Crab

Crabs are decapod crustaceans, either the Brachyura (the "true crabs") or various groups within the closely related Anomura (hermit crabs and allies), characterised by having a heavily armoured shell, their tail segments concealed under the body, the ability to run sideways, and the habit of hiding in rocky crevices. They do not form a single natural group or clade, but have convergently evolved multiple times from the ancestral decapod body plan through carcinisation, the process of creating this set of characteristics. As a group, they are thus polyphyletic, meaning they have multiple evolutionary origins.

Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimeters wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 4 m (13 ft). Many crabs are free-living marine omnivores; others are specialist herbivores or carnivores, while some are parasitic. A substantial number of species are adapted to freshwater or other non-marine habitats.

Crabs make up about 20% of the marine crustaceans that are caught or farmed for human consumption. In British cuisine, dressed crab is a traditional seafood meal, while in Goa and Mozambique, crab curry is a typical dish. Crabs feature in Greek and Malay mythology, and as the astrological sign Cancer. They have appeared in art in media including pottery, paintings, blouse panels, and book illustrations. Hermit crabs are often kept in aquariums and as pets. A popular meme jokes that everything will evolve into crabs, based inaccurately on the genuine evolutionary trend within the decapods.

## Contents

* 1 Diversity
* 1.1 Taxonomic range
* 1.1.1 Phylogeny
* 1.1.2 Specific groups
* 1.1.2.1 Chelicerata
* 1.1.2.2 Decapoda
* 1.2 Size and shape
* 1.3 Feeding methods
* 1.4 Ecological niches
* 2 Similarity of body plan through carcinisation
* 3 Interactions with humans
* 3.1 Fisheries and food
* 3.2 In culture
* 3.3 As pets
* 3.4 Meme
* 4 References

## Diversity

### Taxonomic range

#### Phylogeny

Crabs are not a single taxonomic group.[1] Instead, alongside the Brachyura or true crabs, are multiple groups of the Anomura that are called crabs, including the hermit crabs, mole crabs, king crabs, and porcelain crabs.[2] A distantly-related group of arthropods, the horseshoe crabs, with an armoured carapace but a quite different body plan, is a member of the Chelicerata, the group that includes the spiders and scorpions.[3] The crab body form and associated behaviour have arisen independently at different times in multiple groups of decapod crustaceans (boldface in tree).[1]

Arthropoda |  | Chelicerata |

Xiphosura (horseshoe crabs) 75 px

|

Middle Cambrian
Mandibulata |  |  |

other crustaceans

|

Decapoda |  |  |

other decapods (prawns, shrimps, lobsters)

|

|  | Brachyura |

("true" crabs)[4] 75 px

|

Early Jurassic
Anomura |  |  |  | Porcellanidae |

(porcelain crabs)[1] 75 px

|

Late Jurassic

Munididae (squat lobsters)

|  |  |  |  |

Parapaguridae (deep water sea anemone hermit crabs)

|

|  |  |

Lomisidae (hairy stone crabs)[5] 75 px

|

Aeglidae

|  |  |

Hippidae (mole crabs or sand crabs) 75 px

|

Paguroidea |  | Lithodidae |

(king crabs)[6][7] 75 px

|

Late Cenozoic
Paguridae |  |  |

Birgus latro (coconut crab) 75 px

|

Patagurus rex[8] 75 px

(other hermit crabs) 70px

Late Cretaceous
Late Triassic

#### Specific groups

##### Chelicerata

Horseshoe crabs (Xiphosura) are an ancient group, known from the late Ordovician of Canada, around 445 million years ago.[9] Their bodies are divided into an anterior prosoma (fused head and thorax) and a posterior opisthosoma, or abdomen. The upper surface of the prosoma is covered by a semicircular carapace (top part of the shell), while the underside bears five pairs of walking legs and a pair of pincer-like chelicerae. The mouth is on the underside of the prosoma, between the bases of the walking legs.[10]

##### Decapoda

Crab-like decapods span multiple groups:

* True crabs (Brachyura) are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton (jointed shell), composed primarily of highly mineralized chitin.[11][12] Males often have larger claws than females.[13]
* Porcelain crabs (Porcellanidae) are small flattened decapods that hide under rocks. They often shed limbs to escape predators.[14]
* The hairy stone crab (Lomisidae) is a slow-moving crab of the Australian shore. It is camouflaged with brown hair.[15]
* Hermit crabs (Paguroidea) have heavily armoured crab-like claws, but in place of a carapace, they inhabit empty scavenged gastropod mollusc shells to protect their fragile bodies.[16][17]
* King crabs (Lithodidae) live mainly in cold deep water. They resemble brachyurans but are more closely related to hermit crabs.[18]
* The coconut crab (Birgus) is a large terrestrial hermit crab of islands in the Pacific and Indian oceans.[19]
* Patagurus rex is a specialised hermit crab from Polynesia, living at a depth of 400 metres. Its carapace is unique but enough to make it look crab-like.[20]

### Size and shape

Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimeters wide,[21] to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 4 m (13 ft).[22] The coconut crab is the largest terrestrial arthropod, and indeed the largest extant terrestrial invertebrate, at up to 40 cm (16 in) long and weighing up to 4.1 kg (9 lb).[19]

* Smallest and largest
* Adult pea crab, one of the smallest species, a few millimetres across[21]

* Coconut crab, the largest terrestrial arthropod, weighing up to 4.1 kg (9 lb)

* Japanese spider crab, with a leg span of as much as 4 m (13 ft)

### Feeding methods

Many crabs are free-living marine omnivores, feeding on a mixture of algae, small animals such as molluscs, polychaete worms, other crustaceans, and detritus.[23] Others are more specialised: the mottled crab Grapsus albolineatus, for example, is herbivorous, feeding mainly on algae and preferring the more nutritious filamentous algae to leafy (foliose) algae,[24] while the yellow moon crab Ashtoret lunaris is carnivorous.[25] The porcelain crabs are plankton feeders, filtering their prey from seawater using long feathery bristles on their mouthparts.[26] The tiny soft-bodied oyster crab is a kleptoparasite of oysters, living inside the host's shell and eating its food.[27]

* Diverse feeding methods
* The mottled lightfoot crab is herbivorous.

* The yellow moon crab is carnivorous.

* Porcelain crabs are filter feeders, using feathery bristles on their mouthparts.

### Ecological niches

The tufted ghost crab Ocypode cursor is semi-terrestrial, consuming terrestrial animals such as insects.[23] Other species, including the pea crabs (Pinnotheridae), are parasitic, living inside hosts such as bivalve molluscs.[21] The tree crab or Caribbean hermit crab is terrestrial as an adult,[28] only returning to the ocean to spawn.[29] It feeds on plants and by scavenging,[30] and like other hermit crabs, takes over a mollusc shell for protection, breathing air with a lung.[28] Some 1,300 species of crabs in 8 families are adapted to freshwater.[31] Christmas Island red crabs make an annual mass migration to the sea to lay their eggs.[32]

* Diverse ecological niches
* The oyster crab
(centre, orange-coloured) is a kleptoparasite of oysters.

* The Caribbean hermit crab is mainly terrestrial.

* Among many species of freshwater crab, Potamon potamios lives in or near rivers.

* Christmas Island red crabs on their annual migration to the sea

## Similarity of body plan through carcinisation

Main article: Biology:Carcinisation

Most crabs are members of the Brachyura, sometimes called "true crabs", with around 7,000 species.[33] Several other groups of decapod crustaceans among the Anomura, such as king crabs and porcelain crabs, have a similar appearance; all have convergently evolved through the process of carcinisation to the crab body form and way of life. Crabs are thus not a single taxonomic group or clade, but are polyphyletic.[34][35][36][37] Many crabs can run swiftly sideways ("crabwise"), though others walk forwards,[38] and some can swim.[39]

The carcinised body form is defined by Keiler and colleagues (2014) as having the following attributes:[1]

* "The carapace is flatter than it is broad and possesses lateral margins."
* "The sternites are fused into a wide sternal plastron which possesses a distinct emargination on its posterior margin."
* "The pleon is flattened and strongly bent, in dorsal view completely hiding the tergites of the fourth pleonal segment, and partially or completely covers the plastron."

Crab body plan, its adaptations illustrated by comparison with a lobster (undersides shown)

## Interactions with humans

### Fisheries and food

Crabs make up some 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million tonnes annually. One species, the Asian blue crab Portunus trituberculatus, accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important taxa include Portunus pelagicus, several species in the genus Chionoecetes, the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), Charybdis spp., Cancer pagurus, the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Scylla serrata, each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually.[40]

* Crab fisheries
* Small-scale crab fishing

* Commercial king crab traps, awaiting the crabbing season

* Crab boat in the Bering Sea

* Hauling in a crab trap

In Western Europe, much of the crab meat is from the brown crab Cancer pagurus, noted for its sweet, delicate flavour. The United Kingdom hosts significant fisheries of this species, with major operations in Scotland and the South West of England.[41] Dressed crab is a traditional seafood meal in British cuisine made of the meat of the brown crab served in its own shell.[42]

In North America, there are commercial fisheries for the blue crab Callinectes sapidus along the Atlantic coast of the United States, and in the Gulf of Mexico. The fishery was centered on the Chesapeake Bay, but other places are increasing in importance.[43] Crab cakes are traditionally made from Chesapeake Bay crabs.[44][45]

In Goa and Mozambique, crab curry is a typical dish, flavoured with chilis, garlic, coconut, and spices.[46]

In Ishikawa prefecture, Japan, both the meat and the eggs of the snow crab are served as sushi in wintertime. The male is known as kano-gani, the female as kobako-gani. The short fishing season for the females makes kobako-gani sushi a rare delicacy.[47]

* Dishes made with crab
* Dressed crab with salad
and Marie Rose sauce

* Crab cakes with sweet potato fries, coleslaw, and tartar sauce

* Goan style crab curry

* Kobako-gani sushi with snow crab meat and eggs

### In culture

Both the constellation Cancer and the astrological sign Cancer are named after the crab, and depicted as such.[48] In Greek mythology, Karkinos was a crab that came to the aid of the Lernaean Hydra as it battled the hero Heracles.[49] The crab is at best a secondary character in the myth, and sometimes omitted altogether. This has been explained by the suggestion that it was introduced into the myth by Mesopotamian influence, as astrologers tried to associate the Labours of Hercules with the twelve signs of the Zodiac.[50][51]

* Mythology and astrology
* The crab Karkinos attacking Herakles as he fights the Lernaean Hydra. Attic lekythos pot, "the Diosphos Painter",
500–475 BC

* The constellation of Cancer, the crab, from Urania's Mirror,
c. 1825

Crabs have appeared in art since ancient times in many different media. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, especially the sea,[52] and often depicted crabs in their art.[53] Among the many later representations, the German artist Albrecht Dürer made a meticulous painting of the crab Eriphia verrucosa in 1495; since the species lives on the Adriatic coast, he likely painted the animal when he visited Venice.[54] Quite a different artistic portrayal is the monumental crab table setting charger created by the Barbizet Studio that made glazed earthenware pottery between 1850 and 1890.[55] In China, Gao Qipei (1672–1734) painted Crabs and Chrysanthemums in ink and light watercolour on paper.[56] In Panama, the Guna people of the San Blas Islands make Mola appliqué blouse panels decorated with motifs such as crabs from the waters of the Caribbean.[57]

* In different media through the centuries
* Crab by Albrecht Dürer, gouache and watercolour on paper, Germany, 1495

* Crabs and Chrysanthemums, Gao Qipei, ink and light colour on paper, China, 18th century

* Charger attributed to the Barbizet Studio, glazed earthenware, c. 1850

* Mola appliqué blouse panel, Nulanega Island, Panama, 20th century

One of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, "The Crab that Played with the Sea", tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down like the tides.[58] The paleontologist Richard Fortey has identified Kipling's giant crab as a horseshoe crab.[59] In Malay mythology, ocean tides were believed to be caused by water rushing in and out of a hole in the Navel of the Seas (Pusat Tasek), where "there sits a gigantic crab which twice a day gets out in order to search for food".[60]

Illustration for "The Crab that Played with the Sea" (in Just So Stories), Rudyard Kipling, 1902

### As pets

Hermit crabs are commonly kept as pets and used in the marine aquarium trade.[2] A popular species is the Caribbean hermit crab, Coenobita clypeatus. They can live for 30 years in captivity if their requirements, including simulating a coastal rainforest, are met. The size of tank must be substantial. There must be a substrate of sand and coconut fibre that they can dig in to facilitate moulting. The temperature and humidity of the air must be controlled. A pool of fresh water and a pool of correctly formulated salt water are both necessary.[61]

Hermit crabs in an aquarium

### Meme

The zoologist Joanna Wolfe, writing in Scientific American, notes a popular meme which jokes that crabs are the "ultimate forms"[62] of life as "everything will eventually evolve into a crab".[62] Sara Kiley Watson, writing in Popular Science, comments that the joke "comes from an actual truth", that decapods span multiple crab-like groups, including the true crabs but not limited to them.[63] Wolfe explains that the meme parodies the genuine process of carcinisation which has taken place in at least five different groups of decapods, but that the process does not apply to humans or other animals.[62] The evolutionary palaeobiologist Matthew Wills comments that all the crabs are decapods, and the evolutionary pressures apply in a marine environment where defence, living in crevices, and being wave-swept favour armoured protection, a broad compact body, and the ability to scuttle sideways.[64]

Decapods have repeatedly evolved a crablike body form under the pressures of predation and wave action. A broad low body, an armoured carapace, and the ability to scuttle sideways into a rock crevice all work well in a marine environment. This does not mean that all animals will evolve the same adaptations, as the crab meme wrongly suggests.[64]

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Jonas Keiler; Stefan Richter; Christian S. Wirkner (2014). "Evolutionary morphology of the organ systems in squat lobsters and porcelain crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Anomala): an insight into carcinization". Journal of Morphology 276 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1002/jmor.20311. PMID 25156549. Bibcode: 2015JMorp.276....1K.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Bracken-Grissom, Heather D.; Cannon, Maren E.; Cabezas, Patricia; Feldmann, Rodney M.; Schweitzer, Carrie E et al. (2013). "A comprehensive and integrative reconstruction of evolutionary history for Anomura (Crustacea: Decapoda)". BMC Evolutionary Biology 13 (1): 128. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-128. PMID 23786343. Bibcode: 2013BMCEE..13..128B.
3. ↑ Garwood, R. J.; Dunlop, J. (13 November 2014). "Three-dimensional reconstruction and the phylogeny of extinct chelicerate orders". PeerJ 2. doi:10.7717/peerj.641. PMID 25405073. Bibcode: 2014PeerJ...2.e641G.
4. ↑ C. L. Morrison; A. W. Harvey; S. Lavery; K. Tieu; Y. Huang; C. W. Cunningham (2001). "Mitochondrial gene rearrangements confirm the parallel evolution of the crab-like form". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 269 (1489): 345–350. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1886. PMID 11886621. PMC 1690904. http://www.biology.duke.edu/cunningham/pdfs/Morrison et al.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-26.
5. ↑ Jonas Keiler; Stefan Richter; Christian S. Wirkner (2016). "Revealing their innermost secrets: an evolutionary perspective on the disparity of the organ systems in anomuran crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Anomura)". Contributions to Zoology 85 (4): 361–386. doi:10.1163/18759866-08504001.
6. ↑ Jonas Keiler; Stefan Richter; Christian S. Wirkner (2013). "Evolutionary morphology of the hemolymph vascular system in hermit and king crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Anomala)". Journal of Morphology 274 (7): 759–778. doi:10.1002/jmor.20133. PMID 23508935. Bibcode: 2013JMorp.274..759K.
7. ↑ Jonas Keiler; Stefan Richter; Christian S. Wirkner (2015). "The anatomy of the king crab Hapalogaster mertensii Brandt, 1850 (Anomura: Paguroidea: Hapalogastridae) – new insights into the evolutionary transformation of hermit crabs into king crabs". Contributions to Zoology 84 (2): 149–165. doi:10.1163/18759866-08402004.
8. ↑ "Remarkable new true crab-like hermit discovered". University of Florida. 13 December 2013. https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/science/remarkable-new-true-crab-like-hermit-discovered/.
9. ↑ Rudkin, David M.; Young, Graham A.; Nowlan, Godfrey S. (2008). "The oldest horseshoe crab: a new xiphosurid from Late Ordovician Konservat-Lagerstätten deposits, Manitoba, Canada". Palaeontology 51 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2007.00746.x. Bibcode: 2008Palgy..51....1R.
10. ↑ Barnes, Robert D. (1982). Invertebrate Zoology. Philadelphia: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 590–595. ISBN 978-0-03-056747-6.
11. ↑ Boßelmann, F.; Romano, P.; Fabritius, H.; Raabe, D.; Epple, M. (25 October 2007). "The composition of the exoskeleton of two crustacea: The American lobster Homarus americanus and the edible crab Cancer pagurus". Thermochimica Acta 463 (1–2): 65–68. doi:10.1016/j.tca.2007.07.018. Bibcode: 2007TcAc..463...65B.
12. ↑ Chen, P.; Lin, A. Y.; McKittrick, J.; Meyers, M. A. (May 2008). "Structure and mechanical properties of crab exoskeletons". Acta Biomaterialia 4 (3): 587–596. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2007.12.010. PMID 18299257.
13. ↑ Sweat, L. H. (21 August 2009). "Pachygrapsus transversus". Smithsonian Institution. http://www.sms.si.edu/irLspec/Pachyg_transv.htm.
14. ↑ Poore, Gary C. B.; Ahyong, Shane T. (2004). "Porcellanidae Haworth, 1825". Marine decapod Crustacea of southern Australia: a guide to identification. CSIRO Publishing. pp. 242–246. ISBN 978-0-643-06906-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZWnuGc0xlMC&pg=PA242.
15. ↑ "Hairy Stone Crab". Museum Victoria. 1996. http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/crust/mov1711t.html.
16. ↑ McLaughlin, Patsy; Türkay, Michael (2011). "Paguroidea". World Paguroidea & Lomisoidea database. World Register of Marine Species. http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=106687.
17. ↑ Hazlett, B. A. (1981). "The Behavioral Ecology of Hermit Crabs". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 12 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.12.110181.000245. Bibcode: 1981AnRES..12....1H. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.es.12.110181.000245.
18. ↑ Poore, Gary C. B.; Ahyong, Shane T. (2023). "Anomura". Marine Decapod Crustacea: A Guide to Families and Genera of the World. CRC Press. pp. 311–317. ISBN 978-1-4863-1178-1.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Schueman, Lindsey Jean (6 October 2025). "Inside the world of coconut crabs: The largest land arthropod". https://www.oneearth.org/species-of-the-week-coconut-crab/.
20. ↑ Anker, Arthur; Paulay, Gustav (22 October 2013). "A remarkable new crab-like hermit crab (Decapoda: Paguridae) from French Polynesia, with comments on carcinization in the Anomura". Zootaxa 3722 (2). doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3722.2.9.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Baker, Nick (1 February 2023). "Pea crabs guide: what they are and their lifecycle". https://www.discoverwildlife.com/animal-facts/insects-invertebrates/pea-crabs-guide.
22. ↑ "Japanese spider crab Macrocheira kaempferi". Oceana North America. http://na.oceana.org/en/explore/creatures/japanese-spider-crab.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Chartosia, Niki (2010). "Diet Composition of Five Species of Crabs (Decapoda, Brachyura) that Show a Gradual Transition from Marine to Terrestrial Life". Crustaceana 83 (10): 1181–1197. doi:10.1163/001121610X533502. Bibcode: 2010Crust..83.1181C. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261934839.
24. ↑ Kennish, R; Williams, G. A. (1997). "Feeding preferences of the herbivorous crab Grapsus albolineatus: the differential influence of algal nutrient content and morphology". Marine Ecology Progress Series 147: 87–95. doi:10.3354/meps147087. Bibcode: 1997MEPS..147...87K. http://hub.hku.hk/handle/10722/57250.
25. ↑ Yamada, Hideaki; Kobayashi, Masato; Sato, Taku; Kawabata, Yuuki (2013). "Effects of artificial seaweed and water depth on vulnerability of juvenile black-spot tuskfish Choerodon schoenleinii to carnivorous crab Ashtoret lunaris". Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 79 (5): 797–803. doi:10.2331/suisan.79.797. ISSN 0021-5392. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/suisan/79/5/79_13-00023/_pdf. Retrieved 4 November 2025.
26. ↑ Allen, Gerald R. (1997). "Anemone crab Neopetrolisthes maculatus". Tropical Marine Life. Periplus Nature Guides. Tuttle Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 978-962-593-157-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=vpMSjJ5DVDYC&pg=PA35.
27. ↑ Walters, Linda J.; Busch, Sidney J.; Vermeulen, Sophia; Craig, Casey A. (2024). "Entanglement and ingestion of microfibers by the oyster pea crab Zaops ostreum, an endosymbiont of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica". Marine Pollution Bulletin 201. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116251. PMID 38479324. Bibcode: 2024MarPB.20116251W. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0025326X24002285.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Farrelly, C.A.; Greenaway, P. (January 2005). "The morphology and vasculature of the respiratory organs of terrestrial hermit crabs (Coenobita and Birgus): gills, branchiostegal lungs and abdominal lungs". Arthropod Structure & Development 34 (1): 63–87. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2004.11.002. Bibcode: 2005ArtSD..34...63F.
29. ↑ Nieves-Rivera, Ángel M.; Ernest H. Williams, Jr. (2003). "Annual migrations and spawning of Coenobita clypeatus (Herbst) on Mona Island (Puerto Rico) and notes on inland crustaceans". Crustaceana 76 (5): 547–558. doi:10.1163/156854003322316191. Bibcode: 2003Crust..76..547W.
30. ↑ Linton, Stuart; Greenaway, Peter (6 February 2007). "A review of feeding and nutrition of herbivorous land crabs: adaptations to low quality plant diets". Journal of Comparative Physiology B 177 (3): 269–286. doi:10.1007/s00360-006-0138-z. PMID 17279390.
31. ↑ Yeo, Darren C. J.; Peter K. L. Ng; Neil Cumberlidge; Célio Magalhães; Savel R. Daniels; Martha R. Campos (2008). "Global diversity of crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura) in freshwater". Hydrobiologia. Developments in Hydrobiology, vol. 198 (Springer) 595 (1): 275–286. doi:10.1007/s10750-007-9023-3. ISBN 978-1-4020-8258-0. Bibcode: 2008HyBio.595..275Y. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/102459.
32. ↑ "Red crabs – video footage of the migration". Parks Australia. 1 December 2013. http://www.parksaustralia.gov.au/christmas/people-place/red-crabs.html.
33. ↑ Joel W. Martin; George E. Davis (2001). An Updated Classification of the Recent Crustacea. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. p. 132. http://atiniui.nhm.org/pdfs/3839/3839.pdf. Retrieved 2009-12-14.
34. ↑ Borradaile, Lancelot Alexander (1916). "Crustacea. Part II. Porcellanopagurus: an instance of carcinization". British Antarctic ("Terra Nova") Expedition, 1910. Natural History Report. Zoology 3 (3): 111–126.
35. ↑ Martin, J. W.; Abele, L. G. (1986). "Phylogenetic relationships of the genus Aegla (Decapoda: Anomura: Aeglidae), with comments on anomuran phylogeny". Journal of Crustacean Biology 6 (3): 576–612. doi:10.1163/193724086X00406. Bibcode: 1986JCBio...6..576..
36. ↑ McLaughlin, P. A.; Lemaitre, R. (1997). "Carcinization in the Anomura - fact or fiction? I. Evidence from adult morphology". Contributions to Zoology 67 (2): 79–123. doi:10.1163/18759866-06702001.
37. ↑ Scholtz, G. (2014). "Evolution of crabs - history and deconstruction of a prime example of convergence". Contributions to Zoology 83 (2): 87–105. doi:10.1163/18759866-08302001.
38. ↑ Sleinis, Sally; Silvey, Gerald E. (1980). "Locomotion in a forward walking crab". Journal of Comparative Physiology A 136 (4): 301–312. doi:10.1007/BF00657350.
39. ↑ Hazerli, Dennis; Richter, Stefan (2020). "Why "swimming crabs" are able to swim – The importance of the axial skeleton: A comparison between the "swimming crab" Liocarcinus depurator and two other brachyuran crabs (Cancer pagurus, Carcinus maenas) using μCT and 3D-reconstruction". Arthropod Structure & Development 59. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2020.100972. Bibcode: 2020ArtSD..5900972H.
40. ↑ "Global Capture Production 1950–2004". Food and Agriculture Organization. http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/TabLandArea?tb_ds=Capture&tb_mode=TABLE&tb_act=SELECT&tb_grp=COUNTRY.
41. ↑ "Future Management of Brown Crab in the UK and Ireland (IPF_D123)". Nautilus Consultants. 2009. http://www.seafish.org/media/Publications/SR633_NautilusBrownCrabManagement_D123_Final.pdf.
42. ↑ "How to dress a crab". BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/recipes/dressedcrab_90206.
43. ↑ Cascorbi, Alice (February 14, 2004). "Seafood Report: Blue Crab, Callinectes sapidus". Seafood Watch. Monterey Bay Aquarium. http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_BlueCrabReport.pdf.
44. ↑ Stern, Jane (4 June 2009). 500 Things to Eat Before It's Too Late: and the Very Best Places to Eat Them. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-547-41644-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=hs3z0zZWxpYC&pg=PA81.
45. ↑ "The History of Maryland Crab Cakes - Brookside Inn Restaurant - Oxford". https://nearsay.com/c/732124/272370/the-history-of-maryland-crab-cakes.
46. ↑ Ferreira, Luis. "Caril de Caranguejo (Moçambique) - ReceitaseMenus.net". http://www.receitasemenus.net/caril-caranguejo-mocambique/.
47. ↑ Osamu, Sawaji (February 2023). "Ishikawa Wintertime Sushi". Highlighting Japan: 20–21. https://www.gov-online.go.jp/pdf/hlj/20230201/hlj202302_20-21_Ishikawa_Wintertime_Sushi.pdf. Retrieved 6 November 2025.
48. ↑ Rossi, B. B. (1969). The Crab Nebula: Ancient History and Recent Discoveries. Center for Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. CSR-P-69-27. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19700008151.
49. ↑ Barreiro, Rafael Fontán (2007-05-16) (in es). Diccionario de la mitología. EDAF. ISBN 978-84-414-0397-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=8gzRgDCh9NkC&pg=PA107.
50. ↑ "AAGC – Cancer". http://www.astrosurf.com/aagc/gt_historia_constelaciones/cancer.htm.
51. ↑ Graves, Robert (2017). "The Labours of Hercules". The Greek Myths: The Complete and Definitive Edition. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-241-98338-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=R9k1DwAAQBAJ&q=the greek myths robert graves.
52. ↑ Benson, Elizabeth (1972). The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. New York: Praeger Press. ISBN 978-0-500-72001-1.
53. ↑ Berrin, Katherine (1997). The Spirit of Ancient Peru: Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson. p. 216. ISBN 978-0-500-01802-6.
54. ↑ "Crab (Eriphia Spinifrons)". Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen. https://www.boijmans.nl/en/collection/artworks/78054/crab-eriphia-spinifrons.
55. ↑ "Charger". Cincinnati Art Museum. https://cincinnatiartmuseum.org/art/explore-the-collection?id=11295884.
56. ↑ "Crabs and Chrysanthemums: Gao Qipei". Brooklyn Museum. https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/objects/110409.
57. ↑ Vazquez de Arthur, Andrea (8 October 2020). "Fashioning Identity: Mola Textiles of Panamá". Cleveland Museum of Art. https://www.clevelandart.org/articles/fashioning-identity-mola-textiles-panama.
58. ↑ Kipling, Rudyard (1902). "The Crab that Played with the Sea". Just So Stories. Macmillan. http://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/79/just-so-stories/1297/the-crab-that-played-with-the-sea/.
59. ↑ "Just So Science: The Crab that Played with the Sea". BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b04795tq.
60. ↑ Skeat, Walter William (1900). "Chapter 1: Nature". Malay Magic. London: Macmillan. pp. 1–15. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/47873/47873-h/47873-h.htm#s1.2.
61. ↑ Sinclair, Melissa Scott (19 August 2025). "It's the Most Misunderstood Pet in America. If Only You Knew Where It Came From—and What It's Capable Of.". https://slate.com/technology/2025/08/hermit-crab-lifespan-beach-pet-cage-breeding.html.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 Wolfe, Joanna (27 February 2025). "Crab Memes Amplify Mistaken Ideas about Evolution". Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/crab-memes-amplify-mistaken-ideas-about-evolution/.
63. ↑ Watson, Sara Kiley (14 December 2020). "Why everything eventually becomes a crab". Popular Science. https://www.popsci.com/story/animals/why-everything-becomes-crab-meme-carcinization/.
64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Swallow, Bea (17 October 2025). "Why does evolution keep creating 'imposter crabs'?". BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cly7d7erz80o.

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