Biodiversity banking

Short description: Market-based system for biodiversity offsetting

Biodiversity banking, also known as biodiversity trading, conservation banking, mitigation banking,[1] habitat banking, compensatory habitat,[1] or set-asides,[1] describes a market-based framework for biodiversity offsetting where offsets can be traded in the form of credits to offset negative environmental impacts of development projects or activities. This involves biodiversity banks, areas with biodiversity value.[2] On the site of a biodiversity bank, conservation activities may be carried out to preserve, restore, enhance, or conserve biodiversity.[3][4] The outcomes of projects carried out at biodiversity banks are valued in the form of credits, which can be purchased as a way to offset unavoidable adverse environmental impacts, often with the aim of achieving no net loss of biodiversity.[5]

Biodiversity banking emerged from wetland mitigation banking in the United States, beginning in the 1980s and arising from the no net loss policies developed with the Clean Water Act in the 1970s.[6] Since then the concept has been extended, including its application to the bond market.[7][8]

The terms used to describe biodiversity banking are dependent on the focus of conservation aims and the policies of the country or region in which it is applied.[9] Some of the countries where biodiversity banking has been implemented include the United States, Australia, Canada, Brazil, Sri Lanka and Colombia .[6]

## Contents

* 1 Terminology
* 2 Legal protections
* 3 Conservation activities
* 4 Country examples
* 4.1 United States
* 4.2 Australia
* 4.2.1 BioBanking in New South Wales
* 4.2.2 Native Vegetation Management in Victoria
* 4.3 Canada
* 4.4 Colombia
* 4.5 United Kingdom
* 5 Challenges
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Terminology

Biodiversity banking is distinct from biodiversity offsets, though they are closely related. Biodiversity offsets are measurable conservation outcomes that result from actions to compensate for the significant negative impacts of development projects, once appropriate measures to avoid or minimise these impacts have been taken.[10] Biodiversity offsetting and biodiversity banking are commonly applied with the goal of achieving no net loss of biodiversity, or more ambitiously, a net gain of biodiversity.[11]

Biodiversity banking generally turns offsets into assets that can be stored or traded, through the creation of biodiversity credits that quantify the value of projects undertaken to restore, create, or enhance biodiversity in advance of a development and away from its potential site.[12][13] The sites where these projects are carried out are referred to as banks.[13] While more than 100 countries have developed requirements for biodiversity offsetting,[14] frameworks for biodiversity banking are less widespread.

The terms used to describe biodiversity banking differ according to the biodiversity that the system aims to conserve. For example, habitat banking, species banking, conservation banking, and mitigation banking are forms of biodiversity banking.[9]

## Legal protections

See also: Engineering:Conservation easement

Biodiversity banks and the credits that are generated from them rely on regulations and legal frameworks. When establishing a biodiversity bank, a legal arrangement, such as a conservation easement (also known as a conservation covenant) might be required to set aside the land for conservation and prevent the use of the land for development, either in perpetuity or for a specified time period.[15] This commitment remains in place for future owners of the land. Part of the agreement may involve establishing a trust fund dedicated to funding ongoing conservation on the site and monitoring its outcomes.[16]

## Conservation activities

See also: Biology:Conservation biology, ecological restoration, and habitat conservation

To generate credits, conservation activities must be carried out at the site of a potential biodiversity bank so that the credits represent improved outcomes for biodiversity that would not have otherwise happened.[17] This might include activities to preserve, enhance, restore, or create habitat on the site.[17]

On a practical level, this might involve reintroducing native plant species that had disappeared from the area, removing invasive species, or removing ditches and levees to restore a swamp.[18][19] The exact methods used at a habitat bank for restoring or conserving biodiversity will vary depending on the type of habitat being targeted for conservation.

## Country examples

### United States

In the United States, a mitigation banking process applies to impacts on wetlands and other aquatic habitats like streams. This involves a mitigation sequence, which requires that developers firstly avoid harm to wetlands, but if harm is considered unavoidable, then wetland habitat of similar function and values must be protected, enhanced, restored, or created to compensate for those that will be damaged. The process comes under the section 404 of the US Clean Water Act 1972, the US Army Corps of Engineers regulations [20] and the commitment to "no net loss" of wetlands habitat.

As part of mitigation banking, compensation for impacts to river banks, known as "stream riparian zones", may be required. Dedicated stream mitigation banks may be established for compensate for impacts to streams, such as loss of ecological and hydrological functions.[21] In practice, impacts might result from activities like sedimentation, channelization, dredging, or similar activities. They might also come from agricultural activities or addition of structures to the river bank, such as concrete or rip rap. The suitability of using mitigation banking to compensate for these impacts will depend on the amount of the river bank (considered in terms of "linear distance" in feet) that is impacted - there must be the potential to enhance or restore at least 4,000 linear feet (1219.2 meters) of degraded first or second order streams to establish a stream mitigation bank.[22]

Conservation banking (also called species banking) is another form of biodiversity banking used in the United States.[23] It is used to compensate for impacts on species of special concern, typically those that are listed by state and federal agencies under the U.S. Endangered Species Act or its state-based equivalent.[17] The wetland mitigation banking system inspired the development of conservation banking in California in the mid-1990s[24] but, unlike mitigation banking, conservation banking does not require "no net loss".[25]

### Australia

At least two biodiversity banking schemes have been set up in Australia as a framework for biodiversity offsetting. Biodiversity offsetting is required under the federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act and state guidelines for offsetting. Biodiversity banks were established on the state level based on regulations from state governments - for example, New South Wales' now defunct BioBanking Scheme set up in 2008 and the BushBroker scheme in Victoria.[26]

#### BioBanking in New South Wales

The BioBanking ('Biodiversity Banking and Offsets') scheme in New South Wales started in July 2008 with the aim of achieving no net loss (or a net gain) of biodiversity [27] but has since been replaced by a 'Biodiversity Offsets Scheme' under the state Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016.[28] BioBanking was run by the state government's Department of Environment and Climate Change as a voluntary market for biodiversity credits that could be applied as part of the planning process. Credits were created by landowners by establishing "biobanks" sites where they committed to conserving biodiversity. The credits represented improvement in biodiversity through conservation activities at the site and could be sold by the landowner for income and to fund the continued management of the biobank. The biodiversity credits under the system included ecosystem credits and species credits.

#### Native Vegetation Management in Victoria

In Victoria, the clearing of native vegetation is regulated under the Native Vegetation Management Framework. To regulate vegetation clearing, the BushBroker biodiversity banking scheme was set up in 2006 with the initial aim of net gain and later adoption of a no net loss aim.[29]

### Canada

Canada has a policy to offset loss of fish and fish habitat through habitat banking, under the Fisheries Act. According to the act, "no person shall carry on any work, undertaking or activity, other than fishing, that results in the death of fish"[30] and "no person shall carry on any work, undertaking or activity that results in the harmful alteration, disruption or destruction of fish habitat".[30] Policy states that other aquatic species at risk should also be considered when conducting habitat banking.[31]

Habitat banking is a tool used to offset negative impacts of potential projects or development activities on fish (or their habitats), in advance of impact occurrence, by restoring, enhancing, or creating fish habitat by completing conservation projects.[31] The positive impacts of these conservation projects on fish are quantified through habitat credits. Habitat credits can then be withdrawn from the habitat bank to offset negative impacts on fish or their habitats, but only by the creator of the habitat bank to offset their own impacts - the credits cannot be sold or traded to third parties.[31] In addition, projects must adhere to the mitigation hierarchy, described as the hierarchy of measures, to be eligible to use habitat credits.[31]

In Canada, habitat banking was first used in 1993 in North Fraser Harbour in Vancouver.[32] Creation, restoration, and enhancement of habitat continues at Port Fraser - with creation, restoration, and enhancement of 15 hectares of fish and wildlife habitat since 2012, according to the Port Authority, to offset the effects of port development.[33] Across Canada, the majority of offset projects are aquatic, including 43% in wetlands, 33% in streams, and 22% in rivers.[34]

Further research is needed to determine a clear picture of the success of habitat banking in achieving no net loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functions in Canada.[35] A 2006 analysis found that 25% of habitat banking projects achieved no net loss of habitat productivity, while 12% achieved a net gain.[36] Compliance with monitoring requirements was also found to be low - it was difficult to determine the effectiveness of projects in achieving no net loss.[35]

As well as habitat banking to conserve fish, other related schemes, such biodiversity credit schemes, have been started in Canada. For example, in 2019, Ontario-based regional conservation biology charity, Carolinian Canada Coalition launched a pilot model for the Conservation Impact Bond, a financial tool which pays for actions to increase biodiversity.[37]

### Colombia

Biodiversity banking has been implemented in Colombia since 2017, when the first habitat banks were registered there.[38] Habitat banking is allowed as a mechanism for biodiversity offsetting through the purchase of biodiversity credits from habitat banks.[38] The sale of these credits is used to fund conservation and restoration activities at the habitat bank for at least 30 years.[39]

The first habitat bank to be established in Colombia was the El Meta Habitat Bank.[40] The bank had been issued 600 biodiversity credits, all of which have since been sold.[39] By August 2023, 14 habitat banks had been registered in the country, according to Cambio, a Colombia-based magazine.[41]

The Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development released habitat banking regulations in June 2017 under Resolution No. 1051.[42] These were updated in 2018 with Resolution No. 256, requiring the use of a mitigation hierarchy (a sequence of measures meant to be applied in order to compensate for adverse impacts on the environment) to direct the use of habitat banking and other environmental mitigation measures.[42]

It is thought that habitat banks could be used as a way to fund achievement of conservation goals (such as the National Biodiversity Strategy) while providing income and jobs for land owners and local communities.[43]

### United Kingdom

Habitat banking is being developed in England, as part of a Biodiversity Net Gain policy implemented in February 2024. The BNG policy requires a 10% net gain in biodiversity levels at a development site, measured using a 'Statutory Biodiversity Metric'. Habitat banks are suggested by Natural England as an off-site method for delivering biodiversity gains in advance of losses by creating and enhancing habitat, both on public or private lands.[44] Credits generated from habitat restoration at these banks can then be purchased by developers as a way to achieve a 10% gain, if it is not possible to do on the site.

According to the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs, the land for a habitat bank must be secured using a conservation covenant or planning obligation, which acts as a legal commitment to managing the habitat for at least 30 years.[45] A management and monitoring plan is then agreed between the landowner and a regulatory body, before the land can be added to a public register of biodiversity gain sites and sell credits to developers.[45]

In England, habitat banks can be created by private or public landowners. For example, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire & Oxfordshire Wildlife Trust has created habitat banks.[46] According to Devon County Council, one of the first registered habitat bank in England was established in the county at Duryard Valley Park near Exeter in March 2024.[47] Other examples include habitat banks in Heacham and Doncaster.[48][49]

## Challenges

There are deep uncertainties in measurement, credit issuance, and inherent risks in commodifying nature.[50]

## See also

* Biology:Biodiversity - Variety and variability of life forms
* No net loss environmental policy
* Biology:Mitigation banking - Wetland improvement to offset development
* Biology:Economics of biodiversity - Economic importance of biodiversity
* Biology:Ecosystem services
* Biology:Biodiversity offsetting - System to mitigate negative development impacts

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Gibbons, Philip; Lindenmayer, David (2007). "Offsets for land clearing: No net loss or the tail wagging the dog?". Ecological Management and Restoration 8 (1): 26–31. doi:10.1111/j.1442-8903.2007.00328.x. Bibcode: 2007EcoMR...8...26G.
2. ↑ "A Guide to Biodiversity Banking | Ecology by Design" (in en-GB). 2022-01-10. https://www.ecologybydesign.co.uk/ecology-resources/a-guide-to-biodiversity-banking.
3. ↑ Mackie, Harriet (2024-02-05). "Habitat Banks - Definition, Creation and List of Types" (in en-GB). https://gaiacompany.io/habitat-banks/.
4. ↑ US EPA, OW (2015-06-16). "Mitigation Banks under CWA Section 404" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/cwa-404/mitigation-banks-under-cwa-section-404.
5. ↑ Kumaraswamy, S.; Udayakumar, M. (2011-06-01). "Biodiversity banking: a strategic conservation mechanism" (in en). Biodiversity and Conservation 20 (6): 1155–1165. doi:10.1007/s10531-011-0020-5. ISSN 1572-9710. Bibcode: 2011BiCon..20.1155K. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-011-0020-5.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Biodiversity Banking: A Primer" (in en-US). https://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/articles/biodiversity-banking-a-primer/.
7. ↑ Sullivan, Sian (2018). "Bonding nature(s)?: Funds, financiers and values at the impact investing edge in environmental conservation". in Bracking, S.. Valuing Development, Environment and Conservation: Creating Values That Matter. Routledge Explorations in Development Studies. pp. 99–121. doi:10.4324/9781315113463-6. ISBN 9781315113463.
8. ↑ Thompson, Benjamin S. (2023). "Impact investing in biodiversity conservation with bonds: An analysis of financial and environmental risk" (in en). Business Strategy and the Environment 32 (1): 353–368. doi:10.1002/bse.3135. ISSN 0964-4733. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bse.3135.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Froger, Géraldine; Ménard, Sophie; Méral, Philippe (2015-10-01). "Towards a comparative and critical analysis of biodiversity banks". Ecosystem Services 15: 152–161. doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2014.11.018. ISSN 2212-0416. Bibcode: 2015EcoSv..15..152F. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212041614001570.
10. ↑ "BBOP Glossary" (in en-US). 2012-06-29. https://www.forest-trends.org/publications/bbop-glossary/.
11. ↑ "Biodiversity offsets" (in en). https://www.iucn.org/resources/issues-brief/biodiversity-offsets.
12. ↑ "Report: "The use of market-based instruments for biodiversity protection"". Management of Environmental Quality 21 (5). 2010-08-10. doi:10.1108/meq.2010.08321eaf.001. ISSN 1477-7835. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/meq.2010.08321eaf.001.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Conservation and Ecosystem Services in the New biodiversity Economy. "CESINE Biodiversity Offsetting Policy Brief No. 1.". https://www.geog.cam.ac.uk/files/research/projects/biodiversityeconomy/policybrief1.pdf.
14. ↑ Bull, Joseph William; Strange, Niels (2018-11-23). "The global extent of biodiversity offset implementation under no net loss policies" (in en). Nature Sustainability 1 (12): 790–798. doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0176-z. ISSN 2398-9629. Bibcode: 2018NatSu...1..790B. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-018-0176-z.
15. ↑ "conservation easement | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service" (in en). https://www.fws.gov/glossary/conservation-easement.
16. ↑ "Land Trust: What It Is, How It Works, Types, and Examples" (in en). https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/land-trust.asp.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Bayon, Ricardo; Carroll, Nathaniel; Fox, Jessica (2012-04-27) (in en). Conservation and Biodiversity Banking (0 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781849770842. ISBN 978-1-136-56918-0. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781136569180.
18. ↑ "Habitat Banks - Guide for UK Landowners" (in en). https://legacyhb.co.uk/insights/what-is-habitat-bank.
19. ↑ Mackie, Harriet (2023-05-27). "Habitat Creation, Restoration and Enhancement" (in en-GB). https://gaiacompany.io/habitat-creation-restoration-and-enhancement/.
20. ↑ ten Kate, Kerry; Bishop, J.; Bayon, R. (2004). ﻿Biodiversity offsets, views, experience and the business case﻿ (Report). International Union for Conservation of Nature, Gland, Switzerland, and Insight Investment, London. ISBN 2-8317-0854-0. https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/bdoffsets.pdf. Retrieved 4 January 2014.
21. ↑ US EPA, OW (2015-06-16). "Mitigation Banks under CWA Section 404" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/cwa-404/mitigation-banks-under-cwa-section-404.
22. ↑ "Aquatics". https://ecologicalsolutions.net/mitigation_faq_v1.html.
23. ↑ "Biodiversity Banking: A Primer" (in en-US). https://www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/articles/biodiversity-banking-a-primer/.
24. ↑ Pawliczek, Jamie; Sullivan, Sian (2011). "Conservation and concealment in SpeciesBanking.com, US: an analysis of neoliberal performance in the species offsetting industry.". Environmental Conservation 38 (4): 435–444. doi:10.1017/S0376892911000518. Bibcode: 2011EnvCo..38..435P. https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/4958/1/4958.pdf.
25. ↑ Carreras Gamarra, Maria Jose; Toombs, Theodore P. (2017-10-01). "Thirty years of species conservation banking in the U.S.: Comparing policy to practice". Biological Conservation 214: 6–12. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2017.07.021. ISSN 0006-3207. Bibcode: 2017BCons.214....6C. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320716310060.
26. ↑ Biodiversity Banking and Offsets Scheme (BioBanking) environment.nsw.gov.au
27. ↑ Burgin, Shelley (2008-04-01). "BioBanking: an environmental scientist's view of the role of biodiversity banking offsets in conservation" (in en). Biodiversity and Conservation 17 (4): 807–816. doi:10.1007/s10531-008-9319-2. ISSN 1572-9710. Bibcode: 2008BiCon..17..807B. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-008-9319-2.
28. ↑ "BioBanking: the previous scheme | Biodiversity Offsets Scheme" (in en). 2024-02-06. https://www2.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/biodiversity-offsets-scheme/about/biobanking-previous-scheme.
29. ↑ Brown, Marie (2017). "Banking on Biodiversity – The feasibility of biodiversity banking in New Zealand". https://www.nzlii.org/nz/journals/NZEDS/2017/2.pdf.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Branch, Legislative Services (2019-08-28). "Consolidated federal laws of Canada, Fisheries Act". https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/f-14/FullText.html.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Government of Canada, Fisheries and Oceans Canada (2019-11-26). "Policy for applying measures to offset adverse effects on fish and fish habitat under the Fisheries Act". https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/pnw-ppe/reviews-revues/policies-politiques-eng.html.
32. ↑ Hunt, K., Patrick, P., and Connell, M. 2011. Fish habitat banking in Canada: opportunities and challenges. Econ. Commer. Anal. Rep. https://waves-vagues.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/library-bibliotheque/347440.pdf
33. ↑ "Habitat restoration | Port of Vancouver" (in en-US). 2022-03-07. https://www.portvancouver.com/projects/habitat-restoration/.
34. ↑ Theis, Sebastian; Ruppert, Jonathan L.W.; Roberts, Karling N.; Minns, Charles K.; Koops, Marten; Poesch, Mark S. (February 2020). "Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters" (in en). Conservation Biology 34 (1): 41–53. doi:10.1111/cobi.13343. ISSN 0888-8892. PMID 31058355. Bibcode: 2020ConBi..34...41T. https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.13343.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Harper, D. J.; Quigley, J. T. (2005-07-20). "No Net Loss of Fish Habitat: A Review and Analysis of Habitat Compensation in Canada" (in en). Environmental Management 36 (3): 343–355. doi:10.1007/s00267-004-0114-x. ISSN 0364-152X. PMID 16082569. Bibcode: 2005EnMan..36..343H. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00267-004-0114-x.
36. ↑ Quigley, Jason T.; Harper, David J. (March 2006). "Effectiveness of Fish Habitat Compensation in Canada in Achieving No Net Loss" (in en). Environmental Management 37 (3): 351–366. doi:10.1007/s00267-004-0263-y. ISSN 0364-152X. PMID 16456631. Bibcode: 2006EnMan..37..351Q. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00267-004-0263-y.
37. ↑ Arjaliès, Diane-Laure; Aguanno, Michelina (2021-11-23). ﻿The Deshkan Ziibi Conservation Impact Bond Project: On Conservation Finance, Decolonization, and Community-Based Participatory Research﻿ (Report). doi:10.5206/101121ipib. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/impact-bond/.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 "Policy brief | Habitat banking in Colombia: Preserving biodiversity and creating economic opportunities" (in en). 2023-05-11. https://www.biofin.org/knowledge-product/policy-brief-habitat-banking-colombia-preserving-biodiversity-and-creating.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Update – Colombian habitat bank sells out biodiversity credits « Carbon Pulse" (in en-GB). https://carbon-pulse.com/207500/.
40. ↑ "Unlocking Nature's Value in Colombia: Innovating Market Mechanisms to Protect Biodiversity" (in en-GB). https://partnershipsforforests.com/resources/unlocking-natures-value-in-colombia-innovating-market-mechanisms-to-protect-biodiversity/.
41. ↑ Cambio, Colombia (2023-08-23). "Terrasos: "Colombia cuenta con alternativas de financiación de la biodiversidad innovadoras y visionarias"". https://cambiocolombia.com/contenido-especial/terrasos-colombia-cuenta-con-alternativas-de-financiacion-de-la-biodiversidad.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible (2018). "BANCOS DE HÁBITAT - Mecanismo para la implementación de compensaciones bióticas". https://www.minambiente.gov.co/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Compensaciones-Guía-Bancos-de-Hábitat.pdf.
43. ↑ Quinchía, Alejandra Zapata (2024-07-15). "En Támesis, un predio ganadero se convirtió en banco de hábitat: hogar de fauna en vía de extinción" (in es-ES). https://www.elcolombiano.com/negocios/el-globo-un-predio-ganadero-en-tamesis-antioquia-se-convirtio-en-banco-de-habitat-KG24996581.
44. ↑ Natural England (2024-08-08). "Biodiversity Net Gain - An introduction to the benefits". https://naturalengland.blog.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/183/2022/04/BNG-Brochure_Final_Compressed-002.pdf.
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "BNG flowchart for landowners". Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs. 2024-08-08. https://defralanduse.blog.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/sites/276/2023/11/BNG-flowcharts-for-landowners.pdf.
46. ↑ "Biodiversity Net Gain | Berks Bucks & Oxon Wildlife Trust" (in en). https://www.bbowt.org.uk/what-we-do/future-nature-wtc/biodiversity-net-gain.
47. ↑ "First registered "habitat bank" will benefit biodiversity - News" (in en-GB). 2024-03-22. https://www.devon.gov.uk/news/first-registered-habitat-bank-will-benefit-biodiversity/.
48. ↑ "Another major Norfolk 're-wilding' scheme gets go-ahead from officials" (in en). 2024-02-13. https://www.edp24.co.uk/news/24109017.go-ahead-50-acre-habitat-bank-wild-ken-hill/.
49. ↑ "Doncaster 'habitat bank' plan aims to boost biodiversity" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2023-07-25. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-south-yorkshire-66292274.
50. ↑ Wauchope, Hannah S.; zu Ermgassen, Sophus O. S. E.; Jones, Julia P. G.; Carter, Harrison; Schulte to Bühne, Henrike; Milner-Gulland, E. J. (December 2024). "What is a unit of nature? Measurement challenges in the emerging biodiversity credit market" (in en). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 291 (2036). doi:10.1098/rspb.2024.2353. ISSN 1471-2954. PMID 39657801. PMC 11631508. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2353.

## Further reading

* Bayon, Ricardo; Fox, Jessica; Carroll, Nathaniel (2007). Conservation and Biodiversity Banking A Guide to Setting Up and Running Biodiversity Credit Trading Systems. Environmental market insights. London: Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-471-6. OCLC 163617799.

## External links

* NSW Department of Environment and Climate Change
* ABC Saturday Extra Biodiversity banking part one
* ABC Saturday Extra Biodiversity banking part two
* DEFRA definition and discussion of biodiversity offsetting
* Conservation Banking profile on database of Market Governance Mechanisms

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