Peach

The peach (Prunus persica) is a deciduous tree that bears edible juicy fruits with various characteristics. Most are simply called peaches, while the glossy-skinned, non-fuzzy varieties are called nectarines. Though from the same species, they are regarded commercially as different fruits.

The tree is regarded as handsome and is planted in gardens for its springtime blooms in addition to fruit production. It is relatively short lived, usually not exceeding twenty years of age. Peaches were first domesticated and cultivated in China during the Neolithic period. The specific name persica refers to its widespread cultivation in Persia (modern-day Iran), from where it was transplanted to Europe. It belongs to the genus Prunus, which also includes the cherry, apricot, almond, and plum, and which is part of the rose family.

The peach is very popular; only the apple and pear have higher production amounts for temperate fruits. In 2023, China produced 65% of the world total of peaches and nectarines. Other leading countries, such as Spain, Turkey, Italy, the U.S., and Iran lag far behind China, with none producing more than 5% of the world total. The fruit is regarded as a symbol of longevity in China.

## Contents

* 1 Description
* 1.1 Flowering
* 1.2 Fruit
* 2 Taxonomy
* 2.1 Fossil record
* 2.2 Names
* 3 Distribution
* 4 Cultivation
* 4.1 History
* 4.1.1 In the Americas
* 4.2 Growing conditions
* 4.3 Storage
* 4.4 Insects
* 4.5 Diseases
* 4.6 Cultivars
* 4.6.1 Nectarines
* 4.6.2 Other varieties
* 4.7 Production
* 5 Nutrition
* 6 Phytochemicals
* 7 In culture
* 8 Notes
* 9 References
* 10 Sources
* 10.1 Books
* 10.2 Journals
* 10.3 News
* 10.4 Web
* 11 External links

## Description

The peach is a deciduous tree or tree like shrub that may rarely grow to as much as 10 metres (33 ft)* tall, but is more typically 3 m (10 ft) with large specimens reaching 4 m (13 ft).[1][2] The spread of the crown is similar to the height, ranging from 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft).[3] They do not produce suckers or have thorns.[1] The root system is deep, with the roots continuing to grow during the winter season.[3][4]

Unlike apples, the size of peach trees is not generally controlled by dwarfing rootstocks in commercial orchards.[5] A great variety of growth habits have been selected including columnar, dwarf, spreading, and weeping.[3] In order to have a single trunk, trees must pruned and likewise the branches have a tendency to droop over time and must be trained to allow for access under the tree.[6]

The bark on the trunk and branches is dark gray with horizontal lenticels. It becomes more scaly and rough as the tree becomes older.[7] Twigs on peach trees have a smooth, hairless surface, the bark is usually red, but may be green on the sides not exposed to the sun.[8] As they become older, branchlets weather to become gray in color.[9] Twigs have true terminal buds at their ends.[1]

Peach leaves are oblong to lanceolate, having sides nearly parallel until tapering at end and base or shaped like the head of a spear.[1] The widest portion of the leaf is midway or further towards the leaf tip.[8] Each leaf folds along the central rib of the leaf and is often curved, usually 7–15 centimetres (3–6 in)* long and 2–4.5 cm (1–2 in) wide, though occasionally they may be shorter.[1] The surface of the leaves is smooth and hairless, but the leaf stem sometimes has glands.[8] The edges of the leaves have serrated edges with blunt teeth.[1] The teeth have a reddish-brown gland at the tip.[10] Leaves are attached to the twigs by petioles, leaf stems. They are strong and measure 1 to 2 cm. They can have one or more extrafloral nectaries.[11]

### Flowering

Flowers on peach trees are either solitary or in groups of two, usually blooming before the leaves begin to grow.[8] They may range in shades from white to red,[9] but having pink or red flowers 2–3.5 cm in width is typical of cultivars selected for their fruit.[8] Trees grown as ornamentals may have double flowers, semi-doubled flowers, or bicolored forms.[12] Each flower has four or five petals and is somewhat cup-shaped with the petals curving to shelter the flower's center.[7] Each flower will have 20 to 30 stamens and purple-red anthers at their ends. The single style is nearly as long as the stamens.[11] The flowers are self-fertile and outcross at about 5%.[13]

The bloom period is in the early spring, often cut short by frosts, in February, March, April, or May depending on location.[14][9] In New Zealand and the southern hemisphere, blooming occurs in August to October.[15]

### Fruit

Trees can begin producing fruit in the two or three years after sprouting.[16] Because of the hardness of the seed casing, peaches are called stone fruits like the others in the Prunus genus, but are more formally called drupes.[3] Fruits range in color from greenish white to orange yellow, usually with a blush of red on the side of the fruit most exposed to the sun. Their shape varies widely from a flattened sphere resembling a doughnut, egg-shaped, or a slightly compressed sphere usually with a seam on one side. A normal diameter for a fruit is between 5 and 7 centimeters (2 and 3 in), but sometimes may be as small as 3 cm (1.2 in) or as large as 12 cm (4.7 in).[11]

The flesh is quite variable in color from greenish-white to white to yellow to dark red.[17] The texture can vary from soft to stone hard.[18] The growth of the fruit is a double-sigmoid growth curve: a beginning quick period of development followed by a resting period of little growth, and then a second period of rapid maturation.[19] The seed is much larger and less round than the seeds of its closest fruit relatives.[20] Unlike the pit of an almond, which is only pitted, the peach pit has a stony exterior which is both pitted and deeply furrowed.[15]

*   * Peach blossoms

*   * Gray bark on trunk with lenticels

* Incipient fruit development

*   * Color and grain of peach wood

* Diagram of fruit and seed

*   *

## Taxonomy

File:The peaches of New York (1917) (14780111494).jpg'Crosby' cultivar in The Peaches of New York, 1917[21]

The peach tree was given the name Amygdalus persica by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 in his book Species plantarum. The accepted combination Prunus persica was published by August Batsch in 1801,[22] though this was far from settled until the 20th century with many different placements of the peach and even divisions of nectarines and flat peaches into different species. The botanist Ulysses Prentiss Hedrick argued persuasively in 1917 that these differences are merely simple mutations and not species or even varieties beginning consensus towards the modern classification.[23] This was supported by breeding experiments as early as 1906 showing the hairlessness of nectarines is a recessive trait,[24] though sometimes alternative names continue to be used even in the 21st Century with Amygdalus persica being used as recently as 2003 in an authoritative scientific publication.[11] More than 200 scientific names have been published that are considered synonyms of Prunus persica by Plants of the World Online (POWO).[22] Though the majority of sources agree on its classification as Prunus persica, there is division on the correct author citation for the name. Most sources, such as POWO,[22] World Flora Online,[10] and the Flora of North America give August Batsch credit.[1] However, a few sources such as World Plants maintained by the botanist Michael Hassler instead credit Jonathan Stokes with priority dated to 1812.[25]

Prunus persica is classified in Prunus with other stone fruits within the rose family, Rosaceae.[10] The further classification into a subgenus or section is disputed. The work of Alfred Rehder, published in 1940, has been widely used to group the species of Prunus.[26] Rehder based his system largely on that of Bernhard Adalbert Emil Koehne with the peach placed with the almond in subgenus Amygdalus because similarities in the rough and pitted stone.[27] However, since 2000 studies of nuclear and chloroplast DNA have shown that the five subgenera accepted by Rehder are not more closely related to each other than to other species in Prunus.[26] In 2013 Shuo Shi and collaborators published research where they proposed it be part of subgenus Prunus together with the plums and cherries, but in a section named Persicae, now corrected to Persica.[28] However, these groupings are not yet widely accepted.[26]

The greatest genetic diversity in peaches is found in China, where it is generally agreed to have been domesticated.[29] The species is often thought to be a cultigen, a taxon that has its origins in cultivation rather than as a wild species.[22][30]

Prunus kansuensis (left), Prunus persica, feral type (center), and Prunus davidiana var. davidiana (right)

The closest relatives of the peach are the Chinese bush peach (Prunus kansuensis), Chinese wild peach (Prunus davidiana), the smooth stone peach (Prunus mira).[31] Though Charles Darwin speculated that the peach might be a marvelous modification of the almond (Prunus amygdalus), research into the divergence of peach relatives shows this not to be the case. The almond, while in the same genus, is confirmed to be a more distant relative.[32]

In April 2010, an international consortium, the International Peach Genome Initiative, which includes researchers from the United States, Italy, Chile, Spain, and France, announced they had sequenced the peach tree genome (doubled haploid Lovell). In 2013 they published the peach genome sequence and related analyses. The sequence is composed of 227 million nucleotides arranged in eight pseudomolecules representing the eight peach chromosomes (2n = 16). In addition, 27,852 protein-coding genes and 28,689 protein-coding transcripts were predicted.[33]

Particular emphasis in this study is reserved for the analysis of the genetic diversity in peach germplasm and how it was shaped by human activities such as domestication and breeding. Major historical bottlenecks were found, one related to the putative original domestication that is supposed to have taken place in China about 4,000–5,000 years ago, the second is related to the western germplasm and is due to the early dissemination of the peach in Europe from China and the more recent breeding activities in the United States and Europe. These bottlenecks highlighted the substantial reduction of genetic diversity associated with domestication and breeding activities.[33]

Though not a separate grouping genetically, nectarines are regarded as different fruits commercially. The difference is the lack of fuzz, the trichomes, on the skin of the fruits.[34] Research into the cause of this trait found the transcription factor gene PpeMYB25 regulates the formation of trichomes on peach fruits. A mutation can cause a loss of function resulting in the changed fruit type.[35]

### Fossil record

Fossil endocarps with characteristics indistinguishable from those of modern peaches have been recovered from late Pliocene deposits in Kunming, dating to 2.6 million years ago. In the absence of evidence that the plants were in other ways identical to the modern peach, the name Prunus kunmingensis has been assigned to these fossils.[36] Genetic evidence supports a very early emergence of edibility in the wild ancestors of the peach.[37]

### Names

File:Amygdalus persica Mann.jpgFrom Deutschlands wildwachsende Arzney-Pflanzen (Germany's Wild Medicinal Plants), 1828

The genus name Prunus is from the Latin for plum. The specific name persica was given by Linnaeus because European botanists of the 1700s and 1800s continued to believe the Roman accounts of peaches originating in Persia to be correct.[38]

The modern English word, and its cognates in many European languages such as the German Pfirsich and Finnish persikka, have Latin origins.[39] In ancient Rome the peach was called persicum malum or simply persicum meaning 'Persian apple'.[40] This became the Late Latin pessica and in turn the medieval pesca. In Old French it was variously the peche, pesche, or peske. The first usage in England was as the surname Pecche in about 1184–1185.[41] The French word was directly adopted into English to mean the fruit and spelled either pechis or peches around the year 1400. In 1605 the first known instance of the modern spelling of peach was published.[42]

The various cultivars of peach with smooth-skinned fruits are called nectarines. This word was coined by English speakers, originally as an adjective meaning 'nectar-like', from nectar and the suffix -ine, with the first use in print in 1611.[43][44]

## Distribution

Peach trees blooming along the Yarlung Zangbo River, south-eastern Tibetan Plateau

The exact place of origin for the domestic peach is unknown. Based on archeology from the 2010s, East China near the Yangtze Delta has emerged as a likely candidate and contradicting the theory of domestication in Northwestern China.[45][38] Many sources since the 1980s have listed North China as its likely place of origin.[22][30] They are now naturalized in many other parts of Asia. It grows throughout eastern China and into Inner Mongolia. To the east they are found on the Korean Peninsula and in Japan. To the south they are found in Vietnam and Laos. In the Indian subcontinent are reported in the Eastern Himalayas and nearby Assam province, but not Nepal, parts of central India, Pakistan, and the Western Himalayas. Westwards they are an introduced species in Afghanistan, Iran, and all the countries of Central Asia. Transitioning to Europe they grow in the North Caucasus, Transcaucasus, and Turkey.[22]

In Europe, the peach trees are partly naturalized. In western Europe they are found in Portugal, Spain, France, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. In central Europe they are reported as escaped from cultivation in Germany, Hungary, and Switzerland and in Corsica, Sardinia, Italy, Cyprus, and Greece in the south.[22] In the southeast they grow as introduced plants in Slovenia, Croatia, Romania, and Bulgaria.[25][22] To the east they are found in parts of European Russia, Ukraine, and Crimea.[22]

File:Prunus persica - Starr 03.jpgFeral peach Waiale Gulch, Maui, Hawaii

Peach trees have escaped from cultivation in the African nations of Libya, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, and the Cape Verde Islands off the northeast coast. Specific areas of South Africa include the biogeographic areas of the Northern Provinces, Orange Free State, and KwaZulu-Natal.[22]

In North America, in addition to cultivation, peach saplings are often found growing anywhere pits have been discarded. Most of these feral trees are short lived, but some have established naturalized populations.[1] Such escapes are reported in the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Nova Scotia.[46] Trees outside of cultivation have been found in all of the United States east of the Mississippi excluding Minnesota, Vermont, and New Hampshire. In the northwest, they are found in Oregon and Idaho.[47] In the Southwestern United States, they are to some extent naturalized from California to Texas, with the exception of Nevada. The situation is similar in the northwest of Mexico and El Salvador in Central America.[22] In South America, escapees are only reported from Ecuador and the northeast of Argentina.[22]

In Australia, it is naturalized in the states of New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia.[48] In New Zealand, it can be found as an escapee from cultivation on both the North Island and South Island, especially around Auckland, Christchurch, and in the Otago region.[15] It is also naturalized on many oceanic islands including the Mariana Islands, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Réunion, and Saint Helena.[22]

## Cultivation

### History

Dried date, peach, apricot, and stones from Lahun, Fayum, Egypt, Late Middle Kingdom, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London

Although its botanical name Prunus persica refers to Persia, peaches originated in China,[49] where they have been cultivated since the Neolithic period.[50] From the 1980s to the 2010s it was believed that cultivation started around 2000 BCE.[51][52] In 2014 new research was published showing that domestication occurred as early as 6000 BCE in Zhejiang Province on the central east coast of China. The oldest archaeological peach stones are from the Kuahuqiao site near Hangzhou. Archaeologists point to the Yangtze River Valley as the place where the early selection for favorable peach varieties probably took place.[53]

A domesticated peach appeared very early in Japan, in 4700–4400 BCE, during the Jōmon period. It was already similar to modern cultivated forms, where the peach stones are significantly larger and more compressed than earlier stones. This domesticated type of peach was brought into Japan from China. Nevertheless, in China itself, this variety is currently attested only at a later date around 3300 to 2300 BCE.[54]

In India, the peach first appeared sometime between 2500 and 1700 BCE, during the Harappan period in the Kashmir.[55] It was found elsewhere in West Asia in ancient times.[56] Peach cultivation reached Greece by 300 BCE.[52] Alexander the Great is sometimes said to have introduced them into Greece after conquering Persia, but no historical evidence for this claim has been found.[57] Peaches were, however, well known to the Romans in the first century CE;[52] the oldest known artistic representations of the fruit are in two fragments of wall paintings, dated to the first century CE, in Herculaneum, preserved due to the Vesuvius eruption of 79 CE, and now held in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples.[58] Archaeological finds show that peaches were cultivated widely in Roman northwestern Continental Europe, but production collapsed around the sixth century; some revival of production followed with the Carolingian Renaissance of the ninth century.[59]

File:Peach house at scone palace.jpgIllustration of the peach-house at Scone Palace, Scotland

An article on peach tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.[60] The peach was brought to the Americas by Spanish explorers in the 16th century, and eventually made it to England and France in the 17th century, where it was a prized and expensive treat. Although Thomas Jefferson had peach trees at Monticello, American farmers did not begin commercial production until the 19th century in Maryland, Delaware, Georgia, South Carolina, and finally Virginia.[61]

The Shanghai honey nectar peach was a key component of both the food culture and agrarian economy the area where the modern megacity of Shanghai stands. Peaches were the cornerstone of early Shanghai's garden culture. As modernization and westernization swept through the city the Shanghai honey nectar peach nearly disappeared completely. Much of modern Shanghai is built over these gardens and peach orchards.[62]

The first European botanist to argue that the peach did not originate in Persia was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle in 1855. He argued on the basis of it not being mentioned by Xenophon in 401 BCE or by other early sources that it could not have arrived there much before it was imported to Rome in the 100s BCE. An important western botanist to argue for a Chinese origin of the species was Ulysses Prentiss Hedrick in 1917. Chinese literature records the fruit for at least 1,000 years before its appearance in Europe.[63]

#### In the Americas

Peaches were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by the Spanish. By 1580, peaches were being grown in Latin America and were cultivated by the remnants of the Inca Empire in Argentina.[64]

File:Drying Peaches at Isleta (NBY 6209).jpgDrying peaches at Pueblo of Isleta, New Mexico c. 1900

In the United States the peach was soon adopted as a crop by American Indians. In the eastern U.S. the peach became naturalized and abundant as a feral species.[65] Peaches were being grown in Virginia as early as 1629. Peaches grown by Indians in Virginia were said to have been "of greater variety and finer sorts" than those of the English colonists. Also in 1629, peaches were listed as a crop in New Mexico.[66] William Penn noted the existence of wild peaches in Pennsylvania in 1683.[67] In fact, peaches may have already spread to the American Southeast by the early to mid 1600s, actively cultivated by indigenous communities such as the Muscogee before permanent Spanish settlement of the region.[68]

Peach plantations became an objective of American military campaigns against the Indians. In 1779, the Sullivan Expedition destroyed the livelihood of many of the Iroquois people of New York. Among the crops destroyed were plantations of peach trees.[69] In 1864, Kit Carson led a successful U.S. army expedition to Canyon de Chelly in Arizona to destroy the livelihood of the Navajo. Carson destroyed thousands of peach trees. A soldier said they were the "best peach trees I have ever seen in the country, every one of them bearing fruit."[70] The Navajo signed a treaty with the US government in 1868 and were able to return to the canyon. They had saved peach pits and some trees resprouted from stumps and so by the 1870s and 1880s many peach orchards had been restored.[71]

### Growing conditions

File:A peach orchard in spring.jpgPeach orchard, Northern Greece

Peaches are easiest to grow in dry, continental or temperate climates, with conditions of high humidity greatly increasing diseases and pests in subtropics and tropics.[18] In addition the trees have a chilling requirement. Most cultivars require 600 to 1,000 hours of chilling at temperatures between 4 and 10 °C (40 and 50 °F). During the chilling period, key chemical reactions occur, but the plant appears dormant. Temperatures under −1 °C (30 °F) are ineffective for fulfilling the chilling requirement. Once the chilling period is fulfilled, the plant enters a second type of dormancy, the quiescence period. During quiescence, buds break and grow when sufficient warm weather favorable to growth is accumulated.[72] The chilling requirement is not satisfied in tropical or subtropical areas except at high altitudes with low-chill cultivars, some which require less than 100 hours of suitable temperatures.[73]

A peach flower with a bee pollinating it

The trees themselves can usually tolerate temperatures to around −26 to −30 °C (−15 to −22 °F), although the following season's flower buds are usually killed at these temperatures, preventing a crop that summer. Flower bud death begins to occur between −15 and −25 °C (5 and −13 °F), depending on the cultivar and on the timing of the cold, with the buds becoming less cold tolerant in late winter.[74] Another climate constraint is spring frost. The trees flower fairly early and the blossom is damaged or killed if temperatures drop below about −1.1 °C (30.0 °F). If the flowers are not fully open, though, they can tolerate a few degrees colder.[75] The flowers are vulnerable to temperatures higher than 22 to 25 °C (72 to 77 °F) during the day.[76]

Climates with significant winter rainfall at temperatures below 16 °C (61 °F) are unsuitable for peach cultivation, as the rain promotes peach leaf curl, which is the most serious fungal disease for peaches. In practice, fungicides are extensively used for peach cultivation in such climates, with more than 1% of European peaches exceeding legal pesticide limits in 2013.[77]

Peach trees are grown in well draining soils as they are vulnerable to disease in wet soils. They are most productive in topsoils approximately 45 to 60 centimetres (18 to 24 in) with a sandy loam character.[78]

Most peach trees sold by nurseries are cultivars budded or grafted onto a suitable rootstock. Common rootstocks are 'Lovell Peach', 'Nemaguard Peach', Prunus besseyi, and 'Citation'.[79] The Royal Horticultural Society recommends Saint Julian A and Torinel.[80]

The developmental sequence of a nectarine over a ​7 1⁄2-month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer

Typical peach cultivars begin bearing fruit in their third year. Their lifespan in the U.S. varies by region; the University of California at Davis gives a lifespan of about 15 years while the University of Maine gives a lifespan of 7 years there.[81][82]

Peach trees need full sun, and a layout that allows good natural air flow to assist the thermal environment for the tree. Peaches are planted in early winter.[83] During the growth season, they need a regular and reliable supply of water, with higher amounts just before harvest.[84] With periodic mulching, additional nutrients are generally not required for trees in soil.[85] Peach trees can be grown in an espalier shape against a south-facing wall.[86]

The flowers on a peach tree are typically thinned out because if the full number of peaches mature on a branch, they are undersized and lack flavor. Fruits are thinned midway in the season by commercial growers. Fresh peaches are easily bruised, so do not store well. They are most flavorful when they ripen on the tree and are eaten the day of harvest.[87]

### Storage

Peaches and nectarines are best stored at temperatures of 0 °C (32 °F) and in high humidity. They are highly perishable, so are typically consumed or canned within two weeks of harvest.[88]

Peaches are climacteric fruits and continue to ripen after being picked from the tree. However, though climacteric fruits continue to ripen nutritional quality may not improve after picking with studies showing Vitamin C content to be higher in peaches when ripened on the tree.[89] Both ethylene and the plant hormone auxin are involved in regulating the ripening process.[90] Though the ethylene antagonist 1-methylcyclopropene can be used to delay the ripening of peaches its use negatively affects the arroma of the fruit.[91][92]

### Insects

The larvae of moth species of concern to peach growers include especially the peachtree borer (Synanthedon exitiosa),[93] the peach twig borer (Anarsia lineatella),[94] the yellow peach moth (Conogethes punctiferalis),[95] the fruit tree leafroller (Archips argyrospila),[96] oriental fruit moths (Grapholita molesta), and the lesser peachtree borer (Synanthedon pictipes).[97] Many other moth caterpillars are commercial pests.[lower-alpha 1]

The tree is a host for such species as the Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica), the shothole borer (Scolytus rugulosus), and plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar).[97] Green peach aphids (Myzus persicae) can be a significant problem on peach trees. They overwinter as eggs on the trees and feed upon them in the spring before moving to other host species during the summer.[121] Two scale insects can cause serious damage to peach trees, the white peach scale (Pseudaulacaspis pentagona) and the San Jose scale (Comstockaspis perniciosa).[97]

At best, the peach is a poor nectar and pollen source for honey bees, with the double flowering varieties particularly noted for not producing any usable resources for bees. Some fruiting cultivars produce no pollen, while nectar flow is often impacted by early frosts.[122]

### Diseases

Main article: Biology:List of peach and nectarine diseases

File:Preparing peaches to be canned.jpgWomen preparing peaches in Lesotho, Africa

Peach trees are prone to a disease called leaf curl, which usually does not directly affect the fruit, but does reduce the crop yield by partially defoliating the tree. Several fungicides can be used to combat the disease, including Bordeaux mixture and other copper-based products (the University of California considers these organic treatments), ziram, chlorothalonil, and dodine.[123] The fruit is susceptible to brown rot or a dark reddish spot.[citation needed]

### Cultivars

White peach of the clingstone variety

Hundreds of peach and nectarine cultivars are known. These are classified into two categories—freestones and clingstones. Freestones are those whose flesh separates readily from the pit. Clingstones are those whose flesh clings tightly to the pit. Some cultivars are partially freestone and clingstone, so are called semifree. Freestone types are preferred for eating fresh, while clingstone types are for canning. The fruit flesh may be creamy white to deep yellow, to dark red; the hue and shade of the color depend on the cultivar.[88] The genetic diversity of peach cultivars is highest in China with 495 recognized cultivars.[13]

Peach breeding has favored cultivars with more firmness, more red color, and shorter fuzz on the fruit surface. These characteristics ease shipping and supermarket sales by improving eye appeal. This selection process has not necessarily led to increased flavor, though. Peaches have a short shelf life, so commercial growers typically plant a mix of different cultivars to have fruit to ship all season long.[124]

#### Nectarines

White nectarines, whole and cut open

The cultivars commonly called nectarines have a smooth skin. It is on occasion referred to as a "shaved peach" or "fuzzless peach", due to its lack of fuzz or short hairs. Though fuzzy peaches and nectarines are regarded commercially as different fruits, with nectarines often erroneously believed to be a crossbreed between peaches and plums, or a "peach with a plum skin", nectarines belong to the same species as peaches. Several genetic studies have concluded nectarines are produced due to a recessive allele, whereas a fuzzy peach skin is dominant.[24]

As with peaches, nectarines can be white or yellow, and clingstone or freestone. On average, nectarines are slightly smaller and sweeter than peaches, but with much overlap.[24] The lack of skin fuzz can make nectarine skins appear more reddish than those of peaches, contributing to the fruit's plum-like appearance.[citation needed]

The history of the nectarine is unclear; the first recorded mention in English is from 1611,[44] but they had probably been grown much earlier within the native range of the peach in central and eastern Asia. A number of colonial-era newspaper articles make reference to nectarines being grown in the United States prior to the Revolutionary War. The 28 March 1768 edition of the New York Gazette (p. 3), for example, mentions a farm in Jamaica, Long Island, New York, where nectarines were grown. Later, cultivars of higher quality with better shipping qualities were introduced to the United States by David Fairchild of the Department of Agriculture in 1906.[125]

#### Other varieties

Peacherines are claimed to be a cross between a peach and a nectarine;[126] they are sometimes marketed in Australia and New Zealand.[127] Flat peaches, or pan-tao, have a flattened shape, in contrast to ordinary near-spherical peaches.[128] Peach trees with small, inedible fruits are sometimes grown for ornamental value in gardens.[129]

### Production

Peach (and nectarine)
production in 2023

(millions of tonnes)

China | 17.5
Spain | 1.4
Turkey | 1.1
Italy | 1.0
United States | 0.7
Iran | 0.6
World | 27.1
Source: United Nations,
FAOSTAT[130]

In 2023, world production of peaches (combined with nectarines for reporting) was 27.1 million tonnes, led by China with 65% of the total. Spain, the next most productive country, only produced about 5% of the total (table). Peaches rank third in total production of temperate fruits after the apple and pear.[131]

The U.S. state of Georgia is known as the "Peach State" due to its significant production and shipping of peaches in the 1870s and 1880s,[132] with the first export to New York occurring around 1853 and significant amounts being sold there by 1858.[133] In 2014, Georgia was third in US peach production behind California and South Carolina.[132]

## Nutrition

Peaches, yellow, rawNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy| 46 kcal (190 kJ)

Carbohydrates

9.87 g

Sugars| 8.39 g
Dietary fiber| 1.5 g

Fat

0.27 g

Protein

0.91 g

Vitamins| Quantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.

beta-Carotene

24 μg

224 μg

Thiamine (B1)|

0.024 mg
Riboflavin (B2)|

0.031 mg
Niacin (B3)|

0.806 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)|

0.153 mg
Vitamin B6|

0.025 mg
Folate (B9)|

6 μg
Vitamin C|

4.1 mg
Vitamin E|

0.73 mg
Vitamin K|

3 μg
Minerals| Quantity %DV†
Calcium|

4 mg
Copper|

0.078 mg
Iron|

0.34 mg
Magnesium|

8 mg
Manganese|

0.026 mg
Phosphorus|

22 mg
Potassium|

122 mg
Sodium|

13 mg
Zinc|

0.23 mg
Other constituents| Quantity
Water| 88 g

* * *

Link to Full Nutrient Report of USDA FoodData Central

* Units
* μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
* IU = International units

†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

Raw peach flesh is 88% water, 10% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat. A medium-sized raw peach, weighing 100 grams (3.5 oz), supplies 46 calories, and contains no micronutrients having a significant percentage of the Daily Value (DV, table).

Sucrose accounts for 57% of the sweetness of a raw peach, with glucose and fructose accounting for the remainder of sugars (table). The glycemic load of an average peach (120 grams) is 5, similar to other low-sugar fruits.[134]

A raw nectarine has a similar low nutrient content.[135]

## Phytochemicals

Total polyphenols in mg per 100 g of fresh weight were 14–113 in white-flesh nectarines, 17–78 in yellow-flesh nectarines, 20–113 in white-flesh peaches, and 16–93 mg per 100 g in yellow-flesh peaches.[136] The major phenolic compounds identified in peach are chlorogenic acid, catechins and epicatechins,[137] with other compounds, identified by HPLC, including gallic acid and ellagic acid.[138] Rutin and isoquercetin are the primary flavonols found in clingstone peaches.[139] The levels of flavonols and cyanidins are highest in the skins. Though phenols vary by cultivar and due to the growing conditions in a growing season.[140] Red-fleshed peaches are rich in anthocyanins, especially red fleshed varieties and their skins.[141] malvin glycosides in clingstone peaches.[139]

As with many other members of the rose family, peach seeds contain cyanogenic glycosides, primarily amygdalin.[142] Amygdalin decomposes into a sugar molecule,hydrogen cyanide gas, and benzaldehyde. Hydrogen cyanide poisons the action of a critical enzyme for the use of oxygen in cells, resulting in death in severe cases.[143] While peach seeds are not the most toxic within the rose family (see bitter almond), large consumption of these chemicals from any source is potentially hazardous to animal and human health.[144] These chemicals make the seed taste like an almond, and peach stones are used to make a cheap version of marzipan, known as persipan.[145]

Peach allergy or intolerance is a relatively common form of hypersensitivity to proteins contained in peaches and related fruits (such as almonds). Symptoms range from local effects (e.g. oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to more severe systemic reactions, including anaphylaxis (e.g. urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms).[146] Adverse reactions are related to the "freshness" of the fruit: peeled or canned fruit may be tolerated.[147]

The attractive aroma of a ripe peach is the product of 110 different volatile molecules, including alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, esters, polyphenols and terpenoids. The proportions vary significantly between different cultivars.[148][149]

## In culture

The Japanese folktale character Momotarō emerges from a peach.

Peaches are symbolic in cultural traditions such as in art, paintings, and folk tales. Peach blossoms are highly prized in Chinese culture. The ancient Chinese believed the peach to possess more vitality than any other tree because their blossoms appear before leaves sprout. When early rulers of China visited their territories, they were preceded by sorcerers armed with peach rods to protect them from spectral evils. On New Year's Eve, local magistrates would cut peach wood branches and place them over their doors to protect against evil influences.[150] Peach wood was used for door gods during the Han.[151] Similarly, peach trees were planted near the front door of a house to bring good fortune.[49] The deity Shòu Xīng (Chinese: 寿星), a god of longevity, is usually depicted with a peach in his right hand due its associations with a long life.[152]

As recorded by the traveller Isabella Bird in 1898, wands of peach wood are used in Korean shamanism.[153] Originating from Daoism, the peach is a symbol of longevity in Korean art.[154] Dream Journey to the Peach Blossom Land is the only existing signed and dated artwork by An Kyŏn. It depicts the imagined utopian Peach Blossom Land from a fable by the Chinese poet Tao Yuanming.[155]

In Japan, Momotarō, "peach child", is a folktale character named after the giant peach from which he was birthed.[156] Two traditional Japanese words for the color pink correspond to blossoming trees: one for peach blossoms (momo-iro), and one for cherry blossoms (sakura-iro).[citation needed]

Roald Dahl decided on using a peach in his children's fantasy novel James and the Giant Peach after considering many other fruits including an apple, pear, or cherry. He thought the flavor and flesh of the peach to be more exciting.[157]

Many famous artists have painted with peach fruits placed in prominence. Caravaggio, Vicenzo Campi, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Claude Monet, Édouard Manet, Henri Fantin-Latour, Severin Roesen, Peter Paul Rubens, and Van Gogh are among the many influential artists who painted peaches and peach trees in various settings.[158][159] Scholars suggest that many compositions are symbolic, some an effort to introduce realism.[160] For example, Tresidder claims the artists of Renaissance symbolically used peach to represent heart, and a leaf attached to the fruit as the symbol for tongue, thereby implying speaking truth from one's heart;[161] a ripe peach was also a symbol to imply a ripe state of good health. Caravaggio's paintings introduce realism by painting peach leaves that are molted, discolored, or in some cases have wormholes – conditions common in modern peach cultivation.[162]

* Still life with figs, peaches and grapes by Caravaggio, c. 1600-02

Still life with figs, peaches and grapes by Caravaggio, c. 1600-02

* Portrait of Isabella and John Stewart by Charles Willson Peale, 1774

* Still Life Basket of Peaches by Raphaelle Peale, 1816

* A Jar of Peaches by Claude Monet c. 1866

* A Still Life Painting of Peaches by Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1881–82

* "Spring 4, peach-blossoms and green pheasants" by Kōno Bairei, 1883

"Spring 4, peach-blossoms and green pheasants" by Kōno Bairei, 1883

## Notes

1. ↑ Other pests of peach include the well-marked cutworm (Abagrotis orbis),[98] the climbing cutworm (Abagrotis barnesi),[99] Lyonetia prunifoliella,[98] the grey dagger (Acronicta psi),[100] ghost moth (Aenetus virescens),[101] the march moth (Alsophila aescularia),[102] fruit tree tortrix (Archips podanus),[103] cherry fruit moth (Argyresthia pruniella),[104] azalea leafminer Caloptilia zachrysa,[105] peach fruit moth (Carposina sasakii),[106] apple leaf skeletonizer (Choreutis pariana),[107] honeydew moth (Cryptoblabes gnidiella),[108] plum fruit moth (Cydia funebrana),[109] codling moth (Cydia pomonella),[110] figure of eight (Diloba caeruleocephala),[111] cherry bark tortrix (Enarmonia formosana),[112] apple leaf roller (Epiphyas postvittana),[113] brown-tail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea),[114] the fruit tree borer (Maroga melanostigma),[98] winter moth (Operophtera brumata),[115] fruit-tree tortrix (Pandemis heparana),[116] the wood groundling (Parachronistis albiceps),[117] apple leaf miner Phyllonorycter crataegella,[118] lesser bud moth (Recurvaria nanella),[119] and false codling moth (Thaumatotibia leucotreta).[120]

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3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Thakur et al. 2024, p. 101.
4. ↑ Crider 1928, p. 403.
5. ↑ Byrne et al. 2009, p. 530.
6. ↑ Gilman & Watson 1994, p. 2.
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20. ↑ Zheng, Crawford & Chen 2014, p. 3.
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22. ↑ 22.00 22.01 22.02 22.03 22.04 22.05 22.06 22.07 22.08 22.09 22.10 22.11 22.12 POWO 2024.
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119. ↑ Zhang 1994, p. 423.
120. ↑ Zhang 1994, p. 161.
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122. ↑ Johannsmeier 2016, pp. 34, 122.
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126. ↑ Shimabukuro 2004.
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128. ↑ Bassi & Monet 2008, p. 16.
129. ↑ Davis 1997, p. 54.
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147. ↑ Cuesta‐Herranz et al. 1998, p. 78.
148. ↑ Sánchez et al. 2012, pp. 1, 3.
149. ↑ Spence 2022, p. 383.
150. ↑ Doré & Kennelly 1914, pp. 504–505.
151. ↑ Simoons 1991, p. 218.
152. ↑ Valder 1999, pp. 110–111.
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154. ↑ Vos 1997, pp. 21, 23.
155. ↑ Yang-mo & Smith 1998, p. 310.
156. ↑ Leeming 2001, p. 120.
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158. ↑ Torpy 2010, p. 203.
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### Journals

* Andreotti, Carlo; Ravaglia, Daniela; Ragaini, Alessandro; Costa, Guglielmo (August 2008). "Phenolic compounds in peach (Prunus persica) cultivars at harvest and during fruit maturation". Annals of Applied Biology 153 (1): 11–23. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.2008.00234.x. Bibcode: 2008AnnAB.153...11A.
* Besler, Matthias; Cuesta Herranz, Javier; Fernández-Rivas, Montserrat (2000). "Allergen Data Collection: Peach (Prunus persica)". Internet Symposium on Food Allergens 2 (4): 185–201. http://www.food-allergens.de/password/PDF-downloads/complete-data/peach.pdf.
* Blan, Noah (November 2019). "Charlemagne's peaches: a case of early medieval European ecological adaptation". Early Medieval Europe 27 (4): 521–545. doi:10.1111/emed.12374.
* Cai, Hongfang; Han, Shuai; Jiang, Li; Yu, Mingliang; Ma, Ruijuan; Yu, Zhifang (August 2019). "1-MCP treatment affects peach fruit aroma metabolism as revealed by transcriptomics and metabolite analyses". Food Research International 122: 573–584. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2019.01.026. PMID 31229116.
* Capparelli, Aylen; Lema, Verónica; Giovannetti, Marco; Raffino, Rodolfo (December 2005). "The introduction of Old World crops (wheat, barley and peach) in Andean Argentina during the 16th century A.D.: archaeobotanical and ethnohistorical evidence". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14 (4): 472–484. doi:10.1007/s00334-005-0093-8. ISSN 0939-6314. Bibcode: 2005VegHA..14..472C.
* Cevallos-Casals, Bolívar A.; Byrne, David; Okie, William R.; Cisneros-Zevallos, Luis (May 2006). "Selecting new peach and plum genotypes rich in phenolic compounds and enhanced functional properties". Food Chemistry 96 (2): 273–280. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.02.032. Bibcode: 2006FoodC..96..273C.
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* Chen, Chunxian; Okie, William R.; Beckman, Thomas G. (July 2016). "Peach Fruit Set and Buttoning after Spring Frost". HortScience 51 (7): 816–821. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI.51.7.816. ISSN 0018-5345.
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* Cho, Hye-Jeon; Do, Byung-Kyung; Shim, Soon-Mi; Kwon, Hoonjeong; Lee, Dong-Ha; Nah, Ahn-Hee; Choi, Youn-Ju; Lee (30 June 2013). "Determination of Cyanogenic Compounds in Edible Plants by Ion Chromatography". Toxicological Research 29 (2): 143–147. doi:10.5487/TR.2013.29.2.143. ISSN 1976-8257. PMID 24278641.
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* Gil, María I.; Tomás-Barberán, Francisco A.; Hess-Pierce, Betty; Kader, Adel A. (1 August 2002). "Antioxidant capacities, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and vitamin C contents of nectarine, peach, and plum cultivars from California". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50 (17): 4976–4982. doi:10.1021/jf020136b. PMID 12166993. Bibcode: 2002JAFC...50.4976G. https://ucanr.edu/datastoreFiles/234-25.pdf. Retrieved 31 December 2024.
* Gilman, Edward F.; Watson, Dennis G. (October 1994). ﻿Fact Sheet ST-513 – Prunus persica Peach﻿ (Report). Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. https://hort.ifas.ufl.edu/trees/PRUPERA.pdf. Retrieved 1 January 2025.
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* Holland-Lulewicz, Jacob; Thompson, Victor; Thompson, Amanda Roberts; Butler, RaeLynn; Chavez, Dario J.; Franklin, Jay; Hunt, Turner; Williams, Mark et al. (20 September 2024). "The initial spread of peaches across eastern North America was structured by Indigenous communities and ecologies". Nature Communications 15 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-024-52597-8. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 39304659. PMC 11415391. Bibcode: 2024NatCo..15.8245H. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52597-8.pdf. Retrieved 28 December 2024.
* Infante, Rodrigo; Contador, Loreto; Rubio, Pía; Aros, Danilo; Peña-Neira, Álvaro (September 2011). "Postharvest Sensory and Phenolic Characterization of 'Elegant Lady' and 'Carson' Peaches". Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research 71 (3): 445–451. doi:10.4067/S0718-58392011000300016. ISSN 0718-5839. https://www.scielo.cl/pdf/chiljar/v71n3/at16.pdf. Retrieved 31 December 2024.
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* Sánchez, Gerardo; Besada, Cristina; Badenes, María Luisa; Monforte, Antonio José; Granell, Antonio (22 June 2012). Bennett, Malcolm. ed. "A Non-Targeted Approach Unravels the Volatile Network in Peach Fruit". PLOS ONE 7 (6). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038992. PMID 22761719. Bibcode: 2012PLoSO...738992S.
* Spence, Charles (16 May 2022). "Prunus persica in science, literature and art". Nature Food 3 (5): 383–384. doi:10.1038/s43016-022-00517-8. PMID 37117568.
* Su, Tao; Wilf, Peter; Huang, Yongjiang; Zhang, Shitao; Zhou, Zhekun (26 November 2015). "Peaches Preceded Humans: Fossil Evidence from SW China". Scientific Reports 5. doi:10.1038/srep16794. PMID 26610240. Bibcode: 2015NatSR...516794S.
* Szalay, Laszlo; Papp, J.; Szabó, Zoltán (October 2000). "Evaluation of Frost Tolerance of Peach Varieties in Artificial Freezing Tests". Acta Horticulturae (538): 407–410. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2000.538.71. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287844467. Retrieved 28 December 2024.
* Torpy, Janet M. (20 January 2010). "Still Life With Peaches". JAMA 303 (3): 203. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.1853. PMID 20085943.
* Trainotti, Livio; Tadiello, Alice; Casadoro, Giorgio (September 2007). "The involvement of auxin in the ripening of climacteric fruits comes of age: the hormone plays a role of its own and has an intense interplay with ethylene in ripening peaches". Journal of Experimental Botany 58 (12): 3299–3308. doi:10.1093/jxb/erm178. PMID 17925301.
* Vendramin, Elisa; Pea, Giorgio; Dondini, Luca; Pacheco, Igor; Dettori, Maria Teresa; Gazza, Laura; Scalabrin, Simone; Strozzi, Francesco et al. (3 March 2014). Peace, Cameron. ed. "A Unique Mutation in a MYB Gene Cosegregates with the Nectarine Phenotype in Peach". PLOS ONE 9 (3). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0090574. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 24595269. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...990574V.
* Verde, Ignazio; Abbott, Albert G; Scalabrin, Simone; Jung, Sook; Shu, Shengqiang; Marroni, Fabio; Zhebentyayeva, Tatyana; Dettori, Maria Teresa et al. (May 2013). "The high-quality draft genome of peach (Prunus persica) identifies unique patterns of genetic diversity, domestication and genome evolution". Nature Genetics 45 (5): 487–494. doi:10.1038/ng.2586. PMID 23525075.
* Yu, Yang; Fu, Jun; Xu, Yaoguang; Zhang, Jiewei; Ren, Fei; Zhao, Hongwei; Tian, Shilin; Guo, Wei et al. (20 December 2018). "Genome re-sequencing reveals the evolutionary history of peach fruit edibility". Nature Communications 9 (1). doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07744-3. PMID 30573726. Bibcode: 2018NatCo...9.5404Y.
* Zheng, Yunfei; Crawford, Gary W.; Chen, Xugao (5 September 2014). "Archaeological Evidence for Peach (Prunus persica) Cultivation and Domestication in China". PLOS ONE 9 (9). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0106595. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 25192436. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...9j6595Z.

### News

* Clark, John (March 2013). "Fresh & Local". FMCG 19 (2): 20–21. ISSN 1175-8279. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=86164618&site=eds-live&scope=site. Retrieved 30 December 2024. ""Sill available will be the later varieties mainly from the South Island – Omega and Songold plums; Fantasia and Summer Blush nectarines; Genevive and Southern Cross apricots; Peacherines;..."".
* Shimabukuro, Betty (7 July 2004). "Mixed marriages: Cross-pollination produces fruit "children" that aren't quite the same as mom and dad". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/07/07/features/story1.html.

### Web

* Adaskaveg, J.E.; Duncan, R.A.; Day, K.R. (2015). "UC Pest Management Guidelines for Peach Leaf Curl on Nectarine". UC Davis. http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r540100311.html.
* Atkinson, Fiona S.; Foster-Powell, Kaye; Brand-Miller, Jennie C. (27 August 2015). "Glycemic index and glycemic load for 100+ foods". Harvard University School of Medicine. http://www.health.harvard.edu/diseases-and-conditions/glycemic_index_and_glycemic_load_for_100_foods.
* Dolan, Susan; Wytsalucy, Reagan; Lyons, Keith (4 April 2024). "How a Navajo Scientist Is Helping to Restore Traditional Peach Horticulture". https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/how-a-navajo-scientist-is-helping-to-restore-traditional-peach-horticulture.htm.
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* Given, David Roger; Webb, Colin James; Sykes, William Russell; Macmillan, Bryony Hope (2024). "Prunus persica (L.) Batsch". Lincoln, New Zealand: Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research. https://floraseries.landcareresearch.co.nz/taxa/9f4149ed-b413-4223-a934-d7b884dbcc66.
* Gorsuch, Clyde S.; Scott, Janet McLeod (7 June 2021). "HGIC 2210 - Peach Insect Pests". Clemson University. https://hgic.clemson.edu/factsheet/peach-insect-pests/.
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## External links

| Wikispecies has information related to Prunus persica

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* "Prunus persica". http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Prunus+persica.
* National Center for Home Food Preservation—Freezing Peaches or Nectarines
* Bioimages.vanderbilt.edu – Prunus persica images
* Clemson.edu: Everything About Peaches

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*[c.]: circa
*[%DV]: Percentage of Daily Value