Rita Levi-Montalcini

Short description: Italian neurologist

Rita Levi-Montalcini

OMRI OMCA

Rita Levi-Montalcini, circa 1975. Image courtesy of the Bernard Becker Medical Library, Washington University School of Medicine

Born|

Turin, Italy

Died| 30 December 2012(2012-12-30) (aged 103)

Rome, Italy

Nationality| Italian
Citizenship| Italy, United States
Alma mater| University of Turin
Known for| Nerve growth factor
Scientific career
Fields| Neurobiology
Institutions| Washington University in St. Louis

Rita Levi-Montalcini OMRI OMCA (US: /ˌleɪvi ˌmoʊntɑːlˈtʃiːni, ˌlɛv-, ˌliːvi ˌmɒntəlˈ-/,[1][2] Italian: [ˈriːta ˈlɛːvi montalˈtʃiːni]; 22 April 1909 – 30 December 2012) was an Italian Nobel laureate, honored for her work in neurobiology. She was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with colleague Stanley Cohen for the discovery of nerve growth factor (NGF).[3] From 2001 until her death, she also served in the Italian Senate as a Senator for Life.[4] This honor was given due to her significant scientific contributions.[5] On 22 April 2009, she became the first Nobel laureate to reach the age of 100,[6] and the event was feted with a party at Rome's City Hall.[7][8]

## Contents

* 1 Early life and education
* 2 Career and research
* 3 Political career
* 4 Personal life
* 5 Awards and honors
* 5.1 Other attributions
* 6 See also
* 7 Bibliography
* 7.1 Publications
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links

## Early life and education

Levi-Montalcini was born on 22 April 1909 in Turin,[9] to Italian Jewish parents with roots dating back to the Roman Empire.[10][11][12] She and her twin sister Paola were the youngest of four children.[13] Her parents were Adele Montalcini, a painter, and Adamo Levi, an electrical engineer and mathematician, whose families had moved from Asti and Casale Monferrato, respectively, to Turin at the turn of the twentieth century.[10][14]

In her teenage years, she considered becoming a writer and admired Swedish writer Selma Lagerlöf,[15] but after seeing a close family friend die of stomach cancer she decided to attend the University of Turin Medical School.[16] Her father discouraged his daughters from attending college, as he feared it would disrupt their potential lives as wives and mothers, but eventually he supported Levi-Montalcini's aspirations to become a doctor.[10] While she was at the University of Turin, the neurohistologist Giuseppe Levi sparked her interest in the developing nervous system.[6] After graduating summa cum laude M.D. in 1936, Montalcini remained at the university as Levi's assistant, but her academic career was cut short by Benito Mussolini's 1938 Manifesto of Race and the subsequent introduction of laws barring Jews from academic and professional careers.[17]

## Career and research

Levi-Montalcini lost her assistant position in the anatomy department after a 1938 law barring Jews from university positions was passed.[18] During World War II she set up a laboratory in her bedroom in Turin and studied the growth of nerve fibers in chicken embryos, discovering that nerve cells die when they lack targets, and laying the groundwork for much of her later research.[19] She described this experience decades later in the science documentary film Death by Design/The Life and Times of Life and Times (1997).[20] The film also features her fraternal twin sister Paola, who became a respected artist best known for her aluminum sculptures designed to bring light to the rooms due to the reflective white surface.[21]

When the Germans invaded Italy in September 1943, her family fled south to Florence, where they survived the Holocaust, under false identities, protected by some non-Jewish friends.[22] During the Nazi occupation, Levi-Montalcini was in contact with the partisans of the Action Party.[23] After the liberation of Florence in August 1944, she volunteered her medical expertise for the Allied health service. Her family returned to Turin in 1945.

In September 1946, Levi-Montalcini was granted a one-semester research fellowship in the laboratory of Professor Viktor Hamburger at Washington University in St. Louis; he was interested in two of the articles Levi-Montalcini had published in foreign scientific journals.[24] After she duplicated the results of her home laboratory experiments, Hamburger offered her a research associate position, which she held for 30 years. It was there that, in 1952, she did her most important work: isolating nerve growth factor (NGF) from observations of certain cancerous tissues that cause extremely rapid growth of nerve cells.[17] By transferring pieces of tumors to chick embryos, Montalcini established a mass of cells that was full of nerve fibers. The discovery of nerves growing everywhere like a halo around the tumor cells was surprising. When describing it, Montalcini said it is: "like rivulets of water flowing steadily over a bed of stones."[25] The nerve growth produced by the tumor was unlike anything she had seen before – the nerves took over areas that would become other tissues and even entered veins in the embryo. But nerves did not grow into the arteries, which would flow from the embryo back to the tumor. This suggested to Montalcini that the tumor itself was releasing a substance that was stimulating the growth of nerves.

She was made a full professor in 1958. In 1962, she established a second laboratory in Rome and divided her time between there and St. Louis. In 1963, she became the first woman to receive the Max Weinstein Award (given by the United Cerebral Palsy Association) due to her significant contributions into neurological research.[24]

From 1961 to 1969, she directed the Research Center of Neurobiology of the CNR (Rome), and from 1969 to 1978, the Laboratory of Cellular Biology.[17] After she retired in 1977, she was appointed as director of the Institute of Cell Biology of the Italian National Council of Research in Rome. She later retired from that position in 1979, however continued to be involved as a guest professor.[26]

Levi-Montalcini founded the European Brain Research Institute in 2002, and then served as its president.[27][28] Her role in this institute was at the center of some criticism from some parts of the scientific community in 2010.[29]

Controversies were raised about the cooperation of Levi-Montalcini with the Italian pharmaceutical industry Fidia. While working for Fidia, she improved the understanding of gangliosides. Beginning in 1975, she supported the drug Cronassial (a particular mixture of gangliosides) produced by Fidia from bovine brain tissue. Independent studies showed that the drug actually could be successful in treatment of intended diseases (peripheral neuropathies).[30][31] Years later, some patients under treatment with Cronassial reported a severe neurological syndrome (Guillain–Barré syndrome). As per the normal cautionary routine, Germany banned Cronassial in 1983, followed by other countries. Italy prohibited the drug only in 1993; at the same time, an investigation revealed that Fidia paid the Italian Ministry of Health for a quick approval of Cronassial and later paid for pushing use of the drug in treatment of diseases where it had not been tested.[32][33][34] Levi-Montalcini's relationship with the company was revealed during the investigation, and she was criticized publicly.[35]

In the 1990s, she was one of the first scientists pointing out the importance of the mast cell in human pathology.[36] In the same period (1993), she identified the endogenous compound palmitoylethanolamide as an important modulator of this cell.[37] Understanding this mechanism initiated a new era of research into this compound which has resulted in more discoveries regarding its mechanisms and benefits, a far better understanding of the endocannabinoid system and new liposomal palmitoylethanolamide product formulations designed specifically for improved absorption and bioavailability.[38]

Levi-Montalcini earned a Nobel Prize along with Stanley Cohen in 1986 in the physiology or medicine category. The two earned their Nobel Prizes for their research in to the nerve growth factor (NGF), the protein that causes cell growth due to stimulated nerve tissue.[39]

## Political career

On 1 August 2001, she was appointed as Senator for Life by the President of Italy, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi.[9]

On 28–29 April 2006, Levi-Montalcini, aged 97, attended the opening assembly of the newly elected Senate, at which the President of the Senate was elected. She declared her preference for the centre-left candidate Franco Marini. Due to her support of the government of Romano Prodi, she was often criticized by some right-wing senators, who accused her of saving the government when the government's exiguous majority in the Senate was at risk. Her old age was mocked by far-right politician Francesco Storace.[40][41]

## Personal life

Levi-Montalcini's father, Adamo Levi, was an electrical engineer and mathematician, and her mother, Adele Montalcini, was a painter.[42] The family's Jewish roots extend back to the Roman Empire; due to the family's strict and traditional background, Adamo was not supportive of women attending college as it would intrude in their ability to tend to the children and house.[43]

Rita Levi-Montalcini in 2009

Levi-Montalcini had an older brother Gino, who died after a heart attack in 1974. He was one of the best-known contemporary Italian architects and a professor at the University of Turin. She had two sisters: Anna, five years older than Rita, and Paola, her twin sister, a popular artist who died on 29 September 2000, age 91.

In 2003, she filed a libel suit for defamation against Beppe Grillo. During a show, Grillo called the 94-year-old woman an "old whore".[44]

Levi-Montalcini never married and had no children.[13] In a 2006 interview she said, "I never had any hesitation or regrets in this sense... My life has been enriched by excellent human relations, work and interests. I have never felt lonely."[45] She died in her home in Rome on 30 December 2012 at the age of 103.[46]

Upon her death, the Mayor of Rome, Gianni Alemanno, stated it was a great loss "for all of humanity." He praised her as someone who represented "civic conscience, culture and the spirit of research of our time." Italian astrophysicist Margherita Hack told Sky TG24 TV in a tribute to her fellow scientist, "She is really someone to be admired." Italy's premier, Mario Monti, paid tribute to Levi-Montalcini's "charismatic and tenacious" character and for her lifelong endeavor to "defend the battles in which she believed." Vatican spokesman Federico Lombardi praised Levi-Montalcini's civil and moral efforts, saying she was an "inspiring" example for Italy and the world.[47]

According to the former President of the Grand Orient of Italy, she was invited and participated in many cultural events organized by the main Italian Masonic organization.[48]

## Awards and honors

In 1966, she was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[49]

In 1968, she became the tenth woman[50] elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences.[51] She was elected an EMBO Member in 1974.[52]

In 1970, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.[53]

In 1974, she became a member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences[54]

In 1983, she was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University.[55]

In 1985, she was awarded the Ralph W. Gerard Prize in Neuroscience.

In 1986, she was elected to the American Philosophical Society.[56]

In 1986, Levi-Montalcini and collaborator Stanley Cohen received the Nobel Prize in Medicine,[17] as well as the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research.[57] This made her the fourth Nobel Prize winner to come from Italy's small (less than 50,000 people) but very old Jewish community, after Emilio Segrè, Salvador Luria (a university colleague and friend) and Franco Modigliani.

In 1987, she received the National Medal of Science, the highest American scientific honor.[51]

In 1991, she received the Laurea Honoris Causa in Medicine from the University of Trieste, Italy. On that occasion, she expressed her desire to formulate a Carta of Human Duties as necessary counterpart of the too much neglected Declaration of Human Rights. The vision of Rita Levi-Montalcini came true with the issuing of the Trieste Declaration of Human Duties and the foundation in 1993 of the International Council of Human Duties, International Council of Human Duties (ICHD), at the University of Trieste.[58]

She was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1995.[59]

In 1999, Levi-Montalcini was nominated Goodwill Ambassador of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) by FAO Director-General Jacques Diouf.[60]

In 2001, she was nominated Senator-for-life by the Italian President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi.[61]

In 2006, Levi-Montalcini received the degree Honoris Causa in Biomedical Engineering from the Polytechnic University of Turin, in her native city.

In 2008, she received the PhD Honoris Causa from the Complutense University of Madrid, Spain.

In 2009, she received the Leonardo da Vinci Award from European Academy of Sciences.

In 2011, at the Sapienza University of Rome she received the PhD Honoris Causa from the McGill University, Canada.

She was a founding member of Città della Scienza.[62] and Academician of Studium, Accademia di Casale e del Monferrato, Italy.

### Other attributions

In April 2016, a spontaneous orchid (a hybrid between Ophrys incubacea and Ophrys sphegodes subsp. classica), was named after her: 'Ophrys × montalciniae'.[63]

## See also

* Timeline of women in science

## Bibliography

* Levi-Montalcini, Rita, In Praise of Imperfection: My Life and Work.(Elogio dell'imperfezione) Basic Books, New York, 1988.
* Yount, Lisa (1996). Twentieth Century Women Scientists. New York: Facts on File. ISBN:0-8160-3173-8.
* Muhm, Myriam : Vage Hoffnung für Parkinson-Kranke – Überlegungen der Medizin-Nobelpreisträgerin Rita Levi-Montalcini, Süddeutsche Zeitung #293, p. 22\. December 1986 "L'Archivio "medicina – medicine"". Larchivio.org. http://www.larchivio.org/xoom/myriammontalcini.htm.

### Publications

* Origine ed Evoluzione del nucleo accessorio del Nervo abducente nell'embrione di pollo, Roma, Tip. Cuggiani, 1942.
* Il messaggio nervoso, con Pietro Angeletti e Giuseppe Moruzzi, Milano, Rizzoli, 1975.
* New developments in neurobiological research, in "Commentarii", vol. III, n. 15, Pontificia Academia Scientiarum, 1976.
* Elogio dell'imperfezione, Milano, Garzanti, 1987. ISBN:88-11-59390-5. (1999 nuova edizione accresciuta).
* NGF. Apertura di una nuova frontiera nella neurobiologia, Roma-Napoli, Theoria, 1989. ISBN:88-241-0162-3.
* Sclerosi multipla in Italia. Aspetti e problemi, con Mario Alberto Battaglia, Genova, AISM, 1989. ISBN:88-7148-001-5.
* Presentazione di Max Perutz, È necessaria la scienza?, Milano, Garzanti, 1989. ISBN:88-11-59415-4.
* Prefazione a Carlo Levi, Poesie inedite. 1934–1946, Roma, Mancosu, 1990.
* Prefazione a Gianni Bonadonna, Donne in medicina, Milano, Rizzoli, 1991. ISBN:88-17-84077-7.
* Presentazione di Gilberto Salmoni, Memoria: un telaio infinito Dialogo su un mondo tutto da scoprire, Genova, Costa & Nolan, 1993.
* Prefazione a Giacomo Scotti (a cura di), Non si trova cioccolata. Lettere di bambini jugoslavi nell'orrore della guerra, Napoli, Pironti, 1993. ISBN:88-7937-095-2.
* Reti. Scienza, cultura, economia, con Guido Cimino e Lauro Galzigna, Ancona, Transeuropa, 1993. ISBN:88-7828-101-8.
* Vito Volterra. Il suo percorso, in Scienza, tecnologia e istituzioni in Europa. Vito Volterra e l'origine del CNR, Roma-Bari, Laterza, 1993. ISBN:88-420-4147-5.
* Il tuo futuro, Milano, Garzanti, 1993. ISBN:88-11-73837-7.
* Per i settanta anni della Enciclopedia italiana, 1925–1995, in 1925–1995: la Treccani compie 70 anni. Mostra storico-documentaria, Roma, Treccani, Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana, 1995.
* Prefazione an American Medical Association, L'uso degli animali nella ricerca scientifica. Libro bianco, Bologna, Esculapio, 1995.
* Senz'olio contro vento, Milano, Baldini & Castoldi, 1996. ISBN:88-8089-198-7.
* L'asso nella manica a brandelli, Milano, Baldini & Castoldi, 1998. ISBN:88-8089-429-3.
* La galassia mente, Milano, Baldini & Castoldi, 1999. ISBN:88-8089-636-9.
* Presentazione di Nicola Canal, Angelo Ghezzi e Mauro Zaffaroni, Sclerosi multipla. Attualità e prospettive, Milano, Masson, 1999. ISBN:88-214-2467-7.
* Intervista in Serena Zoli, Storie di ordinaria resurrezione (e non). Fuori dalla depressione e altri mali oscuri, Milano, Rizzoli, 1999. ISBN:88-17-86072-7.
* L'Università delle tre culture. Conferenza della professoressa Rita Levi-Montalcini, Sondrio, Banca Popolare di Sondrio, 1999.
* Cantico di una vita, Milano, Cortina, 2000. ISBN:88-7078-666-8.
* Un universo inquieto. Vita e opere di Paola Levi Montalcini, Milano, Baldini & Castoldi, 2001. ISBN:88-8490-111-1.
* Tempo di mutamenti, Milano, Baldini & Castoldi, 2002. ISBN:88-8490-140-5.
* Tempo di azione, Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2004. ISBN:88-8490-429-3.
* Abbi il coraggio di conoscere, Milano, Rizzoli, 2004. ISBN:88-17-00199-6.
* Lungo le vie della conoscenza. Un viaggio per sentieri inesplorati con Rita Levi-Montalcini, con Giuseppina Tripodi, Brescia, Serra Tarantola, 2005. ISBN:88-88507-56-6.
* Eva era africana, Roma, Gallucci, 2005. ISBN:88-88716-35-1.
* I nuovi magellani nell'er@ digitale, con Giuseppina Tripodi, Milano, Rizzoli, 2006. ISBN:88-17-00823-0.
* Tempo di revisione, con Giuseppina Tripodi, Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2006. ISBN:88-8490-983-X.
* La vita intellettuale, in La vita intellettuale. Professioni, arti, impresa in Italia e nel pianeta. Atti del forum internazionale, 13 e 14 febbraio 2007, Bologna, Salone del podesta di Palazzo Re Enzo, Piazza del Nettuno, Bologna, Proctor, 2007. ISBN:978-88-95499-00-0.
* Rita Levi-Montalcini racconta la scuola ai ragazzi|Rita Levi-Montalcini con Giuseppina Tripodi racconta la scuola ai ragazzi, Milano, Fabbri, 2007. ISBN:978-88-451-4308-3.
* Le tue antenate. Donne pioniere nella società e nella scienza dall'antichità ai giorni nostri, con Giuseppina Tripodi, Roma, Gallucci, 2008. ISBN:978-88-6145-033-2.
* La clessidra della vita di Rita Levi-Montalcini, con Giuseppina Tripodi, Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2008. ISBN:978-88-6073-444-0.
* Ritmi d'arte, Serra Tarantola, 2008 ISBN:88-95839-05-6
* Cronologia di una scoperta, Milano, Baldini Castoldi Dalai, 2009. ISBN:978-88-6073-557-7.
* L'altra parte del mondo, con Giuseppina Tripodi, Milano, Rizzoli, 2009. ISBN:978-88-17-01529-5.

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## References

1. ↑ "Levi-Montalcini". Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2014. https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Levi-Montalcini.
2. ↑ "Levi-Montalcini". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Levi-Montalcini. Retrieved 10 August 2019.
3. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1986". The Nobel Foundation. https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1986/.
4. ↑ Bradshaw RA (2013). "Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012) Nobel prizewinning neurobiologist and eminent advocate for science". Nature (London) 493 (7432): 306. doi:10.1038/493306a. PMID 23325208. Bibcode: 2013Natur.493..306B.
5. ↑ "Rita Levi-Montalcini". https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rita-Levi-Montalcini.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Abbott, A. (2009). "Neuroscience: One hundred years of Rita". Nature 458 (7238): 564–567. doi:10.1038/458564a. PMID 19340056.
7. ↑ "The Doyenne of Neuroscience celebrates her 100th birthday". IBRO. http://www.ibro.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=4067.
8. ↑ Owen, Richard (30 April 2009). "Secret of Longevity: No Food, No Husband, No Regrets or anything like that at all". Excelle. http://excelle.monster.com/news/articles/3264-secret-of-longevity-no-food-no-husband-no-regrets.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Scheda di attività – Rita Levi-Montalcini". http://www.senato.it/leg/16/BGT/Schede/Attsen/00018431.htm.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Carey, Benedict (30 December 2012). "Dr. Rita Levi-Montalcini, Nobel Winner, Dies at 103". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/31/science/dr-rita-levi-montalcini-a-revolutionary-in-the-study-of-the-brain-dies-at-103.html.
11. ↑ https://www.economist.com/news/obituary/21569019-rita-levi-montalcini-biologist-died-december-30th-aged-103-rita-levi-montalcini Rita Levi-Montalcini
12. ↑ Costantino Ceoldo (31 December 2012). "Homage to Rita Levi Montalcini". http://english.pravda.ru/society/anomal/31-12-2012/123358-rita_montalcini-0/. "Born and raised in a Sephardic Jewish family in which culture and love of learning were categorical imperatives, she abandoned religion and embraced atheism."
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Reynolds, Lauren (15 March 2018). "Five facts about Rita Levi-Montalcini, who figured out how neurons grow". https://massivesci.com/articles/rita-levi-montalcini-our-science-heroes/.
14. ↑ Levi-Montalcini, Rita (18 April 1988). In Praise of Imperfection: My Life and Work. Basic Books. p. 28. Bibcode: 1988piml.book.....L. https://archive.org/details/inpraiseofimperf0000levi. "Mother and Father both came from Sephardic families which had moved respectively from Asti and Casale Monferrato, two towns of some importance in Piedmont, to settle in Turin at the turn of the century."
15. ↑ Krause-Jackson, Flavia; Martinuzzi, Elisa (30 December 2012). "Levi-Montalcini, Italian Nobel Laureate, Dies at 103". Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-12-30/levi-montalcini-italian-nobel-prize-laureate-dies-at-103.html.
16. ↑ Siegel, Judy (4 March 2008). "Oldest living Nobel laureate arrives today on solidarity visit. 98- year-old Italian neurologist Rita Levi-Montalcini triumphed over Mussolini's anti-Jewish edicts". The Jerusalem Post. https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/1440078621.html?dids=1440078621:1440078621&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Mar+04,+2008&author=JUDY+SIEGEL&pub=Jerusalem+Post&desc=Oldest+living+Nobel+laureate+arrives+today+on+solidarity+visit.+98-+year-old+Italian+neurologist+Rita+Levi-Montalcini+triumphed+over+Mussolini's+anti-Jewish+edicts&pqatl=google.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 "Nobel-winning scientist Levi-Montalcini dies in Rome at 103, biologist studied growth factor". Fox News Channel. 30 December 2012. http://www.foxnews.com/world/2012/12/30/nobel-winning-scientist-levi-montalcini-dies-in-rome-at-103-biologist-studied/.
18. ↑ Yount, Lisa, Twentieth-Century Women Scientists, Facts on File, Inc., 1996, p. 29, ISBN:0-8160-3173-8
19. ↑ Goldstein, Bob (2 December 2021). "A Lab of Her Own". Nautilus. https://nautil.us/issue/108/Change/a-lab-of-her-own. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
20. ↑ "Death by Design: Where Parallel Worlds Meet". IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118947/fullcredits#cast.
21. ↑ Di Genova, Giorgio. "Paola Levi-Montalcini". https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/levi-montalcini-paola.
22. ↑ "Rita Levi Montalcini", Treccani.it.
23. ↑ "EBRI - European Brain Research Institute". http://www.ebri.it/en/pagine/1_biografia_2_biography_30.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Missouri Women in the Health Sciences - Biographies - Rita Levi-Montalcini". http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/mowihsp/bios/levi_montalcini.htm.
25. ↑ Yount, Lisa (2009). Rita Levi-Montalcini: Discoverer of Nerve Growth Factor. Chelsea House.
26. ↑ Wasserman, Elga R. (2000). The door in the dream : conversations with eminent women in science. Joseph Henry Press. p. 41. ISBN 0-309-06568-2. https://archive.org/details/doorindream00elga/page/41.
27. ↑ "Rita Levi-Montalcini". Washington University. http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/mig/bios/levi-montalcini.html.
28. ↑ "The European Brain Research Institute in Rome". Network of European Neuroscience Institutes. http://www.eni-net.org/organization/home-institutions/the-european-brain-research-institute-in-rome/.
29. ↑ "Self-inflicted damage.The autocratic actions of an institute's founder could destroy a centre of excellence for brain research". Nature 463 (7279): 270. 21 January 2010. doi:10.1038/463270a. PMID 20090705. Bibcode: 2010Natur.463..270..
30. ↑ Horowitz SH (1984). "Ganglioside (Cronassial) therapy in diabetic neuropathy". Ganglioside Structure, Function, and Biomedical Potential. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 174. pp. 593–600. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-1200-0_50. ISBN 978-1-4684-1202-4.
31. ↑ "Double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of a mixture of gangliosides ('Cronassial') in post-herpetic neuralgia". Current Medical Research and Opinion 12 (3): 169–76. 1990. doi:10.1185/03007999009111498. PMID 2272191.
32. ↑ "Qualità Intellettuale". UNIPG. http://www.dmi.unipg.it/~mamone/univ/QUALIT.htm.
33. ↑ "Fallimenti storici". Dica33. http://www.dica33.it/argomenti/farmacologia/farmacovigilanza/farmacovigilanza2.asp.
34. ↑ "Rita Levi Montalcini e la vicenda Cronossial". Politica Molecolare. November 2011. http://politicamolecolare.blogspot.com/2007/11/rita-levi-di-montalcini-e-i.html.
35. ↑ "Nobel comprato? Non ne so nulla". http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/1994/02/22/nobel-comprato-non-ne-so-nulla.html.
36. ↑ "Mast cells synthesize, store, and release nerve growth factor". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 91 (9): 3739–43. April 1994. doi:10.1073/pnas.91.9.3739. PMID 8170980. Bibcode: 1994PNAS...91.3739L.
37. ↑ "A proposed autacoid mechanism controlling mastocyte behaviour". Agents and Actions 39 Spec No: C145–7. 1993. doi:10.1007/BF01972748. PMID 7505999.
38. ↑ Hesselink, Jan M Keppel (8 August 2013). "Evolution in pharmacologic thinking around the natural analgesic palmitoylethanolamide: from nonspecific resistance to PPAR-α agonist and effective nutraceutical". Journal of Pain Research 6: 625–634. doi:10.2147/JPR.S48653. ISSN 1178-7090. PMID 23964161.
39. ↑ "Rita Levi-Montalcini - Biography, Facts and Pictures". https://www.famousscientists.org/rita-levi-montalcini/.
40. ↑ "Mastella: sì al procedimento su Storace". la Repubblica. 17 October 2007. http://www.repubblica.it/2007/10/sezioni/politica/napolitano-tre/mastella-storace/mastella-storace.html.
41. ↑ "Dispetto alla Montalcini al seggio". La Repubblica. 14 April 2008. http://www.repubblica.it/2008/04/sezioni/politica/elezioni-2008/montalcini/montalcini.html.
42. ↑ "Rita Levi-Montalcini- Biography". https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1986/levi-montalcini/auto-biography/.
43. ↑ Elliott, Ellen. "Women in Science: Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012)". https://www.jax.org/news-and-insights/jax-blog/2017/april/rita-levi-montalcini.
44. ↑ Gian Marco Chiocci (5 October 2007). "Tra "vaffa" e condanne, Camere tabù per Grillo" (in it). Il Giornale. http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/vaffa-e-condanne-camere-tab-grillo.html.
45. ↑ "Rita Levi-Montalcini, pioneering Italian biologist, dies at 103". The Guardian. 20 December 2012. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/30/rita-levi-montalcini-biologist-dies.
46. ↑ "Addio al premio Nobel Rita Levi Montalcini". ANSA. 30 December 2012. https://www.ansa.it/web/notizie/rubriche/scienza/2012/12/30/morta-Rita-Levi-Montalcini_8011133.html.
47. ↑ D'Emilio, Frances (30 December 2012). "Nobel-winning biologist Rita Levi-Montalcini dies at 103". Associated Press. NBC News. http://www.nbcnews.com/id/50324234.
48. ↑ Alberto Statera (June 9, 2010). "I massoni di sinistra. Nelle logge sono 4mila." (in it). La Repubblica. https://www.repubblica.it/politica/2010/06/09/news/massoneria_pd-4683769/.
49. ↑ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter L". American Academy of Arts and Sciences. http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterL.pdf.
50. ↑ Wasserman, Elga (2000). The Door in the Dream: Conversations With Eminent Women in Science. Joseph Henry Press. p. 61. ISBN 0309086191. https://books.google.com/books?id=Xyt3IAAtmEIC&pg=PT61.
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Yount, Lisa (2007). A to Z of Women in Science and Math. Infobase Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1438107950. https://books.google.com/books?id=428i2UdWRRAC&pg=PA174.
52. ↑ Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; no text was provided for refs named `membo`
53. ↑ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". American Academy of Achievement. https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration.
54. ↑ "Rita Levi-Montalcini". The Pontifical Academy of Sciences. http://www.casinapioiv.va/content/accademia/en/academicians/ordinary/levimontalcini.html.
55. ↑ "Rita Levi-Montalcini – The Embryo Project Encyclopedia". ASU. http://embryo.asu.edu/view/embryo:123950.
56. ↑ American Philosophical Society Member History (Dr. Rita Levi-Montalcini)
57. ↑ "Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award: 1986 Winners". Lasker Foundation. http://www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/1986_b_description.htm#montalcini.
58. ↑ "International Council of Human Duties". http://www2.units.it/ichd/.
59. ↑ Anon (2015). "Fellowship of the Royal Society 1660–2015". London: Royal Society. https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1RVVZY00MZNrK2YCTTzVrbTFH2t3RxoAZah128gQR-NM/pubhtml.
60. ↑ "Meet the Goodwill Ambassadors". FAO. http://www.fao.org/getinvolved/ambassadors/ambassadors/ambassadors-ritalevimontalcini/en/.
61. ↑ Ghieth, Sheyam (13 April 2006). "Prodi May Need Elderly Senators to Keep Government". Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aL4IesctLevA&refer=europe.
62. ↑ "E' scomparsa Rita Levi Montalcini, premio Nobel per la medicina, tra i soci fondatori di Città della Scienza". Città della Scienza. http://www.cittadellascienza.it/notizie/scomparsa-rita-levi-montalcini-fondatori-di-citta-della-scienza/.
63. ↑ Gennaio, Roberto; Gargiulo, Marco; Medagli, Piero; Chetta, Francesco S. (2017). "Ophrys×montalciniae nothosubsp. cristoforettiae(O. incubacea subsp. brutia × O. sphegodes subsp. classica), nuovo ibrido naturale del Salento (Puglia)". GIROS Orch. Spont. Eur. 60 (2017:2): 427–431.

## Further reading

* Sandrone, Stefano (2013). "Rita Levi-Montalcini (1909–2012)". Journal of Neurology 260 (3): 940–41. doi:10.1007/s00415-013-6864-8. PMID 23417239. Bibcode: 2013Natur.493..306B.
* Navis, Adam (2007), "Rita Levi-Montalcini.", Embryo Project Encyclopedia., http://embryo.asu.edu/view/embryo:123950
* Aloe, L. (2004). "Rita Levi-Montalcini: The discovery of nerve growth factor and modern neurobiology". Trends in Cell Biology 14 (7): 395–99. doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2004.05.011. PMID 15246433.
* Shampo, M. A.; Kyle, R. A. (2003). "Stamp vignette on medical science. Rita Levi-Montalcini – Nobel Prize for work in neurology". Mayo Clinic Proceedings 78 (12): 1448. doi:10.4065/78.12.1448. PMID 14661672.
* Aloe, L. (2003). "Rita Levi-Montalcini and the discovery of nerve growth factor: Past and present studies". Archives Italiennes de Biologie 141 (2–3): 65–83. PMID 12825318.
* Cowan, W. M. (2001). "Viktor Hamburger Andrita Levi-Montalcini: The Path to the Discovery of Nerve Growth Factor". Annual Review of Neuroscience 24: 551–600. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.551. PMID 11283321.
* Goldstein, Bob (1 December 2021). "A Lab of Her Own: Sheltered in her bedroom during WWII, Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered how the nervous system is wired.". Nautilus. https://nautil.us/issue/108/Change/a-lab-of-her-own. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
* Ribatti, D (June 2016). "The failed attribution of the Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology to Viktor Hamburger for the discovery of Nerve Growth Factor.". Brain Research Bulletin 124: 306–09. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.02.019. PMID 26930162.
* Provine, R. R. (2001). "In the trenches with Viktor Hamburger and Rita Levi-Montalcini (1965–1974): One student's perspective". International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience 19 (2): 143–49. doi:10.1016/S0736-5748(00)00081-2. PMID 11255028.
* Levi-Montalcini, R. (2000). "From a home-made laboratory to the Nobel Prize: An interview with Rita Levi-Montalcini". The International Journal of Developmental Biology 44 (6): 563–66. PMID 11061418.
* Raju, T. N. (2000). "The Nobel chronicles. 1986: Stanley Cohen (b 1922); Rita Levi-Montalcini (b 1909)". Lancet 355 (9202): 506. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)82069-3. PMID 10841166.
* Aloe, L. (1999). "Rita Levi-Montalcini: A brief biographic view of past and present studies on nerve growth factor". Microscopy Research and Technique 45 (4–5): 207–09. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0029(19990515/01)45:4/5<207::AID-JEMT3>3.0.CO;2-E. PMID 10383112.
* Bendiner, E. (1992). "Rita Levi-Montalcini and the unveiling of growth factors". Hospital Practice (Office Ed.) 27 (4A): 135–45. PMID 1560084.
* Pécsi, T. (1987). "Nobel Prize for medicine, 1986 (Rita Levi-Montalcini)". Orvosi Hetilap 128 (20): 1047–48. PMID 3295669.
* Weltman, J. K. (1987). "The 1986 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine awarded for discovery of growth factors: Rita Levi-Montalcini, M.D., and Stanley Cohen, Ph.D". New England and Regional Allergy Proceedings 8 (1): 47–48. doi:10.2500/108854187779045385. PMID 3302667.
* Holloway, Marguerite (January 1993). "Finding the Good in the Bad". Scientific American 268: 32–36. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0193-32. http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=finding-the-good-rita-levi-montalcini.

## External links

* Miss nobel-id as parameter
* Interview with Rita Levi-Montalcini (dated 26 November 2008)
* Biography of Rita Levi-Montalcini at Embryo Project Encyclopedia
* Article in German
* The Official Site of Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
* AFP Biography (dated 22 April 2009) celebrating Rita Levi-Montalcini's 100th Birthday
* Is this the secret of eternal life? (Independent article on R L-M)
* Italians rally to condemn Nobel 'bribe' allegation: Professor rejects claim by civil servant that a pharmaceuticals firm 'bought' her 1986 prize for medicine
* An Annual Reviews Conversations Interview with Rita Levi-Montalcini (video)
* 1979 article in Scientific American describing the discovery of nerve growth factor

* v
* t
* e

Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

1901–1925|

* 1901: Emil Behring
* 1902: Ronald Ross
* 1903: Niels Finsen
* 1904: Ivan Pavlov
* 1905: Robert Koch
* 1906: Camillo Golgi / Santiago Ramón y Cajal
* 1907: Alphonse Laveran
* 1908: Élie Metchnikoff / Paul Ehrlich
* 1909: Emil Kocher
* 1910: Albrecht Kossel
* 1911: Allvar Gullstrand
* 1912: Alexis Carrel
* 1913: Charles Richet
* 1914: Róbert Bárány
* 1915
* 1916
* 1917
* 1918
* 1919: Jules Bordet
* 1920: August Krogh
* 1921
* 1922: Archibald Hill / Otto Meyerhof
* 1923: Frederick Banting / John Macleod
* 1924: Willem Einthoven
* 1925

1926–1950|

* 1926: Johannes Fibiger
* 1927: Julius Wagner-Jauregg
* 1928: Charles Nicolle
* 1929: Christiaan Eijkman / Frederick Gowland Hopkins
* 1930: Karl Landsteiner
* 1931: Otto Warburg
* 1932: Charles Scott Sherrington / Edgar Adrian
* 1933: Thomas Morgan
* 1934: George Whipple / George Minot / William Murphy
* 1935: Hans Spemann
* 1936: Henry Dale / Otto Loewi
* 1937: Albert Szent-Györgyi
* 1938: Corneille Heymans
* 1939: Gerhard Domagk
* 1940
* 1941
* 1942
* 1943: Henrik Dam / Edward Doisy
* 1944: Joseph Erlanger / Herbert Gasser
* 1945: Alexander Fleming / Ernst Chain / Howard Florey
* 1946: Hermann Muller
* 1947: Carl Cori / Gerty Cori / Bernardo Houssay
* 1948: Paul Müller
* 1949: Walter Hess / António Egas Moniz
* 1950: Edward Kendall / Tadeusz Reichstein / Philip Hench

1951–1975|

* 1951: Max Theiler
* 1952: Selman Waksman
* 1953: Hans Krebs / Fritz Lipmann
* 1954: John Enders / Thomas Weller / Frederick Robbins
* 1955: Hugo Theorell
* 1956: André Cournand / Werner Forssmann / Dickinson W. Richards
* 1957: Daniel Bovet
* 1958: George Beadle / Edward Tatum / Joshua Lederberg
* 1959: Severo Ochoa / Arthur Kornberg
* 1960: Frank Burnet / Peter Medawar
* 1961: Georg von Békésy
* 1962: Francis Crick / James Watson / Maurice Wilkins
* 1963: John Eccles / Alan Hodgkin / Andrew Huxley
* 1964: Konrad Bloch / Feodor Lynen
* 1965: François Jacob / André Lwoff / Jacques Monod
* 1966: Francis Rous / Charles B. Huggins
* 1967: Ragnar Granit / Haldan Hartline / George Wald
* 1968: Robert W. Holley / Har Khorana / Marshall Nirenberg
* 1969: Max Delbrück / Alfred Hershey / Salvador Luria
* 1970: Bernard Katz / Ulf von Euler / Julius Axelrod
* 1971: Earl Sutherland Jr.
* 1972: Gerald Edelman / Rodney Porter
* 1973: Karl von Frisch / Konrad Lorenz / Nikolaas Tinbergen
* 1974: Albert Claude / Christian de Duve / George Palade
* 1975: David Baltimore / Renato Dulbecco / Howard Temin

1976–2000|

* 1976: Baruch Blumberg / Daniel Gajdusek
* 1977: Roger Guillemin / Andrew Schally / Rosalyn Yalow
* 1978: Werner Arber / Daniel Nathans / Hamilton O. Smith
* 1979: Allan Cormack / Godfrey Hounsfield
* 1980: Baruj Benacerraf / Jean Dausset / George Snell
* 1981: Roger Sperry / David H. Hubel / Torsten Wiesel
* 1982: Sune Bergström / Bengt I. Samuelsson / John Vane
* 1983: Barbara McClintock
* 1984: Niels Jerne / Georges Köhler / César Milstein
* 1985: Michael Brown / Joseph L. Goldstein
* 1986: Stanley Cohen / Rita Levi-Montalcini
* 1987: Susumu Tonegawa
* 1988: James W. Black / Gertrude B. Elion / George H. Hitchings
* 1989: J. Michael Bishop / Harold E. Varmus
* 1990: Joseph Murray / E. Donnall Thomas
* 1991: Erwin Neher / Bert Sakmann
* 1992: Edmond Fischer / Edwin G. Krebs
* 1993: Richard J. Roberts / Phillip Sharp
* 1994: Alfred G. Gilman / Martin Rodbell
* 1995: Edward B. Lewis / Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard / Eric F. Wieschaus
* 1996: Peter C. Doherty / Rolf M. Zinkernagel
* 1997: Stanley B. Prusiner
* 1998: Robert F. Furchgott / Louis Ignarro / Ferid Murad
* 1999: Günter Blobel
* 2000: Arvid Carlsson / Paul Greengard / Eric Kandel

2001–present|

* 2001: Leland H. Hartwell / Tim Hunt / Paul Nurse
* 2002: Sydney Brenner / H. Robert Horvitz / John E. Sulston
* 2003: Paul Lauterbur / Peter Mansfield
* 2004: Richard Axel / Linda B. Buck
* 2005: Barry Marshall / Robin Warren
* 2006: Andrew Fire / Craig Mello
* 2007: Mario Capecchi / Martin Evans / Oliver Smithies
* 2008: Harald zur Hausen / Luc Montagnier / Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
* 2009: Elizabeth Blackburn / Carol W. Greider / Jack W. Szostak
* 2010: Robert G. Edwards
* 2011: Bruce Beutler / Jules A. Hoffmann / Ralph M. Steinman (posthumously)
* 2012: John Gurdon / Shinya Yamanaka
* 2013: James Rothman / Randy Schekman / Thomas C. Südhof
* 2014: John O'Keefe / May-Britt Moser / Edvard Moser
* 2015: William C. Campbell / Satoshi Ōmura / Tu Youyou
* 2016: Yoshinori Ohsumi
* 2017: Jeffrey C. Hall / Michael Rosbash / Michael W. Young
* 2018: James P. Allison / Tasuku Honjo
* 2019: Gregg L. Semenza / Peter J. Ratcliffe / William Kaelin Jr.

* v
* t
* e

1986 Nobel Prize laureates

Chemistry|

* Dudley R. Herschbach (United States)
* Yuan T. Lee (United States)
* John Polanyi (Canada)

Literature|

* Wole Soyinka (Nigeria)

Peace|

* Elie Wiesel (United States)

Physics|

* Ernst Ruska (Germany)
* Gerd Binnig (Germany)
* Heinrich Rohrer (Stitzerland)

Physiology or Medicine|

* Stanley Cohen (United States)
* Rita Levi-Montalcini (United States/Italy)

Economic Sciences|

* James M. Buchanan (United States)

Nobel Prize recipients
1990

2000

* v
* t
* e

United States National Medal of Science laureates

Behavioral and social science

| 1960s|

1964
Roger Adams
Othmar H. Ammann
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Neal Elgar Miller

|

1980s|

1986
Herbert A. Simon
1987
Anne Anastasi
George J. Stigler
1988
Milton Friedman

1990s|

1990
Leonid Hurwicz
Patrick Suppes
1991
Robert W. Kates
George A. Miller
1992
Eleanor J. Gibson
1994
Robert K. Merton
1995
Roger N. Shepard
1996
Paul Samuelson
1997
William K. Estes
1998
William Julius Wilson
1999
Robert M. Solow

2000s|

2000
Gary Becker
2001
George Bass
2003
R. Duncan Luce
2004
Kenneth Arrow
2005
Gordon H. Bower
2008
Michael I. Posner
2009
Mortimer Mishkin

2010s|

2011
Anne Treisman
2014
Robert Axelrod
2015
Albert Bandura

Biological sciences

| 1960s|

1963
C. B. van Niel
1964
Marshall W. Nirenberg
1965
Francis P. Rous
George G. Simpson
Donald D. Van Slyke
1966
Edward F. Knipling
Fritz Albert Lipmann
William C. Rose
Sewall Wright
1967
Kenneth S. Cole
Harry F. Harlow
Michael Heidelberger
Alfred H. Sturtevant
1968
Horace Barker
Bernard B. Brodie
Detlev W. Bronk
Jay Lush
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
1969
Robert Huebner
Ernst Mayr

|

1970s|

1970
Barbara McClintock
Albert B. Sabin
1973
Daniel I. Arnon
Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
1974
Britton Chance
Erwin Chargaff
James V. Neel
James Augustine Shannon
1975
Hallowell Davis
Paul Gyorgy
Sterling B. Hendricks
Orville Alvin Vogel
1976
Roger Guillemin
Keith Roberts Porter
Efraim Racker
E. O. Wilson
1979
Robert H. Burris
Elizabeth C. Crosby
Arthur Kornberg
Severo Ochoa
Earl Reece Stadtman
George Ledyard Stebbins
Paul Alfred Weiss

1980s|

1981
Philip Handler
1982
Seymour Benzer
Glenn W. Burton
Mildred Cohn
1983
Howard L. Bachrach
Paul Berg
Wendell L. Roelofs
Berta Scharrer
1986
Stanley Cohen
Donald A. Henderson
Vernon B. Mountcastle
George Emil Palade
Joan A. Steitz
1987
Michael E. DeBakey
Theodor O. Diener
Harry Eagle
Har Gobind Khorana
Rita Levi-Montalcini
1988
Michael S. Brown
Stanley Norman Cohen
Joseph L. Goldstein
Maurice R. Hilleman
Eric R. Kandel
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
1989
Katherine Esau
Viktor Hamburger
Philip Leder
Joshua Lederberg
Roger W. Sperry
Harland G. Wood

1990s|

1990
Baruj Benacerraf
Herbert W. Boyer
Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
Edward B. Lewis
David G. Nathan
E. Donnall Thomas
1991
Mary Ellen Avery
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
Elvin A. Kabat
Salvador Luria
Paul A. Marks
Folke K. Skoog
Paul C. Zamecnik
1992
Maxine Singer
Howard Martin Temin
1993
Daniel Nathans
Salome G. Waelsch
1994
Thomas Eisner
Elizabeth F. Neufeld
1995
Alexander Rich
1996
Ruth Patrick
1997
James Watson
Robert A. Weinberg
1998
Bruce Ames
Janet Rowley
1999
David Baltimore
Jared Diamond
Lynn Margulis

2000s|

2000
Nancy C. Andreasen
Peter H. Raven
Carl Woese
2001
Francisco J. Ayala
Mario R. Capecchi
Ann Graybiel
Gene E. Likens
Victor A. McKusick
Harold Varmus
2002
James E. Darnell
Evelyn M. Witkin
2003
J. Michael Bishop
Solomon H. Snyder
Charles Yanofsky
2004
Norman E. Borlaug
Phillip A. Sharp
Thomas E. Starzl
2005
Anthony S. Fauci
Torsten N. Wiesel
2006
Rita R. Colwell
Nina Fedoroff
Lubert Stryer
2007
Robert J. Lefkowitz
Bert W. O'Malley
2008
Francis S. Collins
Elaine Fuchs
J. Craig Venter
2009
Susan L. Lindquist
Stanley B. Prusiner

2010s|

2010
Ralph L. Brinster
Shu Chien
Rudolf Jaenisch
2011
Lucy Shapiro
Leroy Hood
Sallie Chisholm
2014
May Berenbaum
Bruce Alberts
2015
Stanley Falkow
Rakesh K. Jain
Mary-Claire King
Simon Levin

Chemistry

| 1980s|

1982
F. Albert Cotton
Gilbert Stork
1983
Roald Hoffmann
George C. Pimentel
Richard N. Zare
1986
Harry B. Gray
Yuan Tseh Lee
Carl S. Marvel
Frank H. Westheimer
1987
William S. Johnson
Walter H. Stockmayer
Max Tishler
1988
William O. Baker
Konrad E. Bloch
Elias J. Corey
1989
Richard B. Bernstein
Melvin Calvin
Rudolph A. Marcus
Harden M. McConnell

|

1990s|

1990
Elkan Blout
Karl Folkers
John D. Roberts
1991
Ronald Breslow
Gertrude B. Elion
Dudley R. Herschbach
Glenn T. Seaborg
1992
Howard E. Simmons Jr.
1993
Donald J. Cram
Norman Hackerman
1994
George S. Hammond
1995
Thomas Cech
Isabella L. Karle
1996
Norman Davidson
1997
Darleane C. Hoffman
Harold S. Johnston
1998
John W. Cahn
George M. Whitesides
1999
Stuart A. Rice
John Ross
Susan Solomon

2000s|

2000
John D. Baldeschwieler
Ralph F. Hirschmann
2001
Ernest R. Davidson
Gábor A. Somorjai
2002
John I. Brauman
2004
Stephen J. Lippard
2006
Marvin H. Caruthers
Peter B. Dervan
2007
Mostafa A. El-Sayed
2008
Joanna Fowler
JoAnne Stubbe
2009
Stephen J. Benkovic
Marye Anne Fox

2010s|

2010
Jacqueline K. Barton
Peter J. Stang
2011
Allen J. Bard
M. Frederick Hawthorne
2014
Judith P. Klinman
Jerrold Meinwald
2015
A. Paul Alivisatos
Geraldine L. Richmond

Engineering sciences

| 1960s|

1962
Theodore von Kármán
1963
Vannevar Bush
John Robinson Pierce
1964
Charles S. Draper
1965
Hugh L. Dryden
Clarence L. Johnson
Warren K. Lewis
1966
Claude E. Shannon
1967
Edwin H. Land
Igor I. Sikorsky
1968
J. Presper Eckert
Nathan M. Newmark
1969
Jack St. Clair Kilby

|

1970s|

1970
George E. Mueller
1973
Harold E. Edgerton
Richard T. Whitcomb
1974
Rudolf Kompfner
Ralph Brazelton Peck
Abel Wolman
1975
Manson Benedict
William Hayward Pickering
Frederick E. Terman
Wernher von Braun
1976
Morris Cohen
Peter C. Goldmark
Erwin Wilhelm Müller
1979
Emmett N. Leith
Raymond D. Mindlin
Robert N. Noyce
Earl R. Parker
Simon Ramo

1980s|

1982
Edward H. Heinemann
Donald L. Katz
1983
Bill Hewlett
George Low
John G. Trump
1986
Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
Tung-Yen Lin
Bernard M. Oliver
1987
Robert Byron Bird
H. Bolton Seed
Ernst Weber
1988
Daniel C. Drucker
Willis M. Hawkins
George W. Housner
1989
Harry George Drickamer
Herbert E. Grier

1990s|

1990
Mildred Dresselhaus
Nick Holonyak Jr.
1991
George H. Heilmeier
Luna B. Leopold
H. Guyford Stever
1992
Calvin F. Quate
John Roy Whinnery
1993
Alfred Y. Cho
1994
Ray W. Clough
1995
Hermann A. Haus
1996
James L. Flanagan
C. Kumar N. Patel
1998
Eli Ruckenstein
1999
Kenneth N. Stevens

2000s|

2000
Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
2001
Andreas Acrivos
2002
Leo Beranek
2003
John M. Prausnitz
2004
Edwin N. Lightfoot
2005
Jan D. Achenbach
Tobin J. Marks
2006
Robert S. Langer
2007
David J. Wineland
2008
Rudolf E. Kálmán
2009
Amnon Yariv

2010s|

2010
Shu Chien
2011
John B. Goodenough
2014
Thomas Kailath

Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Norbert Wiener
1964
Solomon Lefschetz
H. Marston Morse
1965
Oscar Zariski
1966
John Milnor
1967
Paul Cohen
1968
Jerzy Neyman
1969
William Feller

|

1970s|

1970
Richard Brauer
1973
John Tukey
1974
Kurt Gödel
1975
John W. Backus
Shiing-Shen Chern
George Dantzig
1976
Kurt Otto Friedrichs
Hassler Whitney
1979
Joseph L. Doob
Donald E. Knuth

1980s|

1982
Marshall Harvey Stone
1983
Herman Goldstine
Isadore Singer
1986
Peter Lax
Antoni Zygmund
1987
Raoul Bott
Michael Freedman
1988
Ralph E. Gomory
Joseph B. Keller
1989
Samuel Karlin
Saunders Mac Lane
Donald C. Spencer

1990s|

1990
George F. Carrier
Stephen Cole Kleene
John McCarthy
1991
Alberto Calderón
1992
Allen Newell
1993
Martin David Kruskal
1994
John Cocke
1995
Louis Nirenberg
1996
Richard Karp
Stephen Smale
1997
Shing-Tung Yau
1998
Cathleen Synge Morawetz
1999
Felix Browder
Ronald R. Coifman

2000s|

2000
John Griggs Thompson
Karen Uhlenbeck
2001
Calyampudi R. Rao
Elias M. Stein
2002
James G. Glimm
2003
Carl R. de Boor
2004
Dennis P. Sullivan
2005
Bradley Efron
2006
Hyman Bass
2007
Leonard Kleinrock
Andrew J. Viterbi
2009
David B. Mumford

2010s|

2010
Richard A. Tapia
S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
2011
Solomon W. Golomb
Barry Mazur
2014
Alexandre Chorin
David Blackwell
2015
Michael Artin

Physical sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Luis W. Alvarez
1964
Julian Schwinger
Harold Clayton Urey
Robert Burns Woodward
1965
John Bardeen
Peter Debye
Leon M. Lederman
William Rubey
1966
Jacob Bjerknes
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Henry Eyring
John H. Van Vleck
Vladimir K. Zworykin
1967
Jesse Beams
Francis Birch
Gregory Breit
Louis Hammett
George Kistiakowsky
1968
Paul Bartlett
Herbert Friedman
Lars Onsager
Eugene Wigner
1969
Herbert C. Brown
Wolfgang Panofsky

|

1970s|

1970
Robert H. Dicke
Allan R. Sandage
John C. Slater
John A. Wheeler
Saul Winstein
1973
Carl Djerassi
Maurice Ewing
Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
Vladimir Haensel
Frederick Seitz
Robert Rathbun Wilson
1974
Nicolaas Bloembergen
Paul Flory
William Alfred Fowler
Linus Carl Pauling
Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
1975
Hans A. Bethe
Joseph O. Hirschfelder
Lewis Sarett
Edgar Bright Wilson
Chien-Shiung Wu
1976
Samuel Goudsmit
Herbert S. Gutowsky
Frederick Rossini
Verner Suomi
Henry Taube
George Uhlenbeck
1979
Richard P. Feynman
Herman Mark
Edward M. Purcell
John Sinfelt
Lyman Spitzer
Victor F. Weisskopf

1980s|

1982
Philip W. Anderson
Yoichiro Nambu
Edward Teller
Charles H. Townes
1983
E. Margaret Burbidge
Maurice Goldhaber
Helmut Landsberg
Walter Munk
Frederick Reines
Bruno B. Rossi
J. Robert Schrieffer
1986
Solomon J. Buchsbaum
H. Richard Crane
Herman Feshbach
Robert Hofstadter
Chen-Ning Yang
1987
Philip Abelson
Walter Elsasser
Paul C. Lauterbur
George Pake
James A. Van Allen
1988
D. Allan Bromley
Paul Ching-Wu Chu
Walter Kohn
Norman F. Ramsey
Jack Steinberger
1989
Arnold O. Beckman
Eugene Parker
Robert Sharp
Henry Stommel

1990s|

1990
Allan M. Cormack
Edwin M. McMillan
Robert Pound
Roger Revelle
1991
Arthur L. Schawlow
Ed Stone
Steven Weinberg
1992
Eugene M. Shoemaker
1993
Val Fitch
Vera Rubin
1994
Albert Overhauser
Frank Press
1995
Hans Dehmelt
Peter Goldreich
1996
Wallace S. Broecker
1997
Marshall Rosenbluth
Martin Schwarzschild
George Wetherill
1998
Don L. Anderson
John N. Bahcall
1999
James Cronin
Leo Kadanoff

2000s|

2000
Willis E. Lamb
Jeremiah P. Ostriker
Gilbert F. White
2001
Marvin L. Cohen
Raymond Davis Jr.
Charles Keeling
2002
Richard Garwin
W. Jason Morgan
Edward Witten
2003
G. Brent Dalrymple
Riccardo Giacconi
2004
Robert N. Clayton
2005
Ralph A. Alpher
Lonnie Thompson
2006
Daniel Kleppner
2007
Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
Charles P. Slichter
2008
Berni Alder
James E. Gunn
2009
Yakir Aharonov
Esther M. Conwell
Warren M. Washington

2010s|

2011
Sidney Drell
Sandra Faber
Sylvester James Gates
2012
Burton Richter
Sean C. Solomon
2014
Shirley Ann Jackson

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rita Levi-Montalcini. Read more

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