Outline of lichens

Short description: Overview of and topical guide to lichens

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Usnea filipendula – one of about 20,000 described species of lichen

The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to lichens.

Lichen - composite organism made up of multiple species – a fungal partner, one or more photosynthetic partners, which can be either green algae or cyanobacteria, and, in at least 52 genera of lichens, a yeast.[1] In American English, "lichen" is pronounced the same as the verb "liken" (/ˈlaɪkən/). In British English, both this pronunciation and one rhyming with "kitchen" (/ˈlɪtʃən/) are used.[2]

## Contents

* 1 What type of thing is a lichen?
* 2 Nature of lichens
* 2.1 Morphology
* 2.2 Ecology
* 3 Types of lichens
* 3.1 Lichen lists
* 3.2 Lichen taxonomical classifications
* 3.2.1 Classes
* 3.2.2 Orders
* 3.2.3 Families
* 3.2.4 Genera
* 3.2.5 Species
* 3.3 Lichens, by growth form
* 3.4 Lichens, by substrate
* 3.5 Lichens, by region
* 3.5.1 Africa
* 3.5.2 Antarctica
* 3.5.3 Asia
* 3.5.4 Australia
* 3.5.5 Europe
* 3.5.6 North America
* 3.5.7 Oceania
* 3.5.8 Pacific
* 3.5.9 South America
* 4 Photobiont
* 5 Lichen metabolites
* 6 Study of lichens
* 7 Threats
* 8 Lichens in culture
* 8.1 Lichen organizations
* 8.1.1 Independent lichenological journals
* 9 See also
* 10 Citations
* 10.1 References
* 11 External links

## What type of thing is a lichen?

A lichen can be described as all of the following:

* Life form – an entity that is alive.

* Composite organism – a symbiotic life form composed of multiple partners from different biological domains, families and kingdoms, and into different phyla, classes and divisions within those domains and kingdoms. In the case of lichens, a fungal partner (the mycobiont) combines with one or more photosynthetic partner(s) (the photobiont) as well as (in some cases) a yeast.

* Eukaryote (domain) – organisms with a cell nucleus within a nuclear envelope; both the mycobiont and any algal partners fall into this domain.[3]

* Fungi (kingdom) – the fungal partner and any yeast partner fall into this kingdom.[1]

* Ascomycota (phylum) and/or Basidiomycota (phylum)[4]

* For the biological classes and families these fungi belong to, see below.

* Chlorophyta (division) – if the photobiont is a green alga, it falls into this taxonomic division.[5]

* Trebouxiophyceae (class)

* Trebouxiaceae (family)[6]

* Ulvophyceae (class)

* Trentepohliaceae (family)[6]

* Prokaryote (domain) – organisms without a cell nucleus; any cyanobacterial partner falls into this domain.[3]

* Bacteria (domain)[7]

* Cyanobacteria (phylum)[7]

## Nature of lichens

Schematic cross section of foliose lichen:
(a) The cortex is the outer layer of tightly woven fungal filaments (hyphae)
(b) This photobiont layer has photosynthesizing green algae
(c) Loosely packed hyphae in the medulla
(d) A tightly woven lower cortex
(e) Anchoring hyphae called rhizines, where the fungus attaches to the substrate

### Morphology

* Lichen anatomy and physiology

* Apoplast – the symbiotic interface zone between the mycobiont and photobiont, outside the cell membranes or walls of both.[8]
* Haustorium (pl. haustoria) – a root-like structure which allows the fungal partner to extract nutrients from its photosynthetic partner(s).[9]

* Lichen morphology – a lichen's external appearance and structures are very different than those of its individual partners.[10]

* Ascocarp – the fruiting body of a lichen, which contains the asci.[11]

* Ascus (pl. asci) – a sexual, fungal spore-bearing structure, typically sac-like in shape.[12]
* Ascospore – a fungal spore, the product of meiosis, produced in an ascus.[13]

* Epispore – a transparent bag-like outer covering on some spores,[9] which helps to determine spore shape.[14]

* Cephalodium (pl. cephalodia) – a gall-like structure that contains cyanobacteria[15]
* Hypha (pl. hyphae) – a long, branching, thread-like structure composed of one or more fungal cells, which typically makes up a large part of lichens; hyphae are densely compacted in the cortex and more loosely interwoven in the medulla.[16]
* Pycnidium (pl. pycnidia) – a flask-shaped, asexual fruiting body possessed by some lichens.[17]

* Conidium (pl. conidia) – an asexual fungal spore produced in pycnidia by some lichens.[18]

* Rhizine – a root-like structure that anchors a lichen to the substrate on which it grows.[19]
* Soralium (pl. soralia) – a localized region or structure, typically a crack or pore, containing soredium.[20]

* Soredium (pl. soredia) – asexual reproductive propagules composed of loose clumps of fungal hyphae and photobiont cells, produced in soralia.[20]

* Thallus (pl. thalli) – the vegetative body of a lichen, made up of both mycobiont and photobiont components.[21]

* Cortex – the lichen's outer layer(s), made up of tightly woven fungal filaments.[22]
* Isidium (pl. isidia) – outgrowths of the thallus which contain photobiont cells and provide means of vegetative reproduction for some lichens.[23]
* Medulla – a loose layer of interwoven fungal hyphae within the thallus.[24]
* Podetium (pl. podetia) – an upright secondary thallus, which supports the fruiting bodies of Cladonia species.[25]

### Ecology

Lichens with a cyanobacteria as the photosynthetic partner, like this Peltigera collina, can fix nitrogen.[26]

* Symbiosis in lichens – the relationship between the lichen partners can be complicated; while generally mutualistic, sometimes it is not. Recent research also shows other partners, including bacteria and "accessory" fungi, may be involved.[27]
* Asexual reproduction in lichens – many lichens reproduce asexually, using one or more of various methods which allow the dispersal of bundles of both fungal hyphae and photobionts.[28]
* Sexual reproduction in lichens – most lichens reproduce sexually using ascospores, which means they have to acquire their photobiont partners somehow after germinating.[29]
* Lichens and nitrogen cycling – some lichens (in particular those with cyanobacteria as a photobiont) can fix nitrogen.[26]
* Lichen biogeography – the study of the current distribution of extant lichens and the reasons for those distributions.[30]
* Lichen resynthesis – lichens can be artificially "recreated" by combining partners in a lab.[31]
* Lichens and pedogenesis – lichens contribute to the formation of soil by breaking down rock.[32]
* Biological soil crust – lichens are among the common dominant biota in biocrusts, one of the world's largest environmental community types in terms of area covered.[33]
* Photosynthesis in lichens

## Types of lichens

### Lichen lists

### Lichen taxonomical classifications

Chaenotheca brunneola falls into Coniocybomycetes, a small fungal class which contains only a handful of lichen species.[34]

Lichen systematics – Although they are composite organisms, lichens have traditionally been classified on the basis of their fungal partner. These span eight different biological classes, 39 orders, 117 families, and around 1,000 genera.[34][35]

* Ascolichen – a lichen whose fungal partner is a member of the Ascomycota, one of the two main fungal divisions.[36]
* Basidiolichen – a lichen whose fungal partner is a member of the Basidiomycota, the other of the two main fungal divisions; these are far fewer in occurrence than ascolichens.[37]

#### Classes

Lichens fall into eight fungal classes and several subclasses:[38]

1. Agaricomycetes
1. Agaricomycetidae
2. Arthoniomycetes
3. Coniocybomycetes
4. Dothideomycetes
1. Dothideomycetidae
5. Eurotiomycetes
1. Chaetothyriomycetidae
6. Lecanoromycetes
1. Acarosporomycetidae
2. Lecanoromycetidae
3. Ostropomycetidae
7. Lichinomycetes
8. Sordariomycetes
1. Sordariomycetidae

#### Orders

Lecidella elaeochroma is a member of Lecanorales, the fungal order which contains the greatest number of lichen species.[38]

They are split across nearly 40 orders. Those which cannot be assigned to a particular order are assigned instead to "incertae sedis" within the appropriate class. These orders were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted,[38] with orders updated in 2021.[34]

1. Acarosporales
2. Agaricales
3. Arthoniales
4. Atheliales
5. Baeomycetales
6. Caliciales
7. Candelariales
8. Cantharellales
9. Capnodiales
10. Chaetothyriales
11. Collemopsidiales
12. Coniocybales
13. Corticiales
14. Eremithallales
15. Lecanorales
16. Lecideales
17. Lepidostromatales
18. Leprocaulales
19. Lichinales
20. Monoblastiales
21. Odontotrematales
22. Ostropales
23. Peltigerales
24. Pertusariales
25. Phaeomoniellales
26. Pleosporales
27. Pyrenulales
28. Rhizocarpales
29. Sarrameanales
30. Schaereriales[39][40]
31. Strigulales
32. Teloschistales
33. Thelenellales[39][40]
34. Thelocarpales
35. Trypetheliales
36. Umbilicariales
37. Verrucariales
38. Vezdaeales
39. Xylariales

#### Families

They fall into 117 families. Those which cannot be assigned to a particular family are assigned instead to "incertae sedis" within the appropriate order. These were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted;[35] families were updated in 2021.[34]

1. Acarosporaceae
2. Agyriaceae
3. Andreiomycetaceae
4. Aphanopsidaceae
5. Arctomiaceae
6. Arthoniaceae
7. Arthrorhaphidaceae
8. Atheliaceae
9. Baeomycetaceae
10. Biatorellaceae
11. Brigantiaeaceae
12. Caliciaceae
13. Cameroniaceae
14. Candelariaceae
15. Carbonicolaceae
16. Catillariaceae
17. Celotheliaceae
18. Chrysotrichaceae
19. Cladoniaceae
20. Clavulinaceae
21. Coccocarpiaceae
22. Coccotremataceae
23. Coenogoniaceae
24. Collemataceae
25. Coniocybaceae
26. Corticiaceae
27. Cystocoleaceae
28. Dacampiaceae
29. Dactylosporaceae
30. Elixiaceae
31. Fuscideaceae[41]
32. Gloeoheppiaceae
33. Gomphillaceae
34. Graphidaceae
35. Gyalectaceae
36. Gypsoplacaceae
37. Haematommataceae
38. Harpidiaceae[42]
39. Helocarpaceae
40. Hygrophoraceae
41. Hymeneliaceae
42. Icmadophilaceae
43. Koerberiaceae
44. Lecanographaceae
45. Lecanoraceae
46. Lecideaceae
47. Lepidostromataceae
48. Leprocaulaceae
49. Letrouitiaceae
50. Lichinaceae
51. Lopadiaceae
52. Lyrommataceae
53. Malmideaceae
54. Massalongiaceae
55. Megalariaceae
56. Megalosporaceae
57. Megasporaceae
58. Melaspileaceae
59. Microtheliopsidaceae
60. Monoblastiaceae
61. Mycoporaceae
62. Nephromataceae
63. Ochrolechiaceae
64. Opegraphaceae
65. Ophioparmaceae
66. Pachyascaceae
67. Pannariaceae
68. Parmeliaceae
69. Peltigeraceae
70. Peltulaceae
71. Pertusariaceae
72. Phaneromycetaceae[41][43]
73. Phlyctidaceae
74. Physciaceae
75. Pilocarpaceae
76. Placynthiaceae
77. Protothelenellaceae
78. Psilolechiaceae
79. Psoraceae
80. Pycnoraceae
81. Pyrenotrichaceae
82. Pyrenulaceae
83. Ramalinaceae
84. Ramboldiaceae
85. Redonographaceae[41]
86. Requienellaceae
87. Rhizocarpaceae
88. Roccellaceae
89. Roccellographaceae
90. Ropalosporaceae
91. Sagiolechiaceae
92. Sarrameanaceae
93. Schaereriaceae
94. Scoliciosporaceae
95. Sphaerophoraceae
96. Sporastatiaceae
97. Stereocaulaceae
98. Stictidaceae
99. Strangosporaceae
100. Strigulaceae
101. Teloschistaceae
102. Tenuitholiascaceae[44][45]
103. Tephromelataceae
104. Thelenellaceae
105. Thelocarpaceae
106. Thrombiaceae
107. Trapeliaceae
108. Trichosphaeriaceae[42]
109. Trichotheliaceae[41]
110. Trypetheliaceae
111. Umbilicariaceae
112. Vahliellaceae
113. Varicellariaceae
114. Verrucariaceae
115. Vezdaeaceae
116. Xanthopyreniaceae
117. Xylographaceae

#### Genera

* List of common names of lichen genera

Extant lichens are found in more than 1000 genera. These were listed in Lücking, Hodkinson and Leavitt's 2016 treatise on the classification of lichenized fungi, except where otherwise noted.[35]

1. Absconditella
2. Acantholichen
3. Acanthothecis
4. Acanthotrema
5. Acarospora
6. Acarosporina
7. Aciculopsora
8. Acolium
9. Acrocordia
10. Acroscyphus
11. Actinoplaca
12. Adelolecia
13. Aderkomyces
14. Aggregatorygma
15. Agonimia
16. Ahtiana
17. Ainoa
18. Albemarlea[46]
19. Alectoria
20. Allantoparmelia
21. Allocalicium
22. Allocetraria
23. Allographa[47]
24. Allophoron[42]
25. Alyxoria
26. Amandinea
27. Amazonomyces
28. Amazonotrema
29. Ameliella
30. Amphorothecium
31. Ampliotrema
32. Amundsenia
33. Amygdalaria
34. Amylora
35. Anamylopsora
36. Anaptychia
37. Ancistrosporella
38. Andina[48]
39. Andreiomyces
40. Anema
41. Angiactis
42. Anisomeridium
43. Anomalographis
44. Anomomorpha
45. Antennulariella
46. Anthracocarpon
47. Anthracothecium
48. Anzia
49. Anzina
50. Apatoplaca
51. Aphanopsis
52. Aplanocalenia
53. Aptrootia
54. Aquacidia[49]
55. Architrypethelium
56. Arctocetraria
57. Arctomia
58. Arctoparmelia
59. Argopsis
60. Aridoplaca[50]
61. Arrhenia
62. Arthonia (list)
63. Arthopyrenia
64. Arthotheliopsis
65. Arthothelium
66. Arthrorhaphis
67. Arthrosporum
68. Asahinea
69. Aspicilia
70. Aspiciliopsis
71. Aspidothelium
72. Aspilidea
73. Asteristion
74. Asteroporum
75. Asterothyrium
76. Astrochapsa
77. Astrothelium
78. Athallia
79. Athelopsis
80. Atla
81. Atrophysma[51]
82. Aulaxina
83. Auriculora
84. Australiaena
85. Australidea[52]
86. Austrella
87. Austrographa
88. Austrolecia
89. Austromelanelixia[53][54]
90. Austroparmelina
91. Austropeltum
92. Austroplaca
93. Austroroccella
94. Austrotrema
95. Awasthiella
96. Bacidia
97. Bacidina
98. Bacidiopsora
99. Bactrospora
100. Baculifera
101. Badimia
102. Badimiella
103. Baeomyces
104. Baflavia
105. Bagliettoa
106. Bahianora
107. Baidera[55]
108. Bapalmuia
109. Bartlettiella
110. Barubria
111. Bathelium
112. Bellemerea
113. Biatora
114. Biatorella
115. Biatoridium
116. Bibbya[56]
117. Bilimbia
118. Blastenia
119. Blastodesmia
120. Blennothallia
121. Bogoriella
122. Boreoplaca
123. Borinquenotrema
124. Botryolepraria
125. Bouvetiella
126. Brasilicia
127. Brianaria
128. Brigantiaea
129. Brodoa
130. Brownliella
131. Bryobilimbia
132. Bryocaulon
133. Bryodina
134. Bryogomphus
135. Bryonora
136. Bryoplaca
137. Bryoria
138. Bryostigma
139. Buellia (list)
140. Buelliastrum
141. Bulbothrix
142. Bunodophoron
143. Burrowsia[57]
144. Byssolecania
145. Byssoloma
146. Byssotrema
147. Caeruleum
148. Calathaspis
149. Calenia
150. Caleniopsis
151. Calicium
152. Callome
153. Calogaya
154. Calopadia
155. Calopadiopsis
156. Caloplaca (list)
157. Calotrichopsis
158. Calvitimela
159. Calycidium
160. Cameronia
161. Candelaria
162. Candelariella
163. Candelina
164. Canoparmelia
165. Caprettia
166. Carassea
167. Carbacanthographis
168. Carbonicola
169. Catapyrenium
170. Catarrhospora
171. Catarraphia
172. Catenarina
173. Catillaria
174. Catillochroma
175. Catinaria
176. Catolechia
177. Cecidonia
178. Celothelium
179. Cenozosia
180. Cephalophysis
181. Cerothallia
182. Cetradonia
183. Cetraria
184. Cetrariella
185. Cetrelia
186. Cetreliopsis
187. Chaenotheca
188. Chapsa
189. Charcotiana
190. Cheiromycina
191. Chiodecton
192. Chirleja
193. Chrismofulvea
194. Chromatochlamys
195. Chroodiscus
196. Chrysothrix
197. Cinnabaria[58]
198. Ciposia
199. Circinaria
200. Cladia
201. Cladidium
202. Claurouxia
203. Cladonia (list)
204. Clandestinotrema
205. Clathroporina
206. Clauzadea
207. Clauzadeana
208. Clauzadella
209. Clavascidium
210. Cliostomum
211. Clypeopyrenis
212. Coccocarpia
213. Coccotrema
214. Coelopogon
215. Coenogonium
216. Collema
217. Collemopsidium
218. Combea
219. Compositrema
220. Compsocladium
221. Coniangium
222. Coniarthonia
223. Coniocarpon
224. Conotremopsis
225. Constrictolumina
226. Coppinsia
227. Coppinsidea[59]
228. Cora
229. Corella
230. Coronoplectrum
231. Cornicularia
232. Corticorygma
233. Corynecystis
234. Coscinocladium
235. Cratiria
236. Creographa
237. Crespoa
238. Cresponea
239. Cresporhaphis[42]
240. Crocellina
241. Crocodia
242. Crocynia
243. Cruentotrema
244. Crustospathula
245. Crutarndina
246. Cryptodictyon
247. Cryptodiscus
248. Crypthonia
249. Cryptophaea
250. Cryptothecia
251. Cryptothele
252. Culbersonia
253. Cyanoporina
254. Cyphelium
255. Cyphellostereum
256. Cyphobasidium
257. Cystocoleus
258. Dacampia
259. Dactylina
260. Davidgallowaya
261. Degelia
262. Dendriscosticta
263. Dendrographa
264. Dermatiscum
265. Dermatocarpon
266. Dermiscellum
267. Diaphorographis
268. Dibaeis
269. Dichosporidium
270. Dictyocatenulata
271. Dictyographa
272. Dictyomeridium
273. Dictyonema
274. Digitothyrea
275. Dijigiella[60][61]
276. Dimelaena
277. Dimidiographa
278. Diorygma
279. Diploicia
280. Diploschistella
281. Diploschistes
282. Diplotomma
283. Dirinaria
284. Dirina
285. Dirinastrum
286. Diromma
287. Distopyrenis
288. Distothelia
289. Dolichocarpus
290. Dolichousnea[62][54]
291. Ducatina[63][64]
292. Dufourea
293. Dyplolabia
294. Echidnocymbium
295. Echinoplaca
296. Edrudia
297. Edwardiella
298. Eiglera
299. Eilifdahlia
300. Elixia
301. Elixjohnia[65][61]
302. Emmanuelia[66]
303. Emodomelanelia
304. Encephalographa
305. Enchylium
306. Endocarpon
307. Endocena
308. Endohyalina
309. Enterodictyon
310. Enterographa
311. Epilichen
312. Enigmotrema
313. Eopyrenula
314. Ephebe
315. Eremastrella
316. Eremithallus
317. Eremothecella
318. Erinacellus
319. Erioderma
320. Ertzia
321. Erythrodecton
322. Eschatogonia
323. Esslingeriana
324. Eugeniella
325. Eumitria[62][54]
326. Euopsis
327. Evernia
328. Everniopsis
329. Farnoldia
330. Fauriea
331. Feigeana
332. Felipes
333. Fellhanera
334. Fellhaneropsis
335. Ferraroa
336. Fibrillithecis
337. Filsoniana
338. Finkia
339. Fissurina
340. Flabelloporina[67]
341. Flakea
342. Flavobathelium
343. Flavocetraria
344. Flavoparmelia
345. Flavoplaca
346. Flavopunctelia
347. Flegographa
348. Fluctua
349. Follmannia
350. Follmanniella
351. Fominiella[68]
352. Fouragea
353. Franwilsia
354. Frigidopyrenia
355. Frutidella
356. Fulgidea
357. Fulvophyton
358. Fuscidea
359. Fuscoderma
360. Fuscopannaria
361. Gabura[42]
362. Gassicurtia
363. Geisleria
364. Gibbosporina
365. Gintarasia
366. Gintarasiella[69]
367. Glaucotrema
368. Gloeheppia
369. Glomerilla
370. Glomerulophoron
371. Glyphis
372. Glypholecia
373. Glyphopeltis
374. Glyphopsis
375. Glysoplaca
376. Gomphillus
377. Gondwania
378. Gorgadesia
379. Gossypiothallon
380. Gowardia
381. Granulopyrenis
382. Graphidastra
383. Graphis
384. Gregorella
385. Gudelia
386. Gyalecta
387. Gyalectaria
388. Gyalectidium
389. Gyalidea
390. Gyalideopsis
391. Gyalolechia
392. Gymnoderma
393. Gymnographa
394. Gymnographopsis
395. Gyrocollema
396. Gyrographa
397. Gyronactis
398. Gyrotrema
399. Haematomma
400. Halecania
401. Halegrapha
402. Halographis
403. Haloplaca
404. Hanstrassia[70]
405. Haplodina
406. Haploloma
407. Harpidium
408. Harusavskia[71]
409. Heiomasia
410. Helicobolomyces[72][73]
411. Helminthocarpon
412. Helocarpon
413. Hemithecium
414. Henrica
415. Heppia
416. Heppsora
417. Herpothallon
418. Hertella
419. Herteliana
420. Hertelidea
421. Heterocarpon
422. Heterocyphelium
423. Heterodermia
424. Heteromyces
425. Heteroplacidium
426. Himantormia
427. Hippocrepidea
428. Homothecium
429. Hormosphaeria
430. Hosseusia
431. Hosseusiella[74]
432. Huea
433. Hueidea
434. Huneckia
435. Hydropunctaria
436. Hymenelia
437. Hyperphyscia
438. Hypocenomyce
439. Hypoflavia
440. Hypogymnia
441. Hypotrachyna
442. Icmadophila
443. Igneoplaca
444. Ikaeria[75]
445. Immersaria
446. Imshaugia
447. Ingaderia
448. Ingvariella
449. Inoderma
450. Involucropyrenium
451. Ionaspis
452. Ioplaca
453. Isalonactis
454. Jamesiella
455. Japewia
456. Japewiella
457. Jarmania
458. Jasonhuria
459. Jenmania
460. Joergensenia
461. Josefpoeltia
462. Julella[42]
463. Kaernefeltia
464. Kaernefia
465. Kalbiana
466. Kalbionora[76][77]
467. Kalbographa
468. Kashiwadia
469. Kantvilasia
470. Klauskalbia[78]
471. Knightiella[42]
472. Koerberia
473. Koerberiella
474. Krogia
475. Kroswia
476. Kuettlingeria
477. Kurokawia[79]
478. Labyrintha
479. Lambiella
480. Lasallia
481. Lasioloma
482. Lathagrium
483. Lazarenkoella
484. Lecanactis
485. Lecania
486. Lecanographa
487. Lecanora (list)
488. Lecidea (list)
489. Lecidella
490. Lecidoma
491. Lecidopyrenopsis
492. Leciophysma
493. Leifidium
494. Leightoniella
495. Leimonis
496. Leioderma
497. Leiorreuma
498. Lemmopsis
499. Lempholemma
500. Lendemeriella
501. Lepidocollema
502. Lepidostroma
503. Lepra
504. Leprantha
505. Lepraria
506. Leprocaulon
507. Leprocollema
508. Leproplaca
509. Leptochidium
510. Leptogidium
511. Leptogium
512. Leptorhaphis
513. Leptotrema
514. Letharia
515. Lethariella
516. Letrouitia
517. Leucodecton
518. Leucodermia
519. Lichenomphalia
520. Lichina
521. Lichinella
522. Lichinodium
523. Lignoscripta
524. Lithoglypha
525. Lithographa
526. Lithogyalideopsis
527. Lithothelium
528. Llimonaea
529. Lobaria
530. Lobariella
531. Lobarina
532. Lobothallia
533. Loekoesia
534. Loflammia
535. Loflammiopsis
536. Logilvia
537. Lopacidia
538. Lopadium
539. Lopezaria
540. Loxospora
541. Loxosporopsis
542. Lueckingia
543. Lyromma
544. Magmopsis
545. Malcolmiella
546. Malmidea
547. Malmographina
548. Mangoldia
549. Marcelaria
550. Marchandiomphalina
551. Marchantiana
552. Marfloraea
553. Maronea
554. Maronella
555. Maronina[62][80]
556. Masonhalea
557. Massalongia
558. Mastodia
559. Mawsonia
560. Mazaediothecium
561. Mazosia
562. Megalaria
563. Megaloblastenia
564. Megalospora
565. Megalotremis
566. Megaspora
567. Melanelia
568. Melanelixia
569. Melanohalea
570. Melanolecia
571. Melanophloea
572. Melanotopelia
573. Melanotrema
574. Melarthonis
575. Melaspilea
576. Menegazzia (list)
577. Meridianelia
578. Metamelanea
579. Metus
580. Micarea
581. Microtheliopsis
582. Milospium
583. Miltidea
584. Minksia
585. Miriquidica
586. Mischoblastia
587. Mobergia
588. Monerolechia
589. Monoblastia
590. Montanelia
591. Moriola
592. Multiclavula
593. Multisporidea[81]
594. Mycobilimbia
595. Mycoblastus
596. Mycoporum
597. Myelochroa
598. Myeloconis
599. Myelorrhiza
600. Myriolecis
601. Myrionora
602. Myriospora
603. Myriostigma
604. Myochroidea
605. Nadvornikia
606. Nebularia
607. Neobrownliella[82]
608. Neocatapyrenium
609. Neophyllis
610. Neopsoromopsis
611. Neosergipea
612. Nephroma
613. Nephromopsis
614. Nevesia
615. Niebla
616. Nigrovothelium
617. Nipponoparmelia
618. Nitidochapsa
619. Nodobryoria
620. Normandina
621. Notocladonia
622. Notolecidea
623. Notoparmelia
624. Novomicrothelia
625. Nyungwea
626. Obscuroplaca[83]
627. Ocellomma
628. Ocellularia (list)
629. Ochrolechia
630. Oevstedalia
631. Olegblumia
632. Oletheriostrigula
633. Omphalodium
634. Omphalora
635. Opegrapha
636. Opeltia[84]
637. Ophioparma
638. Orceolina
639. Orcularia
640. Orientophila
641. Oropogon
642. Orphniospora
643. Oxnerella
644. Pachnolepia
645. Pachyascus
646. Pachypeltis
647. Pachyphysis
648. Palicella
649. Pallidogramme
650. Pannaria
651. Pannoparmelia
652. Parabagliettoa
653. Paracollema
654. Paragyalideopsis[85][86]
655. Paraingaderia
656. Parainoa
657. Paraporpidia
658. Paraschismatomma
659. Parasiphula
660. Paratopeliopsis
661. Paratricharia
662. Parmelia
663. Parmeliella
664. Parmelina
665. Parmelinella
666. Parmeliopsis
667. Parmostictina
668. Parmotrema (list)
669. Parmotremopsis
670. Parvoplaca
671. Paulia
672. Peccania
673. Pectenia
674. Peltigera
675. Peltula
676. Peltularia
677. Pentagenella
678. Pertusaria (list)
679. Petractis
680. Phaeographis
681. Phaeographopsis
682. Phaeophyscia
683. Phaeorrhiza
684. Phloeopeccania
685. Phlyctis
686. Phoebus
687. Phylliscidium
688. Phyllisciella
689. Phylliscidiopsis
690. Phylliscum
691. Phyllobaeis
692. Phyllobathelium
693. Phylloblastia
694. Phyllocratera
695. Phyllogyalidea
696. Phyllopsora
697. Physcia
698. Physcidia
699. Physciella
700. Physconia
701. Physma
702. Piccolia
703. Pilophorus
704. Placidiopsis
705. Placidium
706. Placocarpus
707. Placolecis
708. Placomaronea
709. Placopsis
710. Placopyrenium
711. Placothelium
712. Placynthiella
713. Placynthiopsis
714. Placynthium
715. Platismatia
716. Platygramme
717. Platythecium
718. Plectocarpon
719. Pleopsidium
720. Pleurosticta
721. Pliariona
722. Podostictina
723. Podotara
724. Poeltiaria
725. Poeltidea
726. Poeltinula
727. Polistroma
728. Polyblastia
729. Polyblastidium
730. Polycauliona
731. Polychidium
732. Polymeridium
733. Polypyrenula
734. Polysporina
735. Porina
736. Porocyphus
737. Porpidia
738. Porpidinia[42]
739. Protoblastenia
740. Protomicarea
741. Protopannaria
742. Protoparmelia
743. Protoparmeliopsis
744. Protoroccella[42]
745. Protothelenella
746. Protousnea
747. Psammina
748. Psathyrophlyctis
749. Pseudarctomia
750. Pseudephebe
751. Pseudevernia
752. Pseudobaeomyces
753. Pseudocalopadia
754. Pseudochapsa
755. Pseudocyphellaria
756. Pseudohepatica
757. Pseudoheppia
758. Pseudolecanactis
759. Pseudoleptogium
760. Pseudopannaria
761. Pseudoparmelia
762. Pseudopaulia
763. Pseudopeltula
764. Pseudopyrenula
765. Pseudoramonia
766. Pseudosagedia
767. Pseudoschismatomma
768. Pseudothelomma
769. Pseudotopeliopsis
770. Psilolechia
771. Psiloparmelia
772. Psora
773. Psorinia
774. Psoroglaena
775. Psoroma
776. Psoromella
777. Psoromidium[42]
778. Psoronactis
779. Psorotheciopsis
780. Psorotichia
781. Psorula
782. Pterygiopsis
783. Ptychographa
784. Pulvinodecton
785. Pulvinora[87]
786. Punctelia
787. Punctonora
788. Puttea
789. Pycnora
790. Pycnothelia
791. Pycnotrema
792. Pyrenocarpon
793. Pyrenocollema
794. Pyrenodesmia
795. Pyrenopsis
796. Pyrenothrix
797. Pyrenowilmsia
798. Pyrenula (list)
799. Pyrgillus
800. Pyrrhospora
801. Pyxine
802. Racodium
803. Racoleus
804. Raesaeneniana
805. Ramalea
806. Ramalina
807. Ramalodium
808. Ramboldia
809. Ramonia
810. Redingeria
811. Redonia
812. Redonographa
813. Rehmanniella[88]
814. Reichlingia
815. Reimnitzia
816. Relicina
817. Remototrachyna
818. Requienella
819. Rhabdodiscus
820. Rhabdopsora
821. Rhaphidicyrtis
822. Rhexophiale
823. Rhizocarpon
824. Rhizolecia
825. Rhizoplaca
826. Ricasolia
827. Rimularia
828. Rinodina (list)
829. Rinodinella
830. Robergea
831. Rocella
832. Roccellographa
833. Roccellina
834. Roccellinastrum
835. Rockefellera[89]
836. Rolfidium
837. Rolueckia
838. Romjularia
839. Ropalospora
840. Rostania
841. Rubrotricha
842. Rufoplaca
843. Rusavskia
844. Sagedia
845. Sagema
846. Sagenidiopsis
847. Sagiolechia
848. Sanguinotrema
849. Santessonia
850. Sarcographa
851. Sarcographina
852. Sarcogyne
853. Sarcosagium
854. Sarea
855. Sarrameana
856. Savoronala
857. Schadonia
858. Schaereria
859. Schismatomma
860. Schistophoron
861. Schizodiscus
862. Schizopelte
863. Schizotrema
864. Schizoxylon
865. Sclerococcum
866. Sclerophora
867. Sclerophyton
868. Scleropyrenium
869. Scoliciosporum
870. Sculptolumina
871. Scutaria
872. Scytinium
873. Sedelnikovaea
874. Segestria
875. Seirophora
876. Semigyalecta
877. Semiomphalina
878. Septotrapelia
879. Servitia
880. Shackletonia
881. Sigridea
882. Simonyella
883. Sipmaniella
884. Siphula
885. Siphulastrum
886. Siphulella
887. Sipmania
888. Sirenophila
889. Snippocia[90][73]
890. Solenopsora
891. Solitaria
892. Solorina
893. Solorinaria
894. Sparria
895. Speerschneidera
896. Sphaerophorus
897. Sphaerophoropsis
898. Spheconisca
899. Sphinctrinopsis
900. Spilonema
901. Sporastatia
902. Sporodictyon
903. Sporodophoron
904. Sporopodiopsis
905. Sporopodium
906. Sporostigma
907. Sprucidea[91][80]
908. Squamarina
909. Squamella
910. Squamulea
911. Staurospora[92][93]
912. Staurolemma
913. Staurothele
914. Stegobolus
915. Steinera
916. Steineropsis
917. Steinia
918. Stellarangia
919. Stenhammarella
920. Stephanocyclos
921. Stereocaulon
922. Sticta
923. Stictis
924. Stigmatochroma
925. Stigmidium
926. Strangospora
927. Streimannia
928. Streimanniella
929. Stirtonia
930. Stirtoniella
931. Strigula
932. Stromatella
933. Sulcaria
934. Sulcopyrenula
935. Sulzbacheromyces
936. Synalissa
937. Synarthonia
938. Synarthothelium
939. Syncesia
940. Szczawinskia
941. Tania
942. Tapellaria
943. Tapellariopsis
944. Tarasginia
945. Tarbertia
946. Tasmidella
947. Tassiloa
948. Tayloriellina
949. Teloschistes
950. Teloschistopsis
951. Tenuitholiascus[94][45]
952. Tephromela
953. Tetramelas
954. Teuvoa
955. Texosporium
956. Thallinocarpon
957. Thalloloma
958. Thamnochrolechia
959. Thamnolecania
960. Thamnolia
961. Thecaria
962. Thecographa
963. Thelenella
964. Thelenidia
965. Thelidiopsis
966. Thelignya
967. Thelliana
968. Thelocarpon
969. Thelomma
970. Thelopsis
971. Thelotrema
972. Thermutis
973. Thermutopsis
974. Tholurna
975. Thrombium
976. Thyrea
977. Thysanothecium
978. Tibellia
979. Timdalia
980. Tingiopsidium
981. Toensbergia
982. Toninia
983. Toniniopsis
984. Topelia
985. Topeliopsis
986. Tornabea
987. Trapelia
988. Trapeliopsis
989. Traponora
990. Tremolecia
991. Tremotylium[42]
992. Tricharia
993. Trichothelium
994. Trimmatothele
995. Trimmatothelopsis
996. Trinathotrema
997. Trizodia
998. Trypetheliopsis
999. Trypethelium
1000. Tuckermanella
1001. Tuckermanopsis
1002. Tylophorella
1003. Tylophoron
1004. Tylophoropsis
1005. Tylothallia
1006. Umbilicaria
1007. Upretia[95]
1008. Usnea
1009. Usnocetraria
1010. Usnochroma
1011. Vahliella
1012. Vainionora
1013. Varicellaria
1014. Variospora
1015. Verrucaria (list)
1016. Verruculopsis
1017. Verseghya[96]
1018. Vezdaea
1019. Vigneronia
1020. Villophora
1021. Violella
1022. Viridothelium
1023. Vulpicida
1024. Wadeana
1025. Wahlenbergiella
1026. Watsoniomyces[97]
1027. Wawea
1028. Waynea
1029. Wetmoreana
1030. Willeya
1031. Wirthiotrema
1032. Xalocoa
1033. Xanthocarpia
1034. Xanthomendoza
1035. Xanthoparmelia (list)
1036. Xanthopeltis
1037. Xanthopsorella
1038. Xanthoria
1039. Xenolecia
1040. Xenus
1041. Xyleborus
1042. Xylographa
1043. Xyloschistes
1044. Xylospora
1045. Yarrumia
1046. Yoshimuria
1047. Yoshimuriella
1048. Zahlbrucknerella
1049. Zeroviella
1050. Zwackhia

#### Species

In 2009, taxonomists estimated that the total number of lichen species (including those yet undiscovered) might be as high as 28,000.[98] By 2016, 19,387 species of lichens had been described and widely accepted.[99]

### Lichens, by growth form

Xanthoria parietina has the leafy-looking growth of a foliose lichen.[100]

Lichen growth forms – These vary depending on the species:

* Crustose – paint-like appearance that adheres tightly to the underlying substrate.[101]
* Areolate – crustose, but divided into rounded or polygonal pieces by means of cracks.[102]
* Leprose – powdery or granular appearance.[102]
* Calicioid – crustose growth with small fruiting bodies which resemble sewing pins.[103]
* Placodioid – crustose in the centre and lobed at the periphery.[102]
* Foliose – flattened, leafy appearance.[102]
* Fruticose – shrubby, bush-like or coral-like appearance.[102]
* Byssoid – wispy, with the appearance of teased wool.[104]
* Filamentous – thin, threadlike growth, often with a matted appearance.[105]
* Gelatinous – jelly-like interior, due to presence of cyanobacteria.[106]
* Squamulose – scaly, sometimes leafy appearance; can resemble a foliose lichen but usually has no outer cortex.[107]
* Cladoniform – squamulose, but with fruticose podetia.[108]

### Lichens, by substrate

Saxicolous lichens are those which grow on stone.[109]

Lichens can be classified by the substrate on which they grow:

* Bryophilous lichen – on mosses or liverworts.[109]
* Hepaticolous lichen – on liverworts.[110]
* Muscicolous lichen – on mosses.[111]
* Corticolous lichen – on bark.[109]
* Ramicolous lichen – on twigs.[111]
* Foliicolous lichen – on plant leaves.[109]
* Epiphyllous lichen – on the upper surface of a leaf.[112]
* Hypophyllous lichen – on the lower surface of a leaf.[112]
* Lichenicolous lichen – on other lichens.[109]
* Lignicolous lichen – on wood stripped of bark.[109]
* Omnicolous lichen – on a variety of substrates.[111]
* Plasticolous lichen – on plastic.[113]
* Saxicolous lichen – on stone.[109]
* Endolithic lichen – within stone.[22]
* Terricolous lichen – on soil.[111]
* Vagrant lichen – loose, on no substrate.[114]

### Lichens, by region

Namibia's vast deserts, which hold many species of lichen, remain largely unsurveyed.[115]

#### Africa

* List of lichens of Madagascar
* List of lichens of Namibia

#### Antarctica

#### Asia

* List of lichens of Sri Lanka

#### Australia

* List of lichens of Western Australia

#### Europe

* List of lichens of Sweden

#### North America

* List of lichens of Maryland
* List of lichens of Soldiers Delight – lichens of a nature reserve in Maryland
* List of lichen species of Montana
* Lichens of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.)

#### Oceania

#### Pacific

#### South America

## Photobiont

The photobiont in most lichens is a green alga, particularly those from the genus Trebouxia.[6]

Photobiont – the photosynthetic partner in a lichen.[116]

* Cyanolichen – a lichen with a cyanobacteria photobiont.[117]
* List of lichen photobionts

## Lichen metabolites

Further information: Biology:Secondary metabolite

Lichen product – organic products, known as secondary metabolites, produced by lichens; these provide a variety of protections for the lichen – from microbes, viruses, herbivores, radiation, oxidants and more.[118]

* List of lichen products

Chemical spot tests on the foliose lichen Punctelia borreri showing thallus (top) and medulla (bottom). The pinkish-red colour change of the medulla in the C and KC tests indicate the presence of gyrophoric acid, a chemical feature that helps to distinguish this lichen from similar species in the same genus.[119]

## Study of lichens

Lichenology – the study of lichens.[120]

* Acharius Medal – awarded for lifetime achievement in lichenology.[121]
* Evolution of lichens – lichenization of fungi has occurred multiple times, and several pathways towards acquiring photobionts have arisen.
* List of fossil lichens
* Exsiccata (plural exsiccatae) – a published set of preserved specimens, numbered and distributed with printed labels.[122]
* History of lichenology
* Lichenometry – a process where measuring the growth of a lichen colony over time can be used to estimate the minimum age of the substrate on which it is growing.[123]
* Spot test (lichen) – chemical tests used to aid in species identification.[124]

## Threats

* Lichenicolous fungus – parasitic fungus that uses lichens as a host.[125]

* List of lichenicolous fungi

* Lichens as bioindicators – lichens are sensitive to various pollutants and can be thus be used as bioindicators.[126]

* Lichens and air pollution – many lichens are sensitive to various forms of air pollution.[127]
* Lichens and climate change – the inability of algae to quickly evolve means that climate change may adversely impact lichens.[128]

## Lichens in culture

Two baked loaves of Bryoria fremontii, an important traditional food for some First Nations people[129]

* Cultural depictions of lichens
* Trouble with Lichen – science fiction novel by John Wyndham in which lichens play a major role.[130]
* Edible lichen – some lichens have traditionally been used as food.[131]
* Ethnolichenology – a branch of ethnobotany that studies human usage of lichens.[132]

### Lichen organizations

* American Bryological and Lichenological Society (ABLS)

* The Bryologist – peer-reviewed journal published by ABLS.

* Australasian Lichen Society

* Australasian Lichenology – official publication of the Australasian Lichen Society.

* British Lichen Society (BLS)

* The Lichenologist – peer-reviewed journal published by the BLS.

* Bryological and Lichenological Association for Central Europe (BLAM)

* Herzogia – peer-reviewed journal published by BLAM.

* Bryological and Lichenological Working Group (Bryologische en Lichenologische Werkgroep, BLWG)

* Buxbaumiella – peer-reviewed journal published by BLWG.

* Dutch Bryological and Lichenological Society

* Lindbergia – peer-reviewed journal co-published by the Dutch Bryological and Lichenological Society and the Nordic Bryological Society.

* Indian Lichenological Society
* International Association for Lichenology (IAL)
* Nordic Bryological Society

#### Independent lichenological journals

* Asian Journal of Mycology – an international peer-reviewed journal published by Mae Fah Luang University in Thailand.
* Bibliotheca Lichenologica – scientific monographs on lichens and mosses.
* Hattoria – an international, peer-reviewed journal issued by Hattori Botanical Laboratory.
* International Journal of Mycology and Lichenology

## See also

* Glossary of lichen terms

## Citations

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2. ↑ Cambridge Dictionary.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Favor 2005, p. 5.
4. ↑ Laundon 1986, p. 3.
5. ↑ Li et al. 2021, p. evab101.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Purvis 2000, p. 9.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Laundon 1986, p. 2.
8. ↑ Honegger 1998, p. 197.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 758.
10. ↑ Baron 1999, p. 14.
11. ↑ Hawksworth, Sutton & Ainsworth 1983, p. 26.
12. ↑ Silverstein, Silverstein & Silverstein 1996, p. 32.
13. ↑ Smith et al. 2009, p. 22.
14. ↑ Smith et al. 2009, p. 30.
15. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 756.
16. ↑ Hale 1983, pp. 3, 6.
17. ↑ Smith et al. 2009, p. 36.
18. ↑ Smith et al. 2009, p. 24.
19. ↑ Hawksworth, Sutton & Ainsworth 1983, p. 330.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Smith et al. 2009, p. 38.
21. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 763.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 757.
23. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 759.
24. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 760.
25. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 761.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Henriksson & Simu 1971, p. 119.
27. ↑ Smith et al. 2020, p. 134.
28. ↑ Bowler & Rundel 1975, p. 328.
29. ↑ Bowler & Rundel 1975, p. 326–327.
30. ↑ Galloway 2012, p. 315.
31. ↑ Zakeri et al. 2022, p. 80.
32. ↑ Chen, Blume & Beyer 2000, p. 124.
33. ↑ Green et al. 2018, p. 397.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Wijayawardene et al. 2022.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 377–400.
36. ↑ Bendre 2010, p. 131.
37. ↑ Lepp 2014.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 371.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Kraichak et al. 2018a.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Kraichak et al. 2018b.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 162.
42. ↑ 42.00 42.01 42.02 42.03 42.04 42.05 42.06 42.07 42.08 42.09 42.10 Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2017, p. 58.
43. ↑ Gamundí & Spinedi 1985, p. 112.
44. ↑ Jiang et al. 2020, p. 11.
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 124.
46. ↑ Lendemer, Harris & Ruiz 2016, p. 26.
47. ↑ Lücking & Kalb 2018, p. 353.
48. ↑ Wilk et al. 2021, p. 289.
49. ↑ Aptroot, Sparrius & Alvarado 2018, p. 12.
50. ↑ Wilk et al. 2021, p. 292.
51. ↑ Spribille et al. 2020, p. 85.
52. ↑ Kantvilas, Wedin & Svensson 2021, p. 400.
53. ↑ Divakar et al. 2017, p. 110.
54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 150.
55. ↑ Diederich & Ertz 2020, p. 22.
56. ↑ Kistenich et al. 2018, p. 871.
57. ↑ Fryday et al. 2020, p. 473.
58. ↑ Wilk et al. 2021, p. 293.
59. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2019, p. 295.
60. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 79.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 156.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 Divakar et al. 2017, p. 109.
63. ↑ Ertz et al. 2017, p. 131.
64. ↑ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 159.
65. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 86.
66. ↑ Simon et al. 2020, p. 82.
67. ↑ Sobreira et al. 2018, p. 67.
68. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 87.
69. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 90.
70. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 91.
71. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 96.
72. ↑ Grube, Matzer & Hafellner 1995, p. 28.
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 89.
74. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 97.
75. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 105.
76. ↑ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 98.
77. ↑ Sodamuk et al. 2017, p. 15.
78. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2021, p. 372.
79. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2021, p. 375.
80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 149.
81. ↑ Kalb & Aptroot 2021, p. 5.
82. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2015, p. 328.
83. ↑ Bungartz, Søchting & Arup 2021.
84. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2017, p. 112.
85. ↑ Etayo 2017, p. 335.
86. ↑ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 160.
87. ↑ Davydov et al. 2021, p. 245.
88. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 107.
89. ↑ Lendemer, Stone & Tripp 2017, p. 459.
90. ↑ Ertz et al. 2018, p. 170.
91. ↑ Cáceres et al. 2017, p. 206.
92. ↑ Wijayawardene et al. 2022, p. 38.
93. ↑ Grube 2018, p. 695.
94. ↑ Jiang et al. 2020, p. 1.
95. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2018, p. 24.
96. ↑ Kondratyuk et al. 2016, p. 104.
97. ↑ Díaz-Escandón et al. 2021, p. 501.
98. ↑ Lücking et al. 2009, p. 411.
99. ↑ Lücking, Hodkinson & Leavitt 2016, p. 370.
100. ↑ Dobson 2011, p. 470.
101. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 16.
102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 102.3 102.4 The British Lichen Society 2022a.
103. ↑ Temu et al. 2019, p. 1.
104. ↑ Kantvilas 1996, p. 229.
105. ↑ Dobson 2011, p. 26.
106. ↑ Sanders 2001, p. 1033.
107. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 17.
108. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 18.
109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 109.3 109.4 109.5 109.6 The British Lichen Society 2022b.
110. ↑ Lendemer, Buck & Harris 2016, p. 441.
111. ↑ 111.0 111.1 111.2 111.3 Upreti & Rai 2013, p. 2.
112. ↑ 112.0 112.1 Lücking 2008, p. 4.
113. ↑ Lücking 1998, p. 287.
114. ↑ Rosentreter 1993, p. 333.
115. ↑ Schultz, Zedda & Rambold 2009, p. 315.
116. ↑ Purvis 2000, p. 5.
117. ↑ Rikkinen 2015, p. 973.
118. ↑ Goga et al. 2018, p. 1.
119. ↑ Truong & Clerc 2003, p. 52.
120. ↑ Merriam-Webster.
121. ↑ International Association for Lichenology.
122. ↑ Pfister 1985, p. 1.
123. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 84.
124. ↑ Brodo, Sharnoff & Sharnoff 2001, p. 103.
125. ↑ Lawrey & Diederich 2003, p. 80.
126. ↑ Nimis, Scheidegger & Wolseley 2002.
127. ↑ Oliver 2011, p. 1.
128. ↑ Field Museum 2022.
129. ↑ Turner 1977, p. 461.
130. ↑ Penguin Books.
131. ↑ Ivanova & Ivanov 2009, p. 11.
132. ↑ Vinayaka & Krishnamurthy 2012, p. 265.

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## External links

* About Lichens, from the British Lichen Society
* Australian Lichens, from the Australian National Herbarium and Australian National Botanic Gardens
* Lichen Basics, from the North American Mycological Association

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline of lichens. Read more

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*[pl.]: plural form