Conservation genetics

Short description: Interdisciplinary study of extinction avoidance

Part of a series on

Genetics
Key components

* Chromosome
* DNA
* RNA

* Genome
* Heredity
* Mutation

* Nucleotide
* Variation

* Outline
* Index

History and topics

* Introduction
* History

* Evolution (molecular)
* Population genetics
* Mendelian inheritance
* Quantitative genetics
* Molecular genetics

Research

* DNA sequencing
* Genetic engineering
* Genomics ( template)
* Medical genetics

* Branches of genetics

Personalized medicine
Personalized medicine

* v
* t
* e

Conservation genetics is an interdisciplinary subfield of population genetics that aims to understand the dynamics of genes in a population for the purpose of natural resource management, conservation of genetic diversity, and the prevention of species extinction. Scientists involved in conservation genetics come from a variety of fields, including population genetics, research in natural resource management, molecular ecology, molecular biology, evolutionary biology, and systematics. The genetic diversity within species is one of the three fundamental components of biodiversity (along with species diversity and ecosystem diversity),[1] so it is an important consideration in the wider field of conservation biology.

## Contents

* 1 Genetic diversity
* 2 Contributors to extinction
* 3 Techniques
* 4 Applications
* 5 Development and history
* 6 Implications
* 7 See also
* 8 Notes
* 9 References
* 10 External links

## Genetic diversity

Genetic diversity is the total amount of genetic variability within a species. It can be measured in several ways, including: observed heterozygosity, expected heterozygosity, the mean number of alleles per locus, the percentage of loci that are polymorphic, and estimated effective population size. Genetic diversity on the population level is a crucial focus for conservation genetics as it influences both the health of individuals and the long-term survival of populations: decreased genetic diversity has been associated with reduced average fitness of individuals, such as high juvenile mortality, reduced immunity,[2] diminished population growth,[3] and ultimately, higher extinction risk.[4][5]

Heterozygosity, a fundamental measurement of genetic diversity in population genetics, plays an important role in determining the chance of a population surviving environmental change, novel pathogens not previously encountered, as well as the average fitness within a population over successive generations. Heterozygosity is also deeply connected, in population genetics theory, to population size (which itself clearly has a fundamental importance to conservation). All things being equal, small populations will be less heterozygous – across their whole genomes – than comparable, but larger, populations. This lower heterozygosity (i.e. low genetic diversity) renders small populations more susceptible to the challenges mentioned above. In a small population, over successive generations and without gene flow, the probability of mating with close relatives becomes very high, leading to inbreeding depression – a reduction in average fitness of individuals within a population. The reduced fitness of the offspring of closely related individuals is fundamentally tied to the concept of heterozygosity, as the offspring of these kinds of pairings are, by necessity, less heterozygous (more homozygous) across their whole genomes than outbred individuals. A diploid individual with the same maternal and paternal grandfather, for example, will have a much higher chance of being homozygous at any loci inherited from the paternal copies of each of their parents' genomes than would an individual with unrelated maternal and paternal grandfathers (each diploid individual inherits one copy of their genome from their mother and one from their father).

High homozygosity (low heterozygosity) reduces fitness because it exposes the phenotypic effects of recessive alleles at homozygous sites. Selection can favour the maintenance of alleles which reduce the fitness of homozygotes, the textbook example being the sickle-cell beta-globin allele, which is maintained at high frequencies in populations where malaria is endemic due to the highly adaptive heterozygous phenotype (resistance to the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum).

Low genetic diversity also reduces the opportunities for chromosomal crossover during meiosis to create new combinations of alleles on chromosomes, effectively increasing the average length of unrecombined tracts of chromosomes inherited from parents. This in turn reduces the efficacy of selection, across successive generations, to remove fitness-reducing alleles and promote fitness-enhancing alleles from a population. A simple hypothetical example would be two adjacent genes – A and B – on the same chromosome in an individual. If the allele at A promotes fitness "one point", while the allele at B reduces fitness "one point", but the two genes are inherited together, then selection cannot favour the allele at A while penalising the allele at B – the fitness balance is "zero points". Recombination can swap out alternative alleles at A and B, allowing selection to promote the optimal alleles to the optimal frequencies in the population – but only if there are alternative alleles to choose between.

The fundamental connection between genetic diversity and population size in population genetics theory can be clearly seen in the classic population genetics measure of genetic diversity, the Watterson estimator, in which genetic diversity is measured as a function of effective population size and mutation rate. Given the relationship between population size, mutation rate, and genetic diversity, it is clearly important to recognise populations at risk of losing genetic diversity before problems arise as a result of the loss of that genetic diversity. Once lost, genetic diversity can only be restored by mutation and gene flow. If a species is already on the brink of extinction there will likely be no populations to use to restore diversity by gene flow, and any given population will be small and therefore diversity will accumulate in that population by mutation much more slowly than it would in a comparable, but bigger, population (since there are fewer individuals whose genomes are mutating in a smaller population than a bigger population).

## Contributors to extinction

Species extinction can be attributed to a multitude of factors. Inbreeding of closely related individuals has been known to reduce the genetic fitness of a larger population. Inbreeding depression from reduced fitness has long been theorized to be a link towards extinction. Lethal or non-advantageous allelic combinations increase, with disease susceptibility and lower fertility rates rising in both plant and animal populations.[6][7] In small, inbreeding populations, an increase in deleterious mutations may also arise, further reducing fitness and allowing for further genetic complications.

Population fragmentation may also contribute toward species extinction. Habitat loss or natural events may cut populations off from one another, resulting in two or more groups having little to no contact with each other.[8] Fragmentation may induce inbreeding in these smaller populations.

When two populations with distinct genetic makeups mate, outbreeding depression may occur and reduce the fitness of one or both populations. Outbreeding depression and its consequences can be just as detrimental as inbreeding depression.[9] Some conservation efforts focus on the genetic distinctions between populations of the same species. Outbreeding depression could affect the success rate of these conservation efforts.

## Techniques

Specific genetic techniques are used to assess the genomes of a species regarding specific conservation issues as well as general population structure.[10] This analysis can be done in two ways, with current DNA of individuals or historic DNA.[11]

Techniques for analyzing the differences between individuals and populations include

1. Alloenzymes
2. Random fragment length polymorphisms
3. Amplified fragment length polymorphisms
4. Random amplification of polymorphic DNA
5. Single strand conformation polymorphism
6. Minisatellites
7. Microsatellites
8. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms
9. DNA sequencing

These different techniques focus on different variable areas of the genomes within animals and plants. The specific information that is required determines which techniques are used and which parts of the genome are analysed. For example, mitochondrial DNA in animals has a high substitution rate, which makes it useful for identifying differences between individuals. However, it is only inherited in the female line, and the mitochondrial genome is relatively small. In plants, the mitochondrial DNA has very high rates of structural mutations, so is rarely used for genetic markers, as the chloroplast genome can be used instead. Other sites in the genome that are subject to high mutation rates such as the major histocompatibility complex, and the microsatellites and minisatellites are also frequently used.

These techniques can provide information on long-term conservation of genetic diversity and expound demographic and ecological matters such as taxonomy.[10]

Another technique is using historic DNA for genetic analysis. Historic DNA is important because it allows geneticists to understand how species reacted to changes to conditions in the past. This is a key to understanding the reactions of similar species in the future.[11]

Techniques using historic DNA include looking at preserved remains found in museums and caves.[12] Museums are used because there is a wide range of species that are available to scientists all over the world. The problem with museums is that, historical perspectives are important because understanding how species reacted to changes in conditions in the past is a key to understanding reactions of similar species in the future.[12] Evidence found in caves provides a longer perspective and does not disturb the animals.[12]

Another technique that relies on specific genetics of an individual is noninvasive monitoring, which uses extracted DNA from organic material that an individual leaves behind, such as a feather.[12] Environmental DNA (eDNA) can be extracted from soil, water, and air. Organisms deposit tissue cells into the environment and the degradation of these cells results in DNA being released into the environment.[13] This too avoids disrupting the animals and can provide information about the sex, movement, kinship and diet of an individual.[12]

Other more general techniques can be used to correct genetic factors that lead to extinction and risk of extinction. For example, when minimizing inbreeding and increasing genetic variation multiple steps can be taken. Increasing heterozygosity through immigration, increasing the generational interval through cryopreservation or breeding from older animals, and increasing the effective population size through equalization of family size all helps minimize inbreeding and its effects.[14] Deleterious alleles arise through mutation, however certain recessive ones can become more prevalent due to inbreeding.[14] Deleterious mutations that arise from inbreeding can be removed by purging, or natural selection.[14] Populations raised in captivity with the intent of being reintroduced in the wild suffer from adaptations to captivity.[15]

Inbreeding depression, loss of genetic diversity, and genetic adaptation to captivity are disadvantageous in the wild, and many of these issues can be dealt with through the aforementioned techniques aimed at increasing heterozygosity. In addition creating a captive environment that closely resembles the wild and fragmenting the populations so there is less response to selection also help reduce adaptation to captivity.[16]

Solutions to minimize the factors that lead to extinction and risk of extinction often overlap because the factors themselves overlap. For example, deleterious mutations are added to populations through mutation, however the deleterious mutations conservation biologists are concerned with are ones that are brought about by inbreeding, because those are the ones that can be taken care of by reducing inbreeding. Here the techniques to reduce inbreeding also help decrease the accumulation of deleterious mutations.

## Applications

These techniques have wide-ranging applications. One example is in defining species and subspecies of salmonids.[10] Hybridization is an especially important issue in salmonids and this has wide-ranging conservation, political, social and economic implications.

More specific example, the Cutthroat Trout. In analysis of its mtDNA and alloenzymes, hybridization between native and non-native species has been shown to be one of the major factors contributing to the decline in its populations. This has led to efforts to remove some hybridized populations so native populations could breed more readily. Cases like these impact everything from the economy of local fishermen to larger companies, such as timber.

Defining species and subspecies has conservation implication in mammals, too. For example, the northern white rhino and southern white rhino were previously mistakenly identified as the same species given their morphological similarities, but recent mtDNA analyses showed that the species are genetically distinct.[17] As a result, the northern white rhino population has dwindled to near-extinction due to poaching crisis, and the prior assumption that it could freely breed with the southern population is revealed to be a misguided approach in conservation efforts.

More recent applications include using forensic genetic identification to identify species in cases of poaching. Wildlife DNA registers are used to regulate trade of protected species, species laundering, and poaching.[18] Conservation genetics techniques can be used alongside a variety of scientific disciplines. For example, landscape genetics has been used in conjunction with conservation genetics to identify corridors and population dispersal barriers to give insight into conservation management.[19]

## Development and history

Conservation genetics applies genetic principles and technologies to the management and preservation of biodiversity. It integrates organismal biology, population genetics, bioinformatics, and ecology to understand how genetic factors affect the survival, reproduction, and adaptive potential of populations and species, and to design strategies that prevent extinction.[20] Early conceptual foundations emphasized the importance of preserving genetic diversity to buffer populations against inbreeding, disease, and environmental change.[21] Empirical studies soon linked demographic history with reduced variation and fitness costs in small or bottlenecked populations, as shown in elephant seals, cheetahs, and other mammals.[22][23][24] These insights were distilled in influential texts that formalized the genetic basis of conservation practice.[25]

From the 1970s to the 1990s, methodological progress moved from allozymes to restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), PCR-based mitochondrial DNA assays, and then to nuclear DNA markers such as microsatellites and SNPs, broadening the resolution of genetic inference in wild populations.[20] Early molecular applications included black rhinoceros mtDNA, whaling surveillance via forensic genetics, and genetic monitoring frameworks.[26][27][28] Case studies demonstrated that genetic restoration can reverse inbreeding depression and improve demographic trajectories, as famously shown for the Florida panther.[29]

By the 2000s–2010s, next-generation sequencing (NGS) catalyzed the transition from conservation genetics to conservation genomics, enabling routine incorporation of thousands to millions of loci and whole genomes into assessments of biodiversity, demography, connectivity, and adaptation.[30][31][32][33] Practical guidance emerged on reduced-representation and low-coverage WGS strategies, trade-offs, and filtering, broadening access for non-model taxa.[34][35]

Genome assemblies, once a bottleneck, advanced markedly through coordinated international efforts (e.g., Genome 10K;[36] Vertebrate Genomes Project), allowing chromosome-scale reference genomes to guide conservation analyses and management decisions.[37][38] With such resources, genomic case studies have revealed aquatic adaptation and diversity loss in otters, refined phylogeography and subspecies in iconic carnivores, and provided tools for forensic wildlife management and ex-situ population monitoring.[39][40][41][42]

Genomic time series, ROH scans, and load estimation have clarified how bottlenecks and inbreeding shape fitness and extinction risk, including in northern elephant seals and killer whales, and across taxa more broadly.[43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50] At the same time, genomics continues to inform practical conservation through genetic monitoring, translocations, cloning for genetic rescue, and policy-relevant forensics.[28][51][52][53]

Building equitable global capacity remains a central challenge because expertise and infrastructure are unevenly distributed geographically.[54] International training initiatives, such as the long-running "Recent Advances in Conservation Genetics" (ConGen Global) course founded by Stephen J. O'Brien and supported by the American Genetic Association, have helped disseminate methods, standardize analyses, and connect researchers to HPC resources and reproducible workflows, accelerating uptake of genomic tools in regions near biodiversity hotspots.[20] Examples include open, version-controlled tutorials, ACCESS-enabled cloud/HPC environments, and teaching practices that emphasize reproducibility and collaboration.[55][56][57][58] Complementary programs (e.g., Physalia, ConGen Population Genomic Data Analysis, USFWS Applied Conservation Genetics) further widen access to modern population-genomic analyses.[59][60][61][62][63]

Conservation genomics now underpins management decisions from genetic rescue to reintroductions, while informing ethical debates around de-extinction, assisted reproduction, and the integration of novel technologies.[64][65][66][67][68] Research on diverse taxa (e.g., parrots, solenodons, echinoderms) shows how community-driven genome projects and marker development inform both in-situ and ex-situ strategies, while training the next generation of scientists.[69][70][71][72][73]

As the field continues to evolve, syntheses highlight the centrality of genome-wide variation for long-term persistence, the need to integrate genetic EBVs (essential biodiversity variables) into conservation policy, and the value of cross-disciplinary training to translate methods into practice.[74][75][76][77][78] Reviews and perspectives also stress translating genomic findings into actionable conservation, including in regions where capacity is still developing.[79][20]

## Implications

New technology in conservation genetics has many implications for the future of conservation biology. At the molecular level, new technologies are advancing. Some of these techniques include the analysis of minisatellites and MHC.[10] These molecular techniques have wider effects from clarifying taxonomic relationships, as in the previous example, to determining the best individuals to reintroduce to a population for recovery by determining kinship. These effects then have consequences that reach even further. Conservation of species has implications for humans in the economic, social, and political realms.[10] In the biological realm increased genotypic diversity has been shown to help ecosystem recovery, as seen in a community of grasses which was able to resist disturbance to grazing geese through greater genotypic diversity.[80] Because species diversity increases ecosystem function, increasing biodiversity through new conservation genetic techniques has wider reaching effects than before.

A short list of studies a conservation geneticist may research include:

1. Phylogenetic classification of species, subspecies, geographic races, and populations, and measures of phylogenetic diversity and uniqueness.
2. Identifying hybrid species, hybridization in natural populations, and assessing the history and extent of introgression between species.
3. Population genetic structure of natural and managed populations, including identification of Evolutionary Significant Units (ESUs) and management units for conservation.
4. Assessing genetic variation within a species or population, including small or endangered populations, and estimates such as effective population size (Ne).
5. Measuring the impact of inbreeding and outbreeding depression, and the relationship between heterozygosity and measures of fitness (see Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection).
6. Evidence of disrupted mate choice and reproductive strategy in disturbed populations.
7. Forensic applications, especially for the control of trade in endangered species.
8. Practical methods for monitoring and maximizing genetic diversity during captive breeding programs and re-introduction schemes, including mathematical models and case studies.
9. Conservation issues related to the introduction of genetically modified organisms.
10. The interaction between environmental contaminants and the biology and health of an organism, including changes in mutation rates and adaptation to local changes in the environment (e.g. industrial melanism).
11. New techniques for noninvasive genotyping, see noninvasive genotyping for conservation.
12. Monitor genetic variability in populations and assess genes of fitness amongst organism populations.[11]

## See also

* Animal genetic resources
* Forest genetic resources
* The State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

## Notes

1. ↑ Redford, Kent H.; Richter, Brian D. (December 1999). "Conservation of Biodiversity in a World of Use". Conservation Biology 13 (6): 1246–1256. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.97463.x. Bibcode: 1999ConBi..13.1246R.
2. ↑ Ferguson, Moira M; Drahushchak, Lenore R (June 1990). "Disease resistance and enzyme heterozygosity in rainbow trout". Heredity 64 (3): 413–417. doi:10.1038/hdy.1990.52. PMID 2358369. Bibcode: 1990Hered..64..413F.
3. ↑ Leberg, P. L. (December 1990). "Influence of genetic variability on population growth: implications for conservation". Journal of Fish Biology 37: 193–195. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1990.tb05036.x. Bibcode: 1990JFBio..37S.193L.
4. ↑ Frankham, Richard (November 2005). "Genetics and extinction". Biological Conservation 126 (2): 131–140. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.05.002. Bibcode: 2005BCons.126..131F.
5. ↑ Saccheri, Ilik; Kuussaari, Mikko; Kankare, Maaria; Vikman, Pia; Fortelius, Wilhelm; Hanski, Ilkka (April 1998). "Inbreeding and extinction in a butterfly metapopulation". Nature 392 (6675): 491–494. doi:10.1038/33136. Bibcode: 1998Natur.392..491S.
6. ↑ Lynch, Michael (May 1991). "The Genetic Interpretation of Inbreeding Depression and Outbreeding Depression". Evolution 45 (3): 622–629. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1991.tb04333.x. PMID 28568822. Bibcode: 1991Evolu..45..622L.
7. ↑ Hedrick, Philip W.; Kalinowski, Steven T. (November 2000). "Inbreeding Depression in Conservation Biology". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 31 (1): 139–162. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.139. Bibcode: 2000AnRES..31..139H.
8. ↑ Wiegand, Thorsten; Revilla, Eloy; Moloney, Kirk A. (February 2005). "Effects of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation on Population Dynamics". Conservation Biology 19 (1): 108–121. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00208.x.
9. ↑ Edmands, Suzanne (February 2007). "Between a rock and a hard place: evaluating the relative risks of inbreeding and outbreeding for conservation and management". Molecular Ecology 16 (3): 463–475. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.03148.x. PMID 17257106. Bibcode: 2007MolEc..16..463E.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Haig
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Wayne, Robert K.; Morin, Phillip A. (March 2004). "Conservation genetics in the new molecular age". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2 (2): 89–97. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2004)002[0089:CGITNM2.0.CO;2].
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 Robert, pp. 89–97
13. ↑ Barnes, Matthew A.; Turner, Cameron R. (February 2016). "The ecology of environmental DNA and implications for conservation genetics". Conservation Genetics 17 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1007/s10592-015-0775-4. Bibcode: 2016ConG...17....1B.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 (Frankham 1995)
15. ↑ Woodworth, Lynn M.; Montgomery, Margaret E.; Briscoe, David A.; Frankham, Richard (2002). "Rapid genetic deterioration in captive populations: causes and conservation implications". Conservation Genetics 3 (3): 277–288. doi:10.1023/A:1019954801089. Bibcode: 2002ConG....3..277W.
16. ↑ Montgomery
17. ↑ Groves, Colin P.; Cotterill, F. P. D.; Gippoliti, Spartaco; Robovský, Jan; Roos, Christian; Taylor, Peter J.; Zinner, Dietmar (December 2017). "Species definitions and conservation: a review and case studies from African mammals". Conservation Genetics 18 (6): 1247–1256. doi:10.1007/s10592-017-0976-0. Bibcode: 2017ConG...18.1247G.
18. ↑ Ogden, R; Dawnay, N; McEwing, R (2 January 2009). "Wildlife DNA forensics—bridging the gap between conservation genetics and law enforcement". Endangered Species Research 9: 179–195. doi:10.3354/esr00144. Bibcode: 2009ESRes...9..179O.
19. ↑ Keller, Daniela; Holderegger, Rolf; van Strien, Maarten J.; Bolliger, Janine (June 2015). "How to make landscape genetics beneficial for conservation management?". Conservation Genetics 16 (3): 503–512. doi:10.1007/s10592-014-0684-y. Bibcode: 2015ConG...16..503K.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Oleksyk, Taras K.; Koepfli, Klaus-Peter; O'Brien, Stephen J. (2025). "Development, history, and impact of "Recent Advances in Conservation Genetics", the ConGen Global training course". Journal of Heredity: 1–13. doi:10.1093/jhered/esaf060. PMID 40995969.
21. ↑ Frankel, O. H. (1974). "Genetic conservation: our mutual evolutionary responsibility". Genetics 78: 53–65. doi:10.1093/genetics/78.1.53. PMID 17248668.
22. ↑ Bonnell, M. L.; Selander, R. K. (1974). "Elephant seals: genetic variation and near extinction". Science 184 (4139): 908–909. doi:10.1126/science.184.4139.908. PMID 4825892. Bibcode: 1974Sci...184..908B.
23. ↑ O'Brien, S. J.; Wildt, D. E.; Goldman, D.; Merril, C. R.; Bush, M. (1983). "The cheetah is depauperate in genetic variation". Science 221 (4609): 459–462. doi:10.1126/science.221.4609.459. PMID 17755482. Bibcode: 1983Sci...221..459O.
24. ↑ Wildt, D. E.; Bush, M.; Goodrowe, K. L.; Packer, C.; Pusey, A. E.; Brown, J. L.; Joslin, P.; O'Brien, S. J. (1987). "Reproductive and genetic consequences of founding isolated lion populations". Nature 329 (6137): 328–331. doi:10.1038/329328a0. Bibcode: 1987Natur.329..328W.
25. ↑ Frankham, R.; Ballou, J. D.; Briscoe, D. A. (2010). Introduction to Conservation Genetics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511809002. ISBN 978-0-521-70271-3.
26. ↑ Ashley, M. V.; Melnick, D. J.; Western, D. (1990). "Conservation genetics of the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis): evidence from the mitochondrial DNA of three populations". Conservation Biology 4 (1): 71–77. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1990.tb00269.x. Bibcode: 1990ConBi...4...71A.
27. ↑ Baker, C. S.; Palumbi, S. R. (1994). "Which whales are hunted? A molecular genetic approach to monitoring whaling". Science 265 (5178): 1538–1539. doi:10.1126/science.265.5178.1538. PMID 17801528. Bibcode: 1994Sci...265.1538B.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Schwartz, M.; Luikart, G.; Waples, R. (2007). "Genetic monitoring as a promising tool for conservation and management". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 22 (1): 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.08.009. PMID 16962204. Bibcode: 2007TEcoE..22...25S.
29. ↑ Johnson, W. E.; Onorato, D. P.; Roelke, M. E.; Land, E. D.; Cunningham, M.; Belden, R. C.; McBride, R.; Jansen, D. et al. (2010). "Genetic restoration of the Florida panther". Science 329 (5999): 1641–1645. doi:10.1126/science.1192891. PMID 20929847. Bibcode: 2010Sci...329.1641J.
30. ↑ Allendorf, F. W.; Hohenlohe, P. A.; Luikart, G. (2010). "Genomics and the future of conservation genetics". Nature Reviews Genetics 11 (10): 697–709. doi:10.1038/nrg2844. PMID 20847747.
31. ↑ Hendricks, S.; Anderson, E. C.; Antao, T.; Bernatchez, L.; Forester, B. R.; Garner, B.; Hand, B. K.; Hohenlohe, P. A. et al. (2018). "Recent advances in conservation and population genomics data analysis". Evolutionary Applications 11 (8): 1197–1211. doi:10.1111/eva.12659. Bibcode: 2018EvApp..11.1197H.
32. ↑ Hohenlohe, P. A.; Funk, W. C.; Rajora, O. P. (2021). "Population genomics for wildlife conservation and management". Molecular Ecology 30 (1): 62–82. doi:10.1111/mec.15720. PMID 33145846. Bibcode: 2021MolEc..30...62H.
33. ↑ Allendorf, F. W.; Funk, W. C.; Aitken, S. N.; Byrne, M.; Luikart, G. (2022). "Population genomics". Conservation and the Genomics of Populations. Oxford University Press. pp. 66–92. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198856566.003.0004. ISBN 978-0-19-885656-6.
34. ↑ Fuentes-Pardo, A. P.; Ruzzante, D. E. (2017). "Whole-genome sequencing approaches for conservation biology: advantages, limitations and practical recommendations". Molecular Ecology 26 (20): 5369–5406. doi:10.1111/mec.14264. PMID 28746784. Bibcode: 2017MolEc..26.5369F.
35. ↑ Lou, R. N.; Jacobs, A.; Wilder, A. P.; Therkildsen, N. O. (2021). "A beginner's guide to low-coverage whole genome sequencing for population genomics". Molecular Ecology 30 (23): 5966–5993. doi:10.1111/mec.16077. PMID 34250668. Bibcode: 2021MolEc..30.5966L.
36. ↑ Genome 10K Community of Scientists (2009-11-01). "Genome 10K: A Proposal to Obtain Whole-Genome Sequence for 10 000 Vertebrate Species" (in en). Journal of Heredity 100 (6): 659–674. doi:10.1093/jhered/esp086. ISSN 1465-7333. PMID 19892720. PMC 2877544. https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article/100/6/659/839176.
37. ↑ Koepfli, K-P; Paten, B.; O'Brien, S. J. (2015). "The Genome 10K project: a way forward". Annual Review of Animal Biosciences 3: 57–111. doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-090414-014900. PMID 25689317.
38. ↑ Rhie, A.; McCarthy, S. A.; Fedrigo, O.; Damas, J.; Formenti, G.; Koren, S.; Uliano-Silva, M.; Chow, W. et al. (2021). "Towards complete and error-free genome assemblies of all vertebrate species". Nature 592 (7856): 737–746. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03451-0. PMID 33911273. PMC 8081667. Bibcode: 2021Natur.592..737R. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/8sq9511h.
39. ↑ Beichman, A. C.; Koepfli, K. P.; Li, G. (2019). "Aquatic adaptation and depleted diversity: a deep dive into the genomes of the sea otter and Giant otter". Molecular Biology and Evolution 36 (12): 2631–2655. doi:10.1093/molbev/msz101. PMID 31212313.
40. ↑ Eizirik, E.; Kim, J.; Menotti-Raymond, M. (2001). "Phylogeography, population history and conservation genetics of jaguars (Panthera onca)". Molecular Ecology 10 (1): 65–79. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01144.x. PMID 11251788.
41. ↑ Harper, C.; Ludwig, A.; Clarke, A. (2018). "Robust forensic matching of confiscated horns to individual poached African rhinoceros". Current Biology 28 (1): R13–R14. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.11.005. PMID 29316411. Bibcode: 2018CBio...28..R13H.
42. ↑ Koepfli, K. P.; Tamazian, G.; Wildt, D. (2019). "Whole genome sequencing and re-sequencing of the sable antelope (Hippotragus niger): a resource for monitoring diversity in ex situ and in situ populations". G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics 9 (6): 1785–1793. doi:10.1534/g3.119.400084. PMID 31000506.
43. ↑ Díez-del-Molino, D.; Sánchez-Barreiro, F.; Barnes, I.; Gilbert, M. T. P.; Dalén, L. (2018). "Quantifying temporal genomic erosion in endangered species". Trends in Ecology & Evolution 33 (3): 176–185. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2017.12.002. PMID 29289355. Bibcode: 2018TEcoE..33..176D.
44. ↑ Ceballos, F. C.; Joshi, P. K.; Clark, D. W.; Ramsay, M.; Wilson, J. F. (2018). "Runs of homozygosity: windows into population history and trait architecture". Nature Reviews Genetics 19 (4): 220–234. doi:10.1038/nrg.2017.109. PMID 29335644. https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/1928cc4c-af43-489f-b743-52ae374412d7.
45. ↑ Kardos, M.; Taylor, H. R.; Ellegren, H.; Luikart, G.; Allendorf, F. W. (2016). "Genomics advances the study of inbreeding depression in the wild". Evolutionary Applications 9 (10): 1205–1218. doi:10.1111/eva.12414. PMID 27877200. Bibcode: 2016EvApp...9.1205K.
46. ↑ Hoffman, J. I.; Vendrami, D. L. J.; Hench, K. (2024). "Genomic and fitness consequences of a near-extinction event in the northern elephant seal". Nature Ecology & Evolution 8 (12): 2309–2324. doi:10.1038/s41559-024-02533-2. PMID 39333394. Bibcode: 2024NatEE...8.2309H.
47. ↑ Kardos, M.; Zhang, Y.; Parsons, K. M. (2023). "Inbreeding depression explains killer whale population dynamics". Nature Ecology & Evolution 7 (5): 675–686. doi:10.1038/s41559-023-01995-0. PMID 36941343. Bibcode: 2023NatEE...7..675K.
48. ↑ Bertorelle, G.; Raffini, F.; Bosse, M. (2022). "Genetic load: genomic estimates and applications in non-model animals". Nature Reviews Genetics 23 (8): 492–503. doi:10.1038/s41576-022-00448-x. PMID 35136196.
49. ↑ Robinson, J.; Kyriazis, C. C.; Yuan, S. C.; Lohmueller, K. E. (2023). "Deleterious variation in natural populations and implications for conservation genetics". Annual Review of Animal Biosciences 11: 93–114. doi:10.1146/annurev-animal-080522-093311. PMID 36332644.
50. ↑ Grossen, C.; Ramakrishnan, U. (2024). "Genetic load". Current Biology 34 (24): R1216–R1220. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2024.11.004. PMID 39689685. Bibcode: 2024CBio...34R1216G.
51. ↑ Shier, D. M.; Navarro, A. Y.; Tobler, M. (2021). "Genetic and ecological evidence of long-term translocation success of the federally endangered Stephens' kangaroo rat". Conservation Science and Practice 3 (9): csp2.478. doi:10.1111/csp2.478. Bibcode: 2021ConSP...3E.478S.
52. ↑ Novak, B. J. (2024). "First endangered black-footed ferrets, Mustela nigripes, cloned for genetic rescue". bioRxiv 10.1101/2024.04.17.589896.
53. ↑ Schmidt-Küntzel, A.; Yashphe, S. (2024). "Genetic support to uplist an African cheetah subspecies, Acinonyx jubatus soemmeringii, imperiled by illegal trade". Conservation Science and Practice 6 (1). doi:10.1111/csp2.13052. Bibcode: 2024ConSP...6E3052S.
54. ↑ Oleksyk, T. K.; Wolfsberger, W. W.; Schubelka, K.; Mangul, S.; O'Brien, S. J. (2022). "The Pioneer advantage: filling the blank spots on the map of genome diversity in Europe". GigaScience 11. doi:10.1093/gigascience/giac081. PMID 36085557.
55. ↑ Boerner, T. J.; Deems, S.; Furlani, T. R.; Knuth, S. L.; Towns, J. (2023). "ACCESS: Advancing innovation: NSF's Advanced Cyberinfrastructure Coordination Ecosystem: Services & Support". Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 173–176. doi:10.1145/3569951.3597559.
56. ↑ Braga, P. H. P. (2023). "Not just for programmers: how GitHub can accelerate collaborative and reproducible research in ecology and evolution". Methods in Ecology and Evolution 14 (6): 1364–1380. doi:10.1111/2041-210X.14108. Bibcode: 2023MEcEv..14.1364B.
57. ↑ Sethuraman, A. (2022). "Teaching computational genomics and bioinformatics on a high performance computing cluster — a primer". Biology Methods & Protocols 7 (1). doi:10.1093/biomethods/bpac032. PMID 36561335.
58. ↑ Song, X. C. (2022). "Anvil - System Architecture and Experiences from Deployment and Early User Operations". Practice and Experience in Advanced Research Computing. 23. pp. 1–9. doi:10.1145/3491418.3530766. ISBN 978-1-4503-9161-0.
59. ↑ Luikart, G. (2025). "Population genomic data analysis course/workshop ConGen". https://www.umt.edu/congen/africa/.
60. ↑ Pecoraro, C. (2025). "Conservation Genomics". https://www.physalia-courses.org/courses-workshops/course62/.
61. ↑ "Applied Conservation Genetics". U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 2025. https://www.fws.gov/course/applied-conservation-genetics.
62. ↑ Schweizer, R. M. (2021). "Big data in conservation genomics: boosting skills, hedging bets, and staying current in the field". Journal of Heredity 112 (4): 313–327. doi:10.1093/jhered/esab019. PMID 33860294.
63. ↑ Schiebelhut, L. M. (2024). "Genomics and conservation: guidance from training to analyses and applications". Molecular Ecology Resources 24 (2). doi:10.1111/1755-0998.13893. PMID 37966259. Bibcode: 2024MolER..2413893S.
64. ↑ Johnson, W. E.; Koepfli, K.-P. (2014). "The role of genomics in conservation and reproductive sciences". Reproductive Sciences in Animal Conservation. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. 753. pp. 71–96. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0820-2_5. ISBN 978-1-4939-0819-6.
65. ↑ de Manuel, M. (2020). "The evolutionary history of extinct and living lions". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 117 (20): 10927–10934. doi:10.1073/pnas.1919423117. PMID 32366643. Bibcode: 2020PNAS..11710927D.
66. ↑ Tordiffe, A. S. W. (2023). "The case for the reintroduction of cheetahs to India". Nature Ecology & Evolution 7 (4): 480–481. doi:10.1038/s41559-023-02002-2. PMID 36797369. Bibcode: 2023NatEE...7..480T. https://research.brighton.ac.uk/en/publications/2717d8a4-3533-4e6c-b9f3-056cc0bc7fcf.
67. ↑ Hutchinson, A. M. (2024). "Advancing stem cell technologies for conservation of wildlife biodiversity". Development 151 (20). doi:10.1242/dev.203116. PMID 39382939. PMC 11491813. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/90x6q751.
68. ↑ Wang, G. (2025). "Genomic map of the functionally extinct northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122 (20). doi:10.1073/pnas.2401207122. PMID 40359041. Bibcode: 2025PNAS..12201207W.
69. ↑ Afanador, Y. (2014). "Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in the critically endangered Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata)". Conservation Genetics Resources 6 (4): e1–e4. doi:10.1007/s12686-014-0232-6. Bibcode: 2014ConGR...6..885A.
70. ↑ Oleksyk, T. K. (2012). "A locally funded Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona vittata) genome sequencing project increases avian data and advances young researcher education". GigaScience 1 (1): 2047–217X–1–14. doi:10.1186/2047-217X-1-14. PMID 23587420.
71. ↑ Grigorev, K. (2018). "Innovative assembly strategy… Solenodon paradoxus". GigaScience 7 (6). doi:10.1093/gigascience/giy025. PMID 29718205.
72. ↑ Brandt, A. L. (2017). "Mitogenomic sequences support a north–south subspecies subdivision within Solenodon paradoxus". Mitochondrial DNA Part A 28 (5): 662–670. doi:10.3109/24701394.2016.1167891. PMID 27159724.
73. ↑ Majeske, A. J. (2022). "The first complete mitochondrial genome of Diadema antillarum". Gigabyte 2022: 1–12. doi:10.46471/gigabyte.73. PMID 36824507.
74. ↑ Kardos, M.; Armstrong, E. E.; Fitzpatrick, S. W.; Hauser, S.; Hedrick, P. W.; Miller, J. M.; Tallmon, D. A.; Funk, W. C. (2021). "The crucial role of genome-wide genetic variation in conservation". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 (48). doi:10.1073/pnas.2104642118. PMID 34772759. Bibcode: 2021PNAS..11804642K.
75. ↑ Hoban, S. (2022). "Global genetic diversity status and trends: towards a suite of EBVs for genetic composition". Biological Reviews 97 (4): 1511–1538. doi:10.1111/brv.12852. PMID 35415952.
76. ↑ Theissinger, K. (2023). "How genomics can help biodiversity conservation". Trends in Genetics 39 (7): 545–559. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2023.01.005. PMID 36801111.
77. ↑ Allendorf, F. W.; Luikart, G. H.; Aitken, S. N. (2013). Conservation and the Genetics of Populations (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
78. ↑ DeSalle, R.; Amato, G. (2004). "The expansion of conservation genetics". Nature Reviews Genetics 5 (9): 702–712. doi:10.1038/nrg1425. PMID 15372093. Bibcode: 2004NRGen...5..702D.
79. ↑ Hogg, C. J. (2024). "Translating genomic advances into biodiversity conservation". Nature Reviews Genetics 25 (5): 362–373. doi:10.1038/s41576-023-00671-0. PMID 38012268.
80. ↑ Frankham, R (September 2005). "Conservation Biology: Ecosystem recovery enhanced by genotypic diversity". Heredity 95 (3): 183. doi:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800706. PMID 16049423. Bibcode: 2005Hered..95..183F.

## References

* Avise, John C, ed (1996-01-31). Conservation Genetics. Springer. ISBN 978-0-412-05581-2.
* Frankham, Richard (1995). "Conservation Genetics". Annual Review of Genetics 29 (1995): 305–27. doi:10.1146/annurev.ge.29.120195.001513. PMID 8825477.
* Frankham, Richard (August 2003). "Genetics and conservation biology". Comptes Rendus. Biologies 326 (S1): 22–29. doi:10.1016/S1631-0691(03)00023-4. PMID 14558445.
* Allendorf, Fred W.; Luikart, Gordon (2006). Conservation and the Genetics of Populations. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-2145-3.

## External links

* What is Conservation Genetics?
* Science
* Genetics
* Blackwell - synergy
* UTM Departments
* UWYO
* PNAS
* Science
* ESF

* v
* t
* e

Conservation of species

Conservation biology|

* Conservation behavior
* Conservation dependent species
* Conservation ethic
* Conservation genetics
* Conservation status
* Ex-situ conservation
* Extinction threshold
* In-situ conservation
* Latent extinction risk
* Marine conservation
* Species translocation
* Threatened species

Conservation areas|

* Conservation designation
* Conservation development
* Conservation district
* Conservation easement
* Ecoregion conservation status
* Environmental protection
* Gap analysis
* Habitat conservation
* High conservation value area
* Landscape-scale conservation
* Marine protected area
* National conservation area
* Open space reserve
* Riparian buffer
* Roadless area conservation
* Roadside conservation
* Site-based conservation
* Special Area of Conservation

Restoration|

* Assisted natural regeneration
* Ecosystem restoration
* Island restoration
* Reforestation
* afforestation
* Rewilding

By taxa|

* Amphibians and reptiles
* Birds
* burrowing owls
* raptors
* Insects
* bumblebees
* butterflies
* Land mammals
* bats
* bats 2
* bears
* cheetahs
* cheetahs 2
* gorillas
* painted dogs
* slow lorises
* small cats
* tigers
* tigers 2
* wolves
* Marine
* Antarctic seals
* cetaceans
* cetaceans 2
* manatees
* migratory sharks
* salmon
* sea otters
* sea turtles
* sturgeons
* Plants
* forests
* fungi
* orchids

By country|

* Australia
* Belize
* Brazil
* Hong Kong
* Iceland
* India
* Bhopal
* Ireland
* Italy
* New Zealand
* Papua New Guinea
* Uganda
* United Kingdom (Scotland)
* United States

Other|

* Biodiversity
* Conservation agriculture
* Conservation finance
* Conservation grazing
* Conservation management system
* Conservation movement
* Conservation officer
* Conservation organisations
* Conservation photography
* Conservation psychology
* Conservation refugee
* Conspicuous conservation
* De-extinction
* Myth of superabundance
* NatureServe conservation status
* Planetary boundaries

* Index of conservation articles
* List of conservation issues
* Category
* Portal

* v
* t
* e

Genetics

* Introduction
* Outline
* History
* Index
* Glossary

Key components|

* Chromosome
* DNA
* RNA
* Nucleotide
* Genome

Fields|

* Classical
* Conservation
* Ecological
* Immunogenetics
* Molecular
* Population
* Quantitative

Archaeogenetics of|

* the Americas
* the British Isles
* Europe
* Italy
* the Near East
* South Asia

Related topics|

* Behavioural genetics
* Epigenetics
* Geneticist
* Genome editing
* Genomics
* Genetic code
* Medical genetics
* Molecular evolution
* Reverse genetics
* Genetic engineering
* Genetic diversity
* Heredity
* Genetic monitoring
* Genetic genealogy
* Lulu and Nana controversy

Lists|

* List of genetic codes
* List of genetics research organizations

* Category
* Commons
* WikiProject

* v
* t
* e

Extinction

Phenomena|

* Background extinction rate
* Coextinction
* De-extinction
* Ecological extinction
* Extinct in the wild
* Functional extinction
* Genetic pollution
* Lazarus taxon
* Local extinction
* Pseudoextinction

Models|

* Extinction vortex

Causes|

* Genetic erosion
* Habitat destruction
* Human overpopulation
* Muller's ratchet
* Mutational meltdown
* Overexploitation
* Paradox of enrichment
* Overabundant species

Theories
and concepts|

* Extinction debt
* Extinction risk from global warming
* Extinction threshold
* Field of Bullets
* Hypothetical species
* Latent extinction risk

Extinction events|

| Major|

* Ordovician–Silurian
* Late Devonian
* Permian–Triassic
* Triassic–Jurassic
* Cretaceous–Paleogene
* Holocene
* Timeline

|

Other|

* Great Oxidation
* End-Ediacaran
* End-Botomian
* Dresbachian
* Cambrian–Ordovician
* Ireviken
* Mulde
* Lau
* Carboniferous
* Olson's
* End-Capitanian
* Carnian Pluvial
* Toarcian
* End-Jurassic or Tithonian
* Aptian
* Cenomanian-Turonian
* Eocene–Oligocene
* Middle Miocene
* Pliocene–Pleistocene
* Quaternary

Extinct species|

* Lists of extinct species
* Lists of extinct animals
* List of extinct plants
* IUCN Red List extinct species

Organizations|

* International Union for Conservation of Nature
* IUCN Species Survival Commission
* Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

See also|

* Decline in amphibian populations
* Decline in insect populations
* Human extinction

* Category
* Commons

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation genetics. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Biology:Conservation_genetics&oldid=4312510"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template