslims of British India. For a long time, Iqbal wanted a journal to propagate his ideas and the aims and objectives of the All India Muslim League. In 1935, according to his instructions, Syed Nazeer Niazi initiated and edited the journal,[70] named after Iqbal's poem "Tulu'i Islam". Niazi dedicated the first issue of the journal to Iqbal. The journal would play an important role in the Pakistan movement.[57] Later, the journal was continued[71] by Ghulam Ahmed Pervez, who had contributed many articles in its early editions.

## Literary work

### Persian

Iqbal's poetic works are written primarily in Persian rather than Urdu. Among his 12,000 verses of poetry, about 7,000 verses are in Persian.[40] In 1915, he published his first collection of poetry, the Asrar-i-Khudi اسرارِ خودی (Secrets of the Self) in Persian, for which he was honoured with a British knighthood upon its publication.[72] The poems emphasise the spirit and self from a religious perspective. Many critics have called this Iqbal's finest poetic work.[73] In Asrar-i-Khudi, Iqbal explains his philosophy of "Khudi",[74][75] or "Self".[40][10] Iqbal's use of the term "Khudi" is synonymous with the word "Rooh" used in the Quran for a divine spark which is present in every human being, and was said by Iqbal to be present in Adam, for which God ordered all of the angels to prostrate in front of Adam.[40] Iqbal condemns self-destruction. For him, the aim of life is self-realisation and self-knowledge. He charts the stages through which the "Self" has to pass before finally arriving at its point of perfection, enabling the knower of the "Self" to become a vice-regent of God.[40] When Asrar-i-Khudi was published, its first appearance is said to have taken the younger generation of Hindustani Muslims by storm. 'Iqbal has come amongst us as a Messiah and stirred the dead into life', so wrote R.A.Nicholson, whose prose version and translation of the work first introduced Iqbal's writings to the Western public. The book is divided into eighteen chapters. Several of these attempt to explain the Self, and its relationship with the universe and the creation of God - placing the sacred nature of man at the centre of existence. Two of the chapters cover the importance of devotion and love on the Self:

When the Self is made strong by Love

It rules the whole world from above

Even the Sage who adorned the night skies

Plucks celestial buds from the Self’s sighs

Its hand becomes God’s Hand

The moon is split by the Self’s command

The Self is the judge of all worldly disputes

Its decree even Darius and Jamshid cannot refuse[76]

The remaining chapters go on to enforce further moral and religious ethical lessons through the use of parables, symbols and examples. He uses opposites to draw clear distinctions between the polished Self and the lost, egotistical and hypocritical nature of the Self. In chapter thirteen Iqbal creates a dialogue between a diamond and a coal, and in chapter fourteen the Sheikh and a Brahman are brought together, as well as the Ganges and the Himalaya. In one of the longest chapters, ‘On the true nature of poetry and the reformation of Islamic literature’, Iqbal expresses significant reservations about poetry, and his own role as a poet. In a letter dated 1936, two years before his death he writes: ‘I do not consider myself a poet. If I am presented in this role, I feel embarrassed. My ancestors belonged to the Sapru family of Kashmiri Brahmins who never composed poetry. I have no aptitude for music and painting either. Unfortunately, I had to take refuge in poetry to express my thoughts. Perhaps I would have been more successful in another field’. In his book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, he is openly critical of poetry that served only decorative or escapist purposes. He saw much of contemporary poetry, as well as classical, Persian and Urdu poetry as promoting fatalism, passivity, and mythical escapism, which were antithetical to his philosophy of ‘Khudi’ (Selfhood). He believed true art should have a higher purpose. In this sense, he was against poetry as mere entertainment or idle ornamentation. In the introduction to the Secrets of the Self, he writes:[77]

Mere poetry is not the aim of this Masnavi

Nor devotion to beauty, or love’s fanatic ecstasy

I am of Hind, Persian is not native to me

I am like the crescent moon, my cup is not full you see

Do not seek from me wit and a charming tongue

Do not seek from me Khansar and Isfahan

Though Urdu is refined and sweet

The sweetness of Persian it cannot beat

Its wondrous beauty enchanted my mind

Out of the Burning Bush my pen was designed

In such high places are my ideas caught

That Persian alone captures my thoughts[78]

In his Rumuz-i-Bekhudi رموزِ بیخودی (Hints of Selflessness), Iqbal seeks to prove the Islamic way of life is the best code of conduct for a nation's viability. A person must keep his characteristics intact, he asserts, but once this is achieved, he should sacrifice his ambitions for the needs of the nation. Man cannot realize the "Self" outside of society. Published in 1917, this group of poems has as its main themes the ideal community,[40] Islamic ethical and social principles, and the relationship between the individual and society. Although he supports Islam, Iqbal also recognizes the positive aspects of other religions. Rumuz-i-Bekhudi complements the emphasis on the self in Asrar-e-Khudi and the two collections are often put in the same volume under the title Asrar-i-Rumuz (Hinting Secrets). It is addressed to the world's Muslims.[40]

Iqbal's 1924 publication, the Payam-e-Mashriq پیامِ مشرق (The Message of the East), is closely connected to the West-östlicher Diwan by the German poet Goethe. Goethe bemoans the West having become too materialistic in outlook, and expects the East will provide a message of hope to resuscitate spiritual values. Iqbal styles his work as a reminder to the West of the importance of morality, religion, and civilization by underlining the need for cultivating feeling, ardor, and dynamism. He asserts that an individual can never aspire to higher dimensions unless he learns of the nature of spirituality.[40] In his first visit to Afghanistan, he presented Payam-e Mashreq to King Amanullah Khan. In it, he admired the uprising of Afghanistan against the British Empire. In 1933, he was officially invited to Afghanistan to join the meetings regarding the establishment of Kabul University.[37]

The Zabur-e-Ajam زبورِ عجم (Persian Psalms), published in 1927, includes the poems "Gulshan-e-Raz-e-Jadeed" ("Garden of New Secrets") and "Bandagi Nama" ("Book of Slavery"). In "Gulshan-e-Raz-e-Jadeed", Iqbal first poses questions, then answers them with the help of ancient and modern insight. "Bandagi Nama" denounces slavery and attempts to explain the spirit behind the fine arts of enslaved societies. Here, as in other books, Iqbal insists on remembering the past, doing well in the present and preparing for the future, while emphasising love, enthusiasm and energy to fulfill the ideal life.[40]

Iqbal's 1932 work, the Javed Nama جاوید نامہ (Book of Javed), is named after and in a manner addressed to his son, who is featured in the poems. It follows the examples of the works of Ibn Arabi and Dante's The Divine Comedy, through mystical and exaggerated depictions across time. Iqbal depicts himself as Zinda Rud ("A stream full of life") guided by Rumi, "the master", through various heavens and spheres and has the honour of approaching divinity and coming in contact with divine illuminations. In a passage reliving a historical period, Iqbal condemns the Muslims who were instrumental in the defeat and death of Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula of Bengal and Tipu Sultan of Mysore by betraying them for the benefit of the British colonists, and thus delivering their country to the shackles of slavery. In the end, by addressing his son Javed, he speaks to the young people at large, and guides the "new generation".[79]

Pas Chih Bayed Kard Ay Aqwam-e-Sharq پس چہ باید کرد اے اقوامِ شرق includes the poem "Musafir" مسافر ("The Traveller"). Again, Iqbal depicts Rumi as a character and gives an exposition of the mysteries of Islamic laws and Sufi perceptions. Iqbal laments the dissension and disunity among the Indian Muslims as well as Muslim nations. "Musafir" is an account of one of Iqbal's journeys to Afghanistan, in which the Pashtun people are counselled to learn the "secret of Islam" and to "build up the self" within themselves.[40]

His love of the Persian language is evident in his works and poetry. He says in one of his poems:[80]

> گرچہ ہندی در عذوبت شکر است[81]

> garchi Hindi dar uzūbat shakkar ast

> طرز گفتار دري شيرين تر است

> tarz-i guftar-i Dari shirin tar ast

Translation: Even though in sweetness Hindi* [archaic name for Urdu, lit. "language of India"] is sugar – (but) speech method in Dari [the variety of Persian in Afghanistan] is sweeter *

Throughout his life, Iqbal would prefer writing in Persian as he believed it allowed him to fully express philosophical concepts, and it gave him a wider audience.[82]

### Urdu

Sir Muhammad Iqbal in 1935, by Lady Ottoline Morrell

Muhammad Iqbal's The Call of the Marching Bell (بانگِ درا, bang-e-dara), his first collection of Urdu poetry, was published in 1924. It was written in three distinct phases of his life.[40] The poems he wrote up to 1905—the year he left for England—reflect patriotism and the imagery of nature, including the Urdu language patriotic "Saare Jahan se Accha".[37][79] The second set of poems date from 1905 to 1908, when Iqbal studied in Europe, and dwell upon the nature of European society, which he emphasised had lost spiritual and religious values. This inspired Iqbal to write poems on the historical and cultural heritage of Islam and the Muslim community, with a global perspective. Iqbal urges the entire Muslim community, addressed as the Ummah, to define personal, social and political existence by the values and teachings of Islam.[83]

Iqbal's works were in Persian for most of his career, but after 1930 his works were mainly in Urdu. His works in this period were often specifically directed at the Muslim masses of India, with an even stronger emphasis on Islam and Muslim spiritual and political reawakening. Published in 1935, Bal-e-Jibril بالِ جبریل (Wings of Gabriel) is considered by many critics as his finest Urdu poetry and was inspired by his visit to Spain, where he visited the monuments and legacy of the kingdom of the Moors. It consists of ghazals, miscellaneous poems, quatrains and epigrams and carries a strong sense of religious passion.[84]

Zarb-i-Kalim ضربِ کلیم (or The Rod of Moses) is another book of philosophical poetry by Allama Iqbal in Urdu published in 1936, two years before his death, which he described as his political manifesto. It was published with the subtitle "A Declaration of War Against the Present Times." Muhammad Iqbal argues that modern problems are due to the godlessness, materialism, and injustice of modern civilization, which feeds on the subjugation and exploitation of weak nations, especially the Indian Muslims.[85]

Iqbal's final work was Armughan-e-Hijaz ارمغانِ حجاز (The Gift of Hijaz), published posthumously in 1938. The first part contains quatrains in Persian, and the second part contains some poems and epigrams in Urdu. The Persian quatrains convey the impression that the poet is travelling through the Hijaz in his imagination. The profundity of ideas and intensity of passion are the salient features of these short poems.[86]

Iqbal's vision of mystical experience is clear in one of his Urdu ghazals, which was written in London during his student days. Some verses of that ghazal are:[40]

> At last, the silent tongue of Hijaz has

> announced to the ardent ear the tiding
>  That the covenant which had been given to the
>  desert-[dwellers] is going to be renewed
>  vigorously:
>  The lion who had emerged from the desert and
>  had toppled the Roman Empire is
>  As I am told by the angels, about to get up
>  again (from his slumbers.)
>  You the [dwellers] of the West, should know that
>  the world of God is not a shop (of yours).
>  Your imagined pure gold is about to lose its
>  standard value (as fixed by you).
>  Your civilization will commit suicide with its own daggers.

> For a house built on a fragile bark of wood is not longlasting[40]

In Bang-e-Dra, a ghazal titled 'Tere Ishq Ki Intiha Chahta Hoon' (Completion of Your Love is What I Desire):

> Completion of Your Love is what I desire

> Look at my sincerity, what little I desire

> It may be oppression or the promise of unveiling

> Something testing my perseverance I desire

> May the pious be happy with this paradise

> To be in Your company, that’s all I desire

> Though I am but a small heart, I exhibit such boldness

> To hear the same, ‘I cannot be seen’1 I desire

> O assembly’s companions! I exist for a speck

> I am the dawn’s candle, I am about to be extinguished

> I have divulged the secret to the packed assembly

> I am very insolent; punishment I desire.[87]

### English

Iqbal wrote two books, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908) and The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1930), and many letters in the English language. He also wrote a book on EconomicsTemplate:Title? that is now rare. In these, he revealed his thoughts regarding Persian ideology and Islamic Sufism – in particular, his beliefs that Islamic Sufism activates the searching soul to a superior perception of life. He also discussed philosophy, God and the meaning of prayer, human spirit and Muslim culture, as well as other political, social and religious problems.[40]

Iqbal was invited to Cambridge to participate in a conference in 1931, where he expressed his views, including those on the separation of church and state, to students and other participants:[40]

> I would like to offer a few pieces of advice to the young men who are at present studying at Cambridge. ... I advise you to guard against atheism and materialism. The biggest blunder made by Europe was the separation of Church and State. This deprived their culture of moral soul and diverted it to atheistic materialism. I had twenty-five years ago seen through the drawbacks of this civilization and, therefore, had made some prophecies. They had been delivered by my tongue, although I did not quite understand them. This happened in 1907. ... After six or seven years, my prophecies came true, word by word. The European war of 1914 was an outcome of the mistakes mentioned above made by the European nations in the separation of the Church and the State.[40]

### Punjabi

Iqbal also wrote some poems in Punjabi, such as "Piyaara Jedi" and "Baba Bakri Wala", which he penned in 1929 on the occasion of his son Javed's birthday. A collection of his Punjabi poetry was put on display in 2016 at the Iqbal Manzil in Sialkot.[88]

Iqbal was deeply influenced by Punjabi Sufis. Once a comrade recited a poem by Bulleh Shah and he was "so much touched and overwhelmed...that tears rolled down his cheeks."[89]

## Modern reputation

### "Poet of the East"

Iqbal after the conferment of a Doctorate of Literature by the University of the Punjab in 1933

Iqbal has been referred to as the "Poet of the East" by academics, institutions and the media.[42][90][91][92][93][94][95] He is often known by the title "Allama" within Pakistan.[96]

The Vice-Chancellor of Quaid-e-Azam University, Dr. Masoom Yasinzai, stated in a seminar addressing a distinguished gathering of educators and intellectuals that Iqbal is not only a poet of the East but is a universal poet. Moreover, Iqbal is not restricted to any specific segment of the world community, but he is for all humanity.[97]

> Yet it should also be borne in mind that while dedicating his Eastern Divan to Goethe, the cultural icon par excellence, Iqbal's Payam-i-Mashriq constituted both a reply as well as a corrective to the Western Divan of Goethe. For by stylizing himself as the representative of the East, Iqbal endeavored to talk on equal terms to Goethe as the representative of West.[98]

Iqbal's revolutionary works through his poetry affected the Muslims of the subcontinent. Iqbal thought that Muslims had long been suppressed by the colonial enlargement and growth of the West. For this concept, Iqbal is recognized as the "Poet of the East".[91][99][100]

> So to conclude, let me cite Annemarie Schimmel in Gabriel's Wing who lauds Iqbal's "unique way of weaving a grand tapestry of thought from eastern and western yarns" (p. xv), a creative activity which, to cite my own volume Revisioning Iqbal, endows Muhammad Iqbal with the stature of a "universalist poet" and thinker whose principal aim was to explore mitigating alternative discourses to construct a bridge between the "East" and the "West."[98]

The Urdu world is very familiar with Iqbal as the "Poet of the East".[100] Iqbal is also called Muffakir-e-Pakistan ("The Thinker of Pakistan") and Hakeem-ul-Ummat ("The Sage of the Ummah"). The Pakistan government officially named him Pakistan's "national poet".[41]

### Iran

In Iran, Iqbal is known as Iqbāl-e Lāhorī (Persian: اقبال لاهوری) (Iqbal of Lahore). Iqbal's Asrare-i-Khudi and Bal-i-Jibreel are particularly popular in Iran. At the same time, many scholars in Iran have recognized the importance of Iqbal's poetry in inspiring and sustaining the Iranian Revolution of 1979.[101][102] During the early phases of the revolutionary movement, it was common to see people gathering in a park or corner to listen to someone reciting Iqbal's Persian poetry, which is why people of all ages in Iran today are familiar with at least some of his poetry, notably Zabur-i-Ajam.[103][102]

Iranian supreme leader Ali Khamenei has stated, "We have a large number of non-Persian-speaking poets in the history of our literature, but I cannot point out any of them whose poetry possesses the qualities of Iqbal's Persian poetry. Iqbal was not acquainted with Persian idiom, as he spoke Urdu at home and talked to his friends in Urdu or English. He did not know the rules of Persian prose writing. [...] In spite of not having tasted the Persian way of life, never living in the cradle of Persian culture, and never having any direct association with it, he cast with great mastery the most delicate, the most subtle and radically new philosophical themes into the mould of Persian poetry, some of which are unsurpassable yet."[104]

By the early 1950s, Iqbal became known among the intelligentsia of Iran. Iranian poet laureate Muhammad Taqi Bahar universalized Iqbal in Iran. He highly praised the work of Iqbal in Persian.[105]

Iqbal became even more popular in Iran in the 1970s. His verses appeared on banners, and his poetry was recited at meetings of intellectuals. Iqbal inspired many intellectuals, including Ali Shariati, Mehdi Bazargan and Abdulkarim Soroush. His book The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam was translated by Mohammad Masud Noruzi.[102]

Key Iranian thinkers and leaders who were influenced by Iqbal's poetry during the rise of the Iranian revolution include Khamenei, Shariati and Soroush, although much of the revolutionary guard was familiar with Iqbal's poetry.[106] At the inauguration of the First Iqbal Summit in Tehran (1986), Khamenei stated that in its "conviction that the Quran and Islam are to be made the basis of all revolutions and movements", Iran was "exactly following the path that was shown to us by Iqbal".[106] Shariati, who has been described as a core ideologue for the Iranian Revolution, described Iqbal as a figure who brought a message of "rejuvenation", "awakening" and "power" to the Muslim world.[107]

More recent admirers of Iqbal from Iran include former President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel, a former Speaker of Parliament and writer.[108]

### Turkey

Mehmet Akif Ersoy, considered the national poet of Turkey for having composed its national anthem, was directly influenced by Iqbal.[109]

In 2016, Turkey's Minister for Culture and Tourism Nabi Avcı presented the Dost Award to Walid Iqbal, the grandson of Iqbal, in order to honour Iqbal's "services to Islam", the ceremony being held in Konya, the resting place of Rumi.[110]

### Indonesia

Amongst the admirers of Iqbal was Indonesian revolutionary and president Sukarno who considered Iqbal "a hero of philosophy, literature, and religion."[111]

Numerous religious and political figures of Indonesia have been impacted by Iqbal, including Mohammad Natsir, who had served as the country's prime minister and who, in a speech, honoured Iqbal as a pivotal figure in Islamic intellectual history who rejuvenated Muslim self-consciousness through poetic and philosophical works. He emphasises Iqbal’s concept of khudi (selfhood) and how Iqbal critiqued the separation of religion and state, his opposition to Western materialism, capitalism, socialism, and his advocacy for an Islamic state grounded in spiritual values.[112]

### Arab world

Iqbal has an audience in the Arab world, and in Egypt one of his poems has been sung by Umm Kulthum, the most famous modern Egyptian artist, while among his modern admirers there are influential literary figures such as Farouk Shousha.[113] In Saudi Arabia, among the important personalities who were influenced by Iqbal there was Abdullah bin Faisal Al Saud, a member of the Saudi royal family and himself a poet.[114]

### Western countries

Sign for the street Iqbal-Ufer in Heidelberg, Germany, honouring Iqbal[115]

Iqbal's views on the Western world have been applauded by Westerners, including United States Supreme Court Associate Justice William O. Douglas, who said that Iqbal's beliefs had "universal appeal".[116] Soviet biographer N. P. Anikoy wrote:

> [Iqbal is] great for his passionate condemnation of weak will and passiveness, his angry protest against inequality, discrimination and oppression in all forms, i.e., economic, social, political, national, racial, religious, etc., his preaching of optimism, an active attitude towards life and man's high purpose in the world, in a word, he is great for his assertion of the noble ideals and principles of humanism, democracy, peace and friendship among peoples.[116]

Others, including Wilfred Cantwell Smith, stated that with Iqbal's anti-capitalist holdings, he was "anti-intellect", because "capitalism fosters intellect".[116] Freeland Abbott objected to Iqbal's views of the West, saying that they were based on the role of imperialism and that Iqbal was not immersed enough in Western culture to learn about the various benefits of the modern democracies, economic practices and science.[116] Critics of Abbot's viewpoint note that Iqbal was raised and educated in the European way of life, and spent enough time there to grasp the general concepts of Western civilization.[116]

## Legacy

"ؒصد سالہ تقریب پیدائش علامہ محمد اقبال"
(P, sad, one hundred) (P. sāla/sālha, years) (A taqrīb, anniversary) (P. paidāʼish, birth) of Allamah Muhammad Iqbal (R.A) on the obverse and
"حکومتِ پاکستان 1 روپیہ"
"Government of Pakistan, 1 Rūpiyah" on the reverse, among commemorative coins issued by the State Bank of Pakistan in 1977.

Iqbal is considered the greatest Urdu poet of the 20th century.[117][118][119][120] Apart from Urdu, he is also recognized as a leading Persian poet[121][122] and one of the foremost Islamic philosophers of the modern era.[123][124][125] Iqbal is widely commemorated in Pakistan, where he is regarded as the ideological founder of the state.[122][126] Iqbal is the namesake of many public institutions, including the Allama Iqbal Campus Punjab University in Lahore, the Allama Iqbal Medical College in Lahore, Iqbal Stadium in Faisalabad, Allama Iqbal Open University in Pakistan, Iqbal Memorial Institute in Srinagar, Allama Iqbal Library in the University of Kashmir, the Allama Iqbal International Airport in Lahore, Iqbal Hostel in Government College University, Lahore, the Allama Iqbal Hall at Nishtar Medical College in Multan, Gulshan-e-Iqbal Town in Karachi, Allama Iqbal Town in Lahore, Allama Iqbal Hall at Aligarh Muslim University, Allama Iqbal Hostel at Jamia Millia Islamia in New Delhi and Iqbal Hall at the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore.[127] Iqbal Academy Lahore has published magazines on Iqbal in Persian, English and Urdu.

In India, his song "Tarana-e-Hind" is frequently played as a patriotic song speaking of communal harmony.[79][128] Dr. Mohammad Iqbal, an Indian documentary film directed by K.A. Abbas and written by Ali Sardar Jafri was released in 1978. It was produced by Government of India's Films Division.[129][130]

The Government of Madhya Pradesh in India awards the Iqbal Samman, named in honour of the poet, every year at the Bharat Bhavan to Indian writers for their contributions to Urdu literature and poetry.[131]

The Pakistani government and public organizations have sponsored the establishment of educational institutions, colleges, and schools dedicated to Iqbal and have established the Iqbal Academy Pakistan to research, teach and preserve his works, literature and philosophy. The Allama Iqbal Stamps Society was established for the promotion of Iqbal in philately and in other hobbies. His son Javed Iqbal served as a justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. Javaid Manzil was Iqbal's last residence.[132]

In Bangladesh, Sir Iqbal Road in Khulna named after him.[133]

## Gallery

* At a party during the 2nd Round Table Conference in London in 1931

* A view of the conference in West Jerusalem. Iqbal is seen sitting on the extreme right in the first row (1931).

* Iqbal reception given by the National League, London, in 1932

* Iqbal in 1934

* Iqbal in a reception given by citizens of Lahore in 1933

* Iqbal at Shimla in 1930s

* Iqbal in Afghanistan with Sulmain Nadavi and Ross Masood

* A monument displaying Iqbal

## Bibliography

Prose book in Urdu

* Ilm-ul-Iqtisad (1903)[40]

Prose books in English

* The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908)[41][40]
* The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1930)[41][40]

Poetic books in Persian

* Asrar-i-Khudi (1915)[40]
* Rumuz-i-Bekhudi (1917)[40]
* Payam-i-Mashriq (1923)[40]
* Zabur-i-Ajam (1927)[40]
* Javid Nama (1932)[40]
* Pas Cheh Bayed Kard ai Aqwam-e-Sharq (1936)[40]
* Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938)[41][40][57] (in Persian and Urdu)

Poetic books in Urdu

* Bang-i-Dara (1924)[40]
* Bal-i-Jibril (1935)[40]
* Zarb-i Kalim (1936)[40]
* Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938)[41][40][57] (in Persian and Urdu)

## English Translations

Ali, Zirrar (2026) Masnavi Iqbal: Secrets of the Self[77]

Mir, Mustansir (2000) Tulip in the Desert: A Selection of Iqbal's Poetry

D.J. Matthews (2017). Iqbal, a Selection of the Urdu Verse

Ali, Zirrar (2021) Ghazi and the Garden: Poetry of Muhammad Iqbal by Zirrar Ali[87]

## See also

* Index of Muhammad Iqbal–related articles

## References

1. ↑ Urdu: محمد اقبال

1. ↑ Mushtaq, Faraz. "Life of Allama Iqbal" (in en-gb). International Iqbal Society (Formerly DISNA). http://www.iqbal.com.pk/iqbal/life-of-iqbal.
2. ↑ Jalal, Ayesha (4 January 2002) (in en). Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850. Routledge. pp. 166. ISBN 978-1-134-59937-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA166. "A Muslim, an Indian and a Punjabi of Kashmiri ancestry, all at the same time, Iqbal's own individuality and sense of community was shaped in equal measure by these multiple affiliations."
3. ↑ Khalid Bashir Ahmad, Kashmir: Exposing the Myth behind the Narrative, SAGE Publishing India, 2017, p. 162
4. ↑ Justice Dr. Nasim Hasan Shah, "Role of Iqbal in the creation of Pakistan" in The All-Pakistan Legal Decisions, Volume 35, Part 1, 1983, p. 208
5. ↑ Schimmel 1963, p. 37: Iqbal's mother-tongue was Panjabi, and even in his later poetry now and then a Panjabi-inspired expression occurs.
6. ↑ Gandhi, Rajmohan (1 January 1986) (in en). Eight Lives: A Study of the Hindu-Muslim Encounter. State University of New York Press. pp. 72. ISBN 978-0-88706-196-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=CorzOY37E0wC&pg=PA72. "Leg-pulling, innocent naughtiness and hearty laughter were the marks, and religion almost always the subject, of Iqbal's conversation, which was mostly in Punjabi or in an Urdu with a natural Punjabi accent."
7. ↑ TNN (30 May 2015), "'Happy that Iqbal is revered here'", The Times of India. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
8. ↑ Sevea, Iqbal Singh (2012). The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India. Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-139-53639-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Fk8hAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16.
9. ↑ Schimmel 1963, p. 35
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 Schimmel, Annemarie (1962). Gabriel's Wing: a study of the religious ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal. Brill Archive. pp. 34–45. https://books.google.com/books?id=goE3AAAAIAAJ.
11. ↑ Mir, Mustansir (2006). Iqbal. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-84511-094-3.
12. ↑ Riffat Hassan, "Iqbal's Ancestry and Date of Birth" in The Pakistan Review, Volume 17 (1969), p. 5
13. ↑ Sharma, Jai Narain (2008). Encyclopædia of eminent thinkers, volume 17. Concept Publishing Company. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-7022-684-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=sKMK9WY9OOsC.
14. ↑ The Pakistan Review, (1969) Volume 17 , p. 5
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 Sharif, Imran (21 April 2011). "Allama Iqbal's 73rd death anniversary observed with reverence". Pakistan Today. http://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2011/04/allama-iqbal’s-73rd-death-anniversary-observed-with-reverence/.
16. ↑ Mushtaq, Faraz. "Time line" (in en-gb). International Iqbal Society (Formerly DISNA). http://www.iqbal.com.pk/iqbal/time-line.
17. ↑ Ahmed, Khaled (9 November 2017). "The Name — Not The Philosophy — Lives On". https://www.dawn.com/news/1704841/the-name-not-the-philosophy-lives-on.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 "Iqbal in years" (PHP). http://www.allamaiqbal.com/person/years/years.htm.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Taneja, V.R; Taneja, S. (2004). Educational thinkers. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 151. ISBN 81-7156-112-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=O6Fp2zaQVVMC&pg=PA151.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 "New research on Iqbal". Dawn. 10 November 2003. https://www.dawn.com/news/1065249.
21. ↑ Lt. Col. K. A. Rashid, "New light on the Early life of Iqbal" in Islamic Education, Volume 8 (1975), Page 75. "Ata Muhammad, was a medical man and a leading Kashmiri Muslim of those days in the Punjab."
22. ↑ Muḥammad Saʻīd, Lahore: A Memoir, Vanguard Books (1989), p. 175
23. ↑ Harjap Singh Aujla, Khurshid Anwar, a prince among the music directors of the sub-continent and his exploits in British and Independent India, Khurshid Anwar Biography, Academy of Punjab in North America website, Retrieved 29 September 2015
24. ↑ Fedele, Roberta (31 July 2013). "From grandfather to grandson: The legacy of Mohammed Iqbal". Saudi Gazette. http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/54660/From-grandfather-to-grandson-The-legacy-of-Mohammed-Iqbal-.
25. ↑ Fedele, Roberta (31 July 2013). "From grandfather to grandson: The legacy of Mohammed Iqbal" (in en). https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/54660.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Shah, Sabir (4 October 2015). "Justice Javed Iqbal dies two days before his 91st birthday". The News. https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/65913-justice-javed-iqbal-dies-two-days-before-his-91st-birthday.
27. ↑ Khutbat e Noor, page 477
28. ↑ Samiuddin, Abida (2007). Encyclopaedic dictionary of Urdu literature (2 Vols. Set). Global Vision Publishing House. p. 304. ISBN 978-81-8220-191-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=-otQriwQ9z4C.
29. ↑ Ali, Tariq (2002). The clash of fundamentalisms: crusades, Jihads and modernity (1. publ ed.). London: Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-679-7.
30. ↑ "IQBAL, MUHAMMAD" (in en-US). https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iqbal-muhammad/.
31. ↑ Syed Abdul Vahid, Glimpses of Iqbal, Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 1974, p. 77
32. ↑ Lansing, East; H-Bahai, Mi. (2001). "The development of metaphysics in persia". London Luzac and Company. http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~bahai/diglib/books/F-J/I/Iqbal/metaphys/iqbfn.pdf.
33. ↑ Mir, Mustansir (1990). Tulip in the desert: A selection of the poetry of Muhammad Iqbal. London: c.Hurts and Company, Publishers Ltd. p. 2. ISBN 978-967-5-06267-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Okxr1alsVqIC.
34. ↑ Jackso, Roy (2006). Fifty key figures in Islam. Taylor & Francis. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-415-35467-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=w6flsOIT5PsC.
35. ↑ Karl Klaus Walther: Hans Hasso von Veltheim (biography), Mitteldeutscher Verlag (Central German Publisher), 2005, p. 152-153
36. ↑ "Fyzee, Atiya [married name Atiya Fyzee-Rahamin; known as Atiya Begum, and Shahinda (1877–1967), author, social reformer, and patron of the arts | Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"] (in en). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/102457. ISBN 978-0-19-861411-1. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-102457. Retrieved 18 February 2019. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 Popp, Stephan (6 May 2010). "Muhammad Iqbal". http://en.qantara.de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-478/_nr-1044/i.html.
38. ↑ Sheila McDonough, Vito Salierno, The Flame of Sinai: Hope and Vision in Iqbal, Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 2002, p. 45
39. ↑ Schimmel, Annemarie (1963). Gabriel's Wing: a study of the religious ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal. Brill Archive. p. 39. https://books.google.com/books?id=goE3AAAAIAAJ.
40. ↑ 40.00 40.01 40.02 40.03 40.04 40.05 40.06 40.07 40.08 40.09 40.10 40.11 40.12 40.13 40.14 40.15 40.16 40.17 40.18 40.19 40.20 40.21 40.22 40.23 40.24 40.25 40.26 40.27 40.28 40.29 40.30 40.31 40.32 40.33 40.34 40.35 "Allama Iqbal – Biography" (PHP). 26 May 2006. http://www.allamaiqbal.com/person/biography/biotxtread.html.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 41.6 "Allama Muhammad Iqbal". http://www.allamaiqbal.com/.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Cam Diary: Oxford remembers the Cam man". Daily Times. 28 May 2003. http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_28-5-2003_pg3_6.
43. ↑ No. 32782. 29 December 1922. p. 2. https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/32782/supplement/2
44. ↑ "قانون دان اقبال". 11 November 2014. http://www.nawaiwaqt.com.pk/mazamine/11-Nov-2014/339879.
45. ↑ "قانون دان اقبال". 14 October 2016. http://www.nawaiwaqt.com.pk/letters/14-Oct-2016/518080.
46. ↑ "قانون دان اقبال کی دریافت". 3 April 2014. http://dailypakistan.com.pk/columns/04-Apr-2014/89210.
47. ↑ لیگ, منہاج القرآن ویمن. "علامہ ڈاکٹر محمد اقبال بطور ایڈووکیٹ". https://www.minhajsisters.com:443/urdu/tid/40533/علامہ-ڈاکٹر-محمد-اقبال-بطور-ایڈووکیٹ/.
48. ↑ "Jumhoori Publications – Biographies". http://jumhooripublications.com/qanoondan-iqbal.
49. ↑ "Unexplored aspect of Iqbal's life". 6 April 2016. https://nation.com.pk/10-Nov-2013/unexplored-aspect-of-iqbal-s-life.
50. ↑ Schimmel, Annemarie (1962). Gabriel's Wing: a study of the religious ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal. Brill Archive. p. 55. https://books.google.com/books?id=goE3AAAAIAAJ.
51. ↑ Azam, K.M., Hayat-e-Sadeed: Bani-e-Dar ul Islam Chaudhry Niaz Ali (A Righteous Life: Founder of Dar ul Islam Chaudhry Niaz Ali Khan), Lahore: Nashriyat, 2010 (583 pp., Urdu) ISBN 978-969-8983-58-1
52. ↑ Allama Iqbal's 73rd death anniversary observed with reverence. Pakistan Today. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
53. ↑ (in English) Indian Horizons; Volumes 26-27. New Delhi: Indian Council for Cultural Relations. 1977. pp. 43.
54. ↑ Duggal, Kartar Singh (1980) (in English). Literary Encounters; Volume 1. India: Marwah Publications. pp. 8.
55. ↑ Afzal, Rafique M. (2013). A History of the All-India Muslim League (1906–1947). Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press. pp. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-906735-0.
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Sevea, Iqbal Singh (2012), The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 14–, ISBN 978-1-107-00886-1, https://books.google.com/books?id=VrItm_F6wncC&pg=PA14, "Iqbal was elected to the Punjab Legislative Council in 1927 and held various posts both in the All-India Muslim League and the Punjab Provincial Muslim League."
57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 57.4 "Allama Iqbal – The Great Poet And Philosopher". Bright PK.com. 15 February 2012. http://www.brightpk.com/personalities/allama-iqbal/.
58. ↑ "Profile of Jamia Millia Islamia – History – Historical Note". https://www.jmi.ac.in/aboutjamia/profile/history/historical_note-13.
59. ↑ New Age Weekly. In Memory of Com Ranjoor
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 "Iqbal and Pakistan Movement". Allamaiqbal.com. http://www.allamaiqbal.com/person/movement/move_main.htm.
61. ↑ Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman, pp. 14
62. ↑ Ahmed, Khaled (22 January 2011). "Madani-Iqbal debate over pluralism". The Express Tribune. https://tribune.com.pk/story/107579/madani-iqbal-debate-over-pluralism.
63. ↑ Rasheed, Shahid; Ahmad, Humaira (2019). "Discourse on Nationalism: Political Ideologies of Two Muslim Intellectuals, Maulana Hussain Ahmad Madani and Allama Muhammad Iqbal". Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization 09 (2): 127–147. doi:10.32350/jitc.92.07. 50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 Sevea, Iqbal Singh (2012), The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 14–, ISBN 978-1-107-00886-1, https://books.google.com/books?id=VrItm_F6wncC&pg=PA14, "In 1930, he presided over the meeting of the All-India Muslim League in Allahabad. It was here that he delivered his famous address in which he outlined his vision of a cultural and political framework that would ensure the fullest development of the Muslims of India."
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Sirriyeh, Elizabeth (21 October 1998). Sufis and Anti-Sufis: The Defense, Rethinking and Rejection of Sufism in the modern world. University of Leeds, United Kingdom: Routledge. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-7007-1060-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=7Bp0K-HpBPsC&q=I+would+like+to+see+the+Punjab,+North-West+Frontier+Province,+Sind+and+Baluchistan+amalgamated+into+a+single+state&pg=PA136.
66. ↑ Naipaul, V. S.. Beyond Belief: Islamic Excursions Among the Converted Peoples. pp. 250–52.
67. ↑ The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (reprint ed.). Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications. 2004. p. 131.
68. ↑ Hussain, Adeel (4 May 2018). "Muhammad Iqbal's constitutionalism". Indian Law Review 2 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1080/24730580.2018.1544023. ISSN 2473-0580.
69. ↑ Möller, Ulrika (2014). Political leadership, nascent statehood and democracy : a comparative study. Isabell Schierenbeck (1. publ ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-71096-1. OCLC 884937068.
70. ↑ "Tolu-e-Islam – Under editorship of Syed Nazeer Niazi". http://www.tolueislam.com/Urdu/mag/1935/1935_Oct.djvu.
71. ↑ "Urdu Articles and Books". Tolueislam.com. http://www.tolueislam.com/Urdu/urdu.htm.
72. ↑ No. 32782. 29 December 1922. p. 2. https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/32782/supplement/2
73. ↑ Official website, Allama Iqbal Academy. "Asrar-e-Khudi". http://www.allamaiqbal.com/.
74. ↑ Ahmad Ali, Dr. Saeed (2023). "Realms of spiritual thought: Iqbal's concept of selfhood 'Khudi' encompassing youth's ideology". https://www.app.com.pk/national/realms-of-spiritual-thought-iqbals-concept-of-selfhood-khudi-encompassing-youths-ideology-dr-saeed-ahmad-ali/.
75. ↑ Azad, Hasan (2014). "Reconstructing the Muslim Self: Muhammad Iqbal, Khudi, and the Modern Self". Islamophobia Studies Journal 2 (2): 14–28. doi:10.13169/islastudj.2.2.0014.
76. ↑ Ali, Zirrar (2026) (in en). Masnavi Iqbal: Secrets of the Self. London: Ankaboot Press. pp. 67. ISBN 9781036950644.
77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Ali, Zirrar (2026) (in en). Masnavi Iqbal. London: Ankaboot Press. ISBN 9781036950644.
78. ↑ Ali, Zirrar (2026) (in en). Masnavi Iqbal: Secrets of the Self. London: Ankaboot Press. ISBN 9781036950644.
79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 79.2 "Allama Iqbal: Pakistan's national poet & the man who gave India 'Saare Jahan se Achha'". 9 October 2018. https://theprint.in/features/allama-iqbal-pakistans-national-poet-the-man-who-gave-india-saare-jahan-se-achha/147155/.
80. ↑ Kuliyat Iqbal, Iqbal Academy Publications, 1990, Lahore, Pakistan
81. ↑ "1". http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/poetry/persian/asrar/text/01.htm.
82. ↑ Bhatti, Anil (28 June 2006). "Iqbal and Goethe". Yearbook of the Goethe Society of India. http://www.goethezeitportal.de/fileadmin/PDF/db/wiss/goethe/bhatti_iqbal.pdf.
83. ↑ Mir Ayoob Ali Khan (7 June 2015). "Remembering Iqbal and his sare jahan se achcha | Hyderabad News – Times of India" (in en). https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Remembering-Iqbal-and-his-sare-jahan-se-achcha/articleshow/47570903.cms.
84. ↑ Anjum 2014, p. 134.
85. ↑ "Introduction "Zarb i Kalim"". Iqbal Academy Pakistan. http://www.allamaiqbal.com/poet/poetry/urdu/poet_introzarb.html.
86. ↑ Anjum 2014, p. 286-289.
87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Ali, Zirrar (2021) (in en). Ghazi and the Garden: Poetry of Muhammad Iqbal by Zirrar (2nd ed.). London: Ankaboot Press. pp. 39. ISBN 9781399901505.
88. ↑ "Iqbal's Punjabi poetry put on display". The Nation. 5 October 2016. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201101023756/https://nation.com.pk/05-Oct-2016/iqbal-s-punjabi-poetry-put-on-display.
89. ↑ Sud, Kider Nath (1969) (in English). Iqbal and His Poems; A Reappraisal. Delhi: Sterling Publishers. pp. 41. https://archive.org/details/iqbalhispoemsare0000unse/page/n5/mode/2up.
90. ↑ "Nation observes Allama Iqbal's 74th death anniversary". The Newstribe newspaper. 21 April 2012. http://www.thenewstribe.com/2012/04/21/nation-observes-allama-iqbals-74th-death-anniversary/#.UCjm36EaN0x.
91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 "Feature: Allama Iqbal—the spiritual father of Pakistan". Daily Dawn. 8 November 2003. http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/031108/yworld6.htm.
92. ↑ Taus-Bolstad, Stacy (2008). Pakistan in Pictures. Lerner. p. 70. ISBN 978-1-58013-452-1.
93. ↑ Sheikh, Naveed Shahzad (2007). The New Politics of Islam: Pan-Islamic Foreign Policy in a World of States. Routledge. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-415-44453-8.
94. ↑ Jalal, Ayesha (2000). Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850. Routledge. p. 565. ISBN 978-0-415-22078-1. https://archive.org/details/selfsovereigntyi1850jala.
95. ↑ Yahya, MD (2013). "Traditions of Patriotism in Urdu Poetry: A Critical Study with Special Reference to the Poet of the East Allama Iqbal and His Poetry". Journal of Contemporary Research 1 (2). ISSN 2319-5789. http://scholarsworld.net/english/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Paper-7.pdf.
96. ↑ Platts, John T. (John Thompson) (1884), A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English, London: W. H. Allen & Co., https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/platts_query.py?qs=allama&matchtype=default, retrieved 6 February 2021
97. ↑ "Seminar on Allama Iqbal held at Preston University". Preston.Edu.PK. http://www.preston.edu.pk/allama_iqbal.php.
98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 This document contains both interventions from Prof. Dharampal-Frick and Mrs. Al Sanyoura Baasiri- Gita Dharampal-Frick – (South Asia Institute, University of Heidelberg). Orient Institut.Org. pp. 5–12. https://www.scribd.com/document/66941478/الإسلام-المعاصر-في-فكر-محمد-إقبال. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
99. ↑ Parray, Tauseef Ahmad. Democracy in Islam: The Views of Several Modern Muslim Scholars. Amu-In Academia.Edu. p. 143. https://amu-in.academia.edu/TauseefAhmadParray/Papers/400725/Democracy_in_Islam_The_Views_of_Several_Modern_Muslim_Scholars. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
100. ↑ 100.0 100.1 How to Read Iqbal. Urdu Studies.com. p. 2. http://www.urdustudies.com/pdf/20/03FaruqiIqbal.pdf. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
101. ↑ "The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal". Osama Sajid. 25 March 2011. http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/19455/137th-birthday-what-allama-iqbals-poetry-has-taught-me-so-far/.
102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 "Love letter to Persia". The Friday Times. 25 April 2014. http://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/love-letter-to-persia/.
103. ↑ "Iqbal and the Iranians Iqbal". Nasir Riaz. 25 March 2011. http://www.dawn.com/news/656464/heritage-eghbal-i-lahuri-and-the-iranians.
104. ↑ "Iqbal". Khamenei.de. http://www.khamenei.de/books/iqbal.htm.
105. ↑ Qureshi, A.Ali. "Love letter to Persia". The Friday Times. https://www.thefridaytimes.com/love-letter-to-persia/?amp=1.
106. ↑ 106.0 106.1 Sevea, Iqbal Singh (25 March 2011). The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-53639-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Fk8hAwAAQBAJ&q=Iqbal+lahori+iranian+revolution&pg=PA201. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
107. ↑ Khamenei, Ali; Shariati, Ali; Sharīʻatī, ʻalī (25 March 2011). Iqbal: Manifestation of the Islamic Spirit. ABC International. ISBN 978-1-871031-20-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=ivogAAAACAAJ. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
108. ↑ "Imperialist powers blamed for dividing Muslims" (in en-US). Dawn. 16 April 2009. https://www.dawn.com/news/945110/imperialist-powers-blamed-for-dividing-muslims.
109. ↑ Hammond, Andrew (2022). Late Ottoman Origins of Modern Islamic Thought: Turkish and Egyptian Thinkers on the Disruption of Islamic Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. pp. 121.
110. ↑ "Turkey honours Allama Iqbal for services to Islam". 18 December 2016. https://tribune.com.pk/story/1267013/turkey-honours-allama-iqbal-services-islam.
111. ↑ Malik, Dr Nadeem Shafique (31 December 2001). "GLOBAL APPRECIATION OF ALLAMA IQBAL" (in en). Journal of Research (Languages and Islamic Studies) 1 (1): 47–56. https://jorurdu.bzu.edu.pk/website/journal/article/5e8650117007e/page.
112. ↑ Natsir, Mohammad (April 1967). "IQBAL DAY IN INDONESIA". Iqbal Review. https://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/apr67/6.htm. Retrieved 29 October 2025.
113. ↑ "Pakistani Embassy celebrates poet Muhammad Iqbal's anniversary". 11 November 2014. https://egyptindependent.com/pakistani-embassy-celebrates-poet-muhammad-iqbal-s-anniversary/.
114. ↑ SHAHID, Mohammad Haneef, "IQBAL AND THE SAUDI SCHOLARS", IQBAL REVIEW 29, no. 1: April 1988 (1988): pp. 157-67
115. ↑ "Luxury edition of works by poet Muhammad Iqbal". University of Heidelberg. 25 March 2011. http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/presse/news2011/pm20110325_sai_raritaet_en.html.
116. ↑ 116.0 116.1 116.2 116.3 116.4 Review, Iqbal (1985). "American, West European and Soviet Attitudes to Iqbal" (PHP). http://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/oct85/index.htm.
117. ↑ Kiernan, V.G. (2013). Poems from Iqbal: Renderings in English Verse with Comparative Urdu Text. Oxford University Press and Iqbal Academy Pakistan. pp. xi–xiii. ISBN 978-0-19-906616-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=qpRsMQEACAAJ. Quote: "In Urdu, Iqbal is allowed to have been far the greatest poet of this century, and by most critics to be the only equal of Ghalib (1797–1869). ... the Urdu poems, addressed to a real and familiar audience close at hand, have the merit of being direct, spontaneous utterances on tangible subjects. (p. xiii)"
118. ↑ Anjum, Zafar (13 October 2014), Iqbal: The Life of a Poet, Philosopher and Politician, Random House, pp. 16–, ISBN 978-81-8400-656-8, https://books.google.com/books?id=infNBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT16, "Responding to this call, he published a collection of Urdu poems, Bal-e-Jibril (The Wings of Gabriel) in 1935 and Zarb-e Kalim (The Stroke of the Rod of Moses) in 1936. Through this, Iqbal achieved the status of the greatest Urdu poet in the twentieth century."
119. ↑ Robinson, Francis (1996), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, pp. 283–, ISBN 978-0-521-66993-1, https://books.google.com/books?id=Fz5kgjMDnOIC&pg=PA283, "In India, the ghazal and mathnawi forms were adapted in Urdu to express new social and ideological concerns, beginning in the work of the poet Altaf Husayn Hali (1837–1914) and continuing in the poetry of Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938). In the poetry of Iqbal, which he wrote in Persian, to speak to a wider Muslim audience, as well as Urdu, a memory of the past achievements of Islam is combined with a plea for reform. He is considered the greatest Urdu poet of the twentieth century."
120. ↑ McDonough, Sheila D (5 November 2020), Muhammad Iqbal, Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Muhammad-Iqbal, retrieved 7 February 2021, "He is considered the greatest poet in Urdu of the 20th century"
121. ↑ Kiernan, V.G. (2013). Poems from Iqbal: Renderings in English Verse with Comparative Urdu Text. Oxford University Press and Iqbal Academy Pakistan. pp. xi–xiii. ISBN 978-0-19-906616-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=qpRsMQEACAAJ. Quote: "In Persian, ... he published six volumes of mainly long poems between 1915 and 1936, ... more or less complete works on philosophical themes" (p. xiii)"
122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 Lelyveld, David (2004), "Muhammad Iqbal", in Martin, Richard C., Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World: A-L, Macmillan, p. 356, ISBN 978-0-02-865604-5, https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/iqbal-muhammad-c-1877-1938, "Muhammad Iqbal, South Asian poet and ideological innovator, wrote poetry in Urdu and Persian and discursive prose, primarily in English, of particular significance in the formulation of a national ethos for Pakistan."
123. ↑ Iqbal, Sir Muhammad; Zakaria, Rafiq (1981) (in en, ur), Shikwa and Jawab-i-shikwa, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-561324-7, https://books.google.com/books?id=SeiAAAAAIAAJ, ""Iqbal it is true, is essentially a poet of Islam" (from the foreword by Rafiq Zakaria, p. 9)"
124. ↑ Craig, Edward (in en). Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2000. pp. 404.
125. ↑ Ahmad Parray, Tauseef (2023). Islam and Democracy in the 21st Century. Oxford University Press.
126. ↑ Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988), Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9, https://books.google.com/books?id=XoMRuiSpBp4C, "Sir Syed Ahmed had brought rationalism and the desire for knowledge and progress to the Indian Muslims; Muhammad Iqbal brought them inspiration and philosophy. Next to the Quran, there is no single influence upon the consciousness of the Pakistani intelligentsia so powerful as Iqbal’s poetry. In his own time, it kindled the enthusiasm of Muslim intellectuals for the values of Islam and rallied the Muslim community once again to the banner of their faith. For this reason, Iqbal is looked upon today as the spiritual founder of Pakistan."
127. ↑ "Flight operation partially resumed at Pakistan's Lahore airport". Xinhua / CRI News. 3 March 2019. http://chinaplus.cri.cn/news/world/10/20190303/256429.html.
128. ↑ Iqbal, Muhammad (2008) (in en). The Secrets of the Self. LULU Press. pp. 114. ISBN 978-1-4099-0959-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=Gw0rOQAACAAJ.
129. ↑ Ali Sardar Jafri. Bharatiya Jnanpith. 2001. p. 204. ISBN 978-81-263-0671-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=kl08TgBBxHIC&pg=PA204.
130. ↑ "Dr Mohammad Iqbal (1978)". https://indiancine.ma/SYR/info.
131. ↑ Organiser. 51. Bharat Prakashan.. 1999. p. 13. https://books.google.com/books?id=iNA-AQAAIAAJ.
132. ↑ Javaid Manzil last residence of Allama Iqbal looking for visitors By M Abid Ayub . Ilmkidunya.com. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
133. ↑ "খুলনার স্যার ইকবাল রোডে কমিউনিটি ব্যাংকের দ্বিতীয় উপ-শাখা উদ্বোধন". https://www.dhakatimes24.com/2023/07/19/317129.

## Bibliography

* Ali, Zirrar (2021) Ghazi and the Garden: Poetry of Muhammad Iqbal by Zirrar Ali. ISBN 9781399901505.
* Ali, Zirrar (2026) Masnavi Iqbal: Secrets of the Self. ISBN 9781036950644.
* Shafique, Khurram Ali (2014). Iqbal: His Life and Our Times. ECO Cultural Institute & Iqbal Academy Pakistan. ISBN 978-0-9571416-6-7.
* Ram Nath, Kak (1995). Autumn Leaves: Kashmiri Reminiscences. India: Vitasta. ISBN 81-86588-00-0. http://www.koausa.org/Books/AutumnLeaves. Retrieved 3 June 2006.
* Mustansir, Mir (2006), Iqbal, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 1-84511-094-3
* Muhammad, Munawwar (2003). Iqbal-Poet Philosopher of Islam. Iqbal Academy Pakistan. ISBN 969-416-061-8.
* Sailen, Debnath (January 2010). Secularism: Western and Indian. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers. ISBN 978-81-269-1366-4.
* V.S., Naipaul (1998). Beyond Belief: Islamic Excursions Among the Converted Peoples. USA: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50118-5.
* Annemarie, Schimmel (1963), Gabriel's Wing: a study of the religious ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal, Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, https://books.google.com/books?id=goE3AAAAIAAJ
* "Special report: The enduring vision of Iqbal 1877–1938". DAWN. 9 November 2017. https://www.dawn.com/news/1368130/special-report-the-enduring-vision-of-iqbal-1877-1938.
* Anjum, Zafar (2014). Iqbal: The Life of a Poet, Philosopher and Politician. Random House India. ISBN 9788184006568. https://books.google.com/books?id=infNBAAAQBAJ.
* Burzine Waghmar, Annemarie Schimmel: Iqbal and Indo-Muslim Studies, Encyclopædia Iranica, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation, published online, 16 April 2018.
* Md Mahmudul Hasan, "Iqbal's and Hassan's Complaints: A Study of "To the Holy Prophet" and "SMS to Sir Muhammad Iqbal"." The Muslim World 110.2 (2020): 195–216. Iqbal's and Hassan's Complaints: A Study of "To the Holy Prophet" and "SMS to Sir Muhammad Iqbal"
* S.Aydin, Mehmet (2000). "İKBAL, Muhammed – An article published in Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam. 22 (Ihvan-i Safa – Iskit). Istanbul: Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi. pp. 17–23. ISBN 978-975-389-449-4. https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ikbal-muhammed.
* Farrukhabadi, Rehmat (1962). اقبال اور عورت [Iqbal and Women] in Urdu. Sukkur, Pakistan: Ajaib Store Publications.

### Online

* Muhammad Iqbal: poet and philosopher, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by Sheila D. McDonough, The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Aakanksha Gaur, Gloria Lotha, J.E. Luebering, Kenneth Pletcher and Grace Young.
* Gibb, H. A. R. (2004). "Iqbal, Sir Muhammad (1877–1938)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/34108. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/theme/34108. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)

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* Bundahishn
* Menog-i Khrad
* Jamasp Namag
* Dadestan-i Denig
* Anthology of Zadspram
* Warshtmansr
* Zand-i Wahman yasn
* Drakht-i Asurig
* Shikand-gumanig Vizar

Classical

| 900s|

* Rudaki
* Daqiqi
* Ferdowsi (Shahnameh)
* Abu Shakur Balkhi
* Abu Tahir Khosrovani
* Shahid Balkhi
* Bal'ami
* Rabia Balkhi
* Abusaeid Abolkheir (967–1049)
* Avicenna (980–1037)
* Unsuri
* Asjadi
* Kisai Marvazi
* Ayyuqi

|

1000s|

* Bābā Tāher
* Nasir Khusraw (1004–1088)
* Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)
* Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (1006–1088)
* Asadi Tusi
* Qatran Tabrizi (1009–1072)
* Nizam al-Mulk (1018–1092)
* Masud Sa'd Salman (1046–1121)
* Moezi Neyshapuri
* Omar Khayyām (1048–1131)
* Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani
* Ahmad Ghazali
* Hujwiri
* Manuchehri
* Ayn-al-Quzat Hamadani (1098–1131)
* Uthman Mukhtari
* Abu-al-Faraj Runi
* Sanai
* Banu Goshasp
* Borzu-Nama
* Afdal al-Din Kashani
* Abu'l Hasan Mihyar al-Daylami
* Mu'izzi
* Mahsati Ganjavi

1100s|

* Hakim Iranshah
* Suzani Samarqandi
* Hassan Ghaznavi
* Faramarz Nama
* Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191)
* Adib Sabir
* Falaki Shirvani
* Am'aq
* Najm al-Din Razi
* Attār (1142–c.1220)
* Khaghani (1120–1190)
* Anvari (1126–1189)
* Faramarz-e Khodadad
* Nizami Ganjavi (1141–1209)
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209)
* Kamal al-Din Esfahani
* Shams Tabrizi (d.1248)

1200s|

* Abu Tahir Tarsusi
* Awhadi Maraghai
* Shams al-Din Qays Razi
* Sultan Walad
* Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
* Afdal al-Din Kashani
* Fakhr-al-Din Iraqi
* Mahmud Shabistari (1288–1320s)
* Abu'l Majd Tabrizi
* Amir Khusro (1253–1325)
* Saadi (Bustan / Golestān)
* Bahram-e-Pazhdo
* Pur-Baha Jami
* Zartosht Bahram e Pazhdo
* Rumi
* Homam Tabrizi (1238–1314)
* Nozhat al-Majales
* Khwaju Kermani
* Sultan Walad
* Badr Shirvani
* Zu'l-Fiqar Shirvani

1300s|

* Ibn Yamin
* Shah Ni'matullah Wali
* Hafez
* Abu Ali Qalandar
* Fazlallah Astarabadi
* Nasimi
* Emad al-Din Faqih Kermani

1400s|

* Ubayd Zakani
* Salman Sawaji
* Hatefi
* Jami
* Kamal Khujandi
* Ahli Shirazi (1454–1535)
* Fuzûlî (1483–1556)
* Ismail I (1487–1524)
* Baba Faghani

1500s|

* Vahshi Bafqi (1523–1583)
* Muhtasham Kashani (1500–1588)
* 'Orfi Shirazi

1600s|

* Taleb Amoli
* Saib Tabrizi (1607–1670)
* Kalim Kashani
* Hazin Lāhiji (1692–1766)
* Saba Kashani
* Abdul-Qādir Bēdil (1642–1720)
* Naw'i Khabushani
* Mohammad Qoli Salim Tehrani
* Rasa Salim Tehrani

1700s|

* Neshat Esfahani
* Abbas Foroughi Bastami (1798–1857)

1800s|

* Mahmud Saba Kashani (1813–1893)
* Mirza Ghalib (1797-1869)
* Zeynalabdin Shirvani (1780-1838)
* Reza-Qoli Khan Hedayat
* Qaani

Contemporary

| Poetry|

| Iran|

* Ahmadreza Ahmadi
* Mehdi Akhavan-Sales
* Hormoz Alipour
* Qeysar Aminpour
* Aref Qazvini
* Ahmad NikTalab
* Manouchehr Atashi
* Mahmoud Mosharraf Azad Tehrani
* Mohammad-Taqi Bahar
* Reza Baraheni
* Simin Behbahani
* Dehkhoda
* Hushang Ebtehaj
* Bijan Elahi
* Parviz Eslampour
* Parvin E'tesami
* Forough Farrokhzad
* Hossein Monzavi
* Hushang Irani
* Iraj Mirza
* Bijan Jalali
* Siavash Kasraie
* Esmail Khoi
* Shams Langeroodi
* Mohammad Mokhtari
* Nosrat Rahmani
* Yadollah Royaee
* Tahereh Saffarzadeh
* Sohrab Sepehri
* Mohammad-Reza Shafiei Kadkani
* Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar
* Ahmad Shamlou
* Manouchehr Sheybani
* Nima Yooshij
* Fereydoon Moshiri

|

Armenia|

* Edward Haghverdian

Afghanistan|

* Nadia Anjuman
* Wasef Bakhtari
* Raziq Faani
* Khalilullah Khalili
* Youssof Kohzad
* Massoud Nawabi
* Abdul Ali Mustaghni

Tajikistan|

* Sadriddin Ayni
* Farzona
* Iskandar Khatloni
* Abolqasem Lahouti
* Gulrukhsor Safieva
* Loiq Sher-Ali
* Payrav Sulaymoni
* Mirzo Tursunzoda

Uzbekistan|

* Asad Gulzoda

India|

* Muhammad Iqbal

Novels|

* Ali Mohammad Afghani
* Ghazaleh Alizadeh
* Bozorg Alavi
* Reza Amirkhani
* Mahshid Amirshahi
* Reza Baraheni
* Simin Daneshvar
* Mahmoud Dowlatabadi
* Reza Ghassemi
* Houshang Golshiri
* Aboutorab Khosravi
* Ahmad Mahmoud
* Shahriyar Mandanipour
* Abbas Maroufi
* Iraj Pezeshkzad

Short stories|

* Jalal Al-e-Ahmad
* Shamim Bahar
* Sadeq Chubak
* Simin Daneshvar
* Nader Ebrahimi
* Ebrahim Golestan
* Houshang Golshiri
* Sadegh Hedayat
* Mohammad-Ali Jamalzadeh
* Aboutorab Khosravi
* Mostafa Mastoor
* Jaafar Modarres-Sadeghi
* Houshang Moradi Kermani
* Bijan Najdi
* Shahrnush Parsipur
* Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi
* Bahram Sadeghi
* Goli Taraqqi

Plays|

* Reza Abdoh
* Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh
* Mohsen Yalfani
* Bahram Beyzai
* Bahman Forsi
* Alireza Koushk Jalali
* Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi
* Bijan Mofid
* Hengameh Mofid
* Abbas Nalbandian
* Akbar Radi
* Pari Saberi
* Mohammad Yaghoubi

Screenplays|

* Saeed Aghighi
* Rakhshan Bani-E'temad
* Bahram Beyzai
* Hajir Darioush
* Pouran Derakhshandeh
* Asghar Farhadi
* Bahman Farmanara
* Farrokh Ghaffari
* Behrouz Gharibpour
* Bahman Ghobadi
* Fereydun Gole
* Ebrahim Golestan
* Ali Hatami
* Abolfazl Jalili
* Ebrahim Hatamikia
* Abdolreza Kahani
* Varuzh Karim-Masihi
* Samuel Khachikian
* Abbas Kiarostami
* Majid Majidi
* Mohsen Makhmalbaf
* Dariush Mehrjui
* Reza Mirkarimi
* Rasoul Mollagholipour
* Amir Naderi
* Jafar Panahi
* Kambuzia Partovi
* Rasul Sadr Ameli
* Mohammad Sadri
* Parviz Shahbazi
* Sohrab Shahid-Saless

Translators|

* Amrollah Abjadian
* Jaleh Amouzgar
* Najaf Daryabandari
* Mohammad Ghazi
* Lili Golestan
* Sadegh Hedayat
* Saleh Hosseini
* Ahmad Kamyabi Mask
* Mohammad Moin
* Ebrahim Pourdavoud
* Hamid Samandarian
* Jalal Sattari
* Jafar Shahidi
* Ahmad Shamlou
* Ahmad Tafazzoli
* Abbas Zaryab

Essayists|

* Aydin Aghdashloo
* Mohammad Ebrahim Bastani Parizi
* Ehsan Yarshater

Contemporary Persian and Classical Persian are the same language, but writers since 1900 are classified as contemporary. At one time, Persian was a common cultural language of much of the non-Arabic Islamic world. Today it is the official language of Iran, Tajikistan and one of the two official languages of Afghanistan.

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad Iqbal. Read more

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