Short chronology

Short description: Chronology of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age

The short chronology is one of the chronologies of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728–1686 BC and the sack of Babylon to 1531 BC.

The absolute 2nd millennium BC dates resulting from these reference points have very little academic support, and have essentially been disproved by recent dendrochronology research.[1][2] The middle chronology (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC) is more commonly accepted in academic literature. For much of the period in question, middle chronology dates can be calculated by adding 64 years to the corresponding short chronology date (e.g. 1728 BC in short chronology corresponds to 1792 in middle chronology).

After the so-called "dark age" between the fall of Babylon and the rise of the Kassite dynasty in Babylonia, absolute dating becomes less uncertain.[3] While exact dates are still not agreed upon, the 64-year middle/short chronology gap ceases from the beginning of the Third Babylon Dynasty onward.

## Contents

* 1 Early Bronze Age
* 1.1 Kings of Ebla
* 1.2 Sumer
* 2 Middle Bronze Age
* 3 Late Bronze Age
* 4 See also
* 5 Notes
* 6 References
* 7 External links

## Early Bronze Age

Estimation of absolute dates becomes possible for the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. For the first half of the 3rd millennium, only very rough chronological matching of archaeological dates with written records is possible.

### Kings of Ebla

The city-states of Ebla and Mari (in modern Syria) competed for power at this time. Eventually, under Irkab-Damu, Ebla defeated Mari for control of the region just in time to face the rise of Uruk and Akkad. After years of back and forth, Ebla was destroyed by the Akkadian Empire. Pottery seals of the Egyptian pharaoh Pepi I have been found in the wreckage of the city. [4]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Igrish-Halam | c. 2300 BC |
Irkab-Damu |  | Contemporary of Iblul-Il of Mari
Ar-Ennum or Reshi-Ennum |  |
Ibrium or Ebrium |  | Contemporary of Tudiya of Assyria (treaty)
Ibbi-Sipish or Ibbi-Zikir |  | Son of Ibrium
Dubuhu-Ada |  | Ebla destroyed by Naram-Sin of Akkad or Sargon of Akkad

### Sumer

Third Dynasty of Uruk

Further information: Place:Uruk

Lugal-zage-si of Umma rules from Uruk after defeating Lagash, eventually falling to the emerging Akkadian Empire.[5]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Lugal-zage-si | 2295–2271 BC | Defeats Urukagina of Lagash and is in turn defeated by Sargon of Akkad

Dynasty of Akkad

Since Akkad (or Agade), the capital of the Akkadian Empire, has not yet been found, available chronological data comes from outlying locations like Ebla, Tell Brak, Nippur, Susa and Tell Leilan. Clearly, the expansion of Akkad came under the rules of Sargon and Naram-sin. Its last king, Shar-kali-sharri barely held the empire together, but upon his death, it fragmented. Finally, the city of Akkad itself was destroyed by the Guti.[6][7][8]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Sargon | 2270–2215 BC | Defeated Lugal-zage-si
Rimush | 2214–2206 BC | Son of Sargon
Man-ishtishu | 2205–2191 BC | Son of Sargon
Naram-sin | 2190–2154 BC | Grandson of Sargon
Shar-kali-sharri | 2153–2129 BC | Son of Naram-sin
Igigi | 2128-2127 BC |
Nanum | 2127-2127 BC |
Imi | 2127-2127 BC |
Ilulu | 2127-2126 BC |
Dudu | 2125–2104 BC |
Shu-Durul | 2104–2083 BC | City of Akkad falls to the Guti

Gutian Kings

First appearing in the area during the reign of Sargon of Akkad, the Guti became a regional power after the decline of the Akkadian Empire following Shar-kali-sharri. The dynasty ends with the defeat of the last king, Tirigan, by Uruk.

Only a handful of the Guti kings are attested to by inscriptions, aside from the Sumerian king list.[9]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Erridupizir | 2141–2138 BC | Royal inscription at Nippur
Imta or Nibia (There is no king for 3 or 5 years) | 2138–2135 BC |
Inkishush | 2135–2129 BC | First Gutian ruler on the Sumerian king list
Sarlagab | 2129–2126 BC |
Shulme | 2126–2120 BC |
Elulmesh or Silulumesh | 2120–2114 BC |
Inimabakesh | 2114–2109 BC |
Igeshaush or Igeaus | 2109–2103 BC |
Yarlagab or Yarlaqaba | 2103–2088 BC |
Ibate | 2088–2085 BC |
Yarlangab or Yarla | 2085–2082 BC |
Kurum | 2082–2081 BC |
Apilkin or Habil-kin or Apil-kin | 2081–2078 BC |
La-erabum | 2078–2076 BC | Mace head inscription
Irarum | 2076–2074 BC |
Ibranum | 2074–2073 BC |
Hablum | 2073–2071 BC |
Puzur-Suen | 2071–2064 BC | Son of Hablum
Yarlaganda | 2064–2057 BC | Foundation inscription at Umma
Si-um or Si-u | 2057–2050 BC | Foundation inscription at Umma
Tirigan | 2050–2050 BC | Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk

Second Dynasty of Lagash

Further information: History:Lagash

Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire after Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad under pressure from the invading Gutians, Lagash gradually regained prominence. As a client state to the Gutian Kings, Lagash was extremely successful, peaking under the rule of Gudea. After the last Gutian king, Tirigan, was defeated, by Utu-hengal, Lagash came under the control of Ur under Ur-Namma.[10] Note that there is some indication that the order of the last two rulers of Lagash should be reversed.[11]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Lugalushumgal | 2166-2146 BC  | Contemporary of Naram-sin and Shar-kali-sharri
Puzer-Mama |  |
Ur-Utu |  |
Ur-Mama |  |
Lu-Baba |  |
Lugula |  |
Kaku or Kakug | ended 2093  |
Ur-Bau or Ur-baba | 2093–2080 BC |
Gudea | 2080–2060 BC | Son-in-law of Ur-baba
Ur-Ningirsu | 2060–2055 BC | Son of Gudea
Pirigme or Ugme | 2055–2053 BC | Grandson of Gudea
Ur-gar | 2053–2049 BC |
Nammahani | 2049–2046 BC | Grandson of Kaku, defeated by Ur-Namma

Fifth Dynasty of Uruk

Further information: Place:Uruk

Uniting various Sumerian city-states, Utu-hengal frees the region from the Gutians. Note that the Sumerian king list records a preceding 4th Dynasty of Uruk which is as yet unattested.[12]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Utu-hengal | 2055–2048 BC | Appoints Ur-Namma as governor of Ur

Third Dynasty of Ur

In an apparently peaceful transition, Ur came to power after the end of the reign of Utu-hengal of Uruk, with the first king, Ur-Namma, solidifying his power with the defeat of Lagash. By the dynasty's end with the destruction of Ur by Elamites and Shimashki, the dynasty included little more than the area around Ur.[13][14][15]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Ur-Namma or Ur-Engur | 2047–2030 BC | Defeated Nammahani of Lagash; Son-in-law of Utu-hengal of Uruk
Shulgi | 2029–1982 BC | Possible lunar/solar eclipse 2005 BC[16]
Amar-Suena | 1981–1973 BC | Son of Shulgi
Shu-Suen | 1972–1964 BC |
Ibbi-Suen | 1963–1940 BC | Son of Shu-Suen

## Middle Bronze Age

The Old Assyrian / Old Babylonian period (20th to 15th centuries)

First Dynasty of Isin

After Ishbi-Erra of Isin breaks away from the declining Third Dynasty of Ur under Ibbi-Suen, Isin reaches its peak under Ishme-Dagan. Weakened by attacks from the upstart Babylonians, Isin eventually falls to its rival Larsa under Rim-Sin I.[17][18]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Ishbi-Erra | 1953–1921 BC | Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III
Šu-ilišu | 1920–1911 BC | Son of Ishbi-Erra
Iddin-Dagan | 1910–1890 BC | Son of Shu-ilishu
Ishme-Dagan | 1889–1871 BC | Son of Iddin-Dagan
Lipit-Eshtar | 1870–1860 BC | Contemporary of Gungunum of Larsa
Ur-Ninurta | 1859–1832 BC | Contemporary of Abisare of Larsa
Bur-Suen | 1831–1811 BC | Son of Ur-Ninurta
Lipit-Enlil | 1810–1806 BC | Son of Bur-Suen
Erra-Imittī or Ura-imitti | 1805–1799 BC |
Enlil-bāni | 1798–1775 BC | Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon
Zambīia | 1774–1772 BC | Contemporary of Sin-Iqisham of Larsa
Iter-piša | 1771–1768 BC |
Ur-du-kuga | 1767–1764 BC |
Suen-magir | 1763–1753 BC |
Damiq-ilishu | 1752–1730 BC | Son of Suen-magir

Kings of Larsa

The chronology of the Kingdom of Larsa is based mainly on the Larsa King List (Larsa Dynastic List), the Larsa Date Lists, and a number of royal inscriptions and commercial records. The Larsa King List was compiled in Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi, conqueror of Larsa. It is suspected that the list elevated the first several Amorite Isinite governors of Larsa to kingship so as to legitimize the rule of the Amorite Babylonians over Larsa. After a period of Babylonian occupation, Larsa briefly breaks free in a revolt ended by the death of the last king, Rim-Sin II.[19][20][21]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Naplanum | 1961–1940 BC | Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III
Emisum | 1940–1912 BC |
Samium | 1912–1877 BC |
Zabaia | 1877–1868 BC | Son of Samium, First royal inscription
Gungunum | 1868–1841 BC | Gained independence from Lipit-Eshtar of Isin
Abisare | 1841–1830 BC |
Sumuel | 1830–1801 BC |
Nur-Adad | 1801–1785 BC | Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon
Sin-Iddinam | 1785–1778 BC | Son of Nur-Adad
Sin-Eribam | 1778–1776 BC |
Sin-Iqisham | 1776–1771 BC | Contemporary of Zambiya of Isin, Son of Sin-Eribam
Silli-Adad | 1771–1770 BC |
Warad-Sin | 1770–1758 BC | Possible co-regency with Kudur-Mabuk his father
Rim-Sin I | 1758–1699 BC | Contemporary of Irdanene of Uruk, Defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon, Brother of Warad-Sin
Hammurabi of Babylon | 1699–1686 BC | Official Babylonian rule
Samsu-iluna of Babylon | 1686–1678 BC | Official Babylonian rule
Rim-Sin II | 1678–1674 BC | Killed in revolt against Babylon

First Babylonian dynasty (Dynasty I)

Following the fall of the Ur III Dynasty, the resultant power vacuum was contested by Isin and Larsa, with Babylon and Assyria later joining the fray. In the second half of the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon became the preeminent power, a position it largely maintained until the sack by Mursili I in 1531 BC. Note that there are no contemporary accounts of the sack of Babylon. It is inferred from much later documents.[22][23]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Sumu-abum or Su-abu | 1830–1817 BC | Contemporary of Ilushuma of Assyria
Sumu-la-El | 1817–1781 BC | Contemporary of Erishum I of Assyria
Sabium or Sabum | 1781–1767 BC | Son of Sumu-la-El
Apil-Sin | 1767–1749 BC | Son of Sabium
Sin-muballit | 1748–1729 BC | Son of Apil-Sin
Hammurabi | 1728–1686 BC | Contemporary of Zimri-Lim of Mari, Siwe-palar-huppak of Elam and Shamshi-Adad I
Samsu-iluna | 1686–1648 BC | Son of Hammurabi
Abi-eshuh or Abieshu | 1648–1620 BC | Son of Samsu-iluna
Ammi-ditana | 1620–1583 BC | Son of Abi-eshuh
Ammi-saduqa or Ammisaduqa | 1582–1562 BC | Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa
Samsu-Ditana | 1562–1531 BC | Sack of Babylon

1st Sealand Dynasty (2nd Dynasty of Babylon)

When the names of Sealand Dynasty kings were found on cuneiform records like the Babylonian Kings Lists, Chronicle 20, Chronicle of the Early Kings, and the Synchronistic King List, it was assumed that the dynasty slotted in between the First Dynasty of Babylon and the Kassites.[24] Later discoveries changed this to the assumption that the dynasty ran entirely in parallel to the others. Modern scholarship has made it clear that the Sealand Dynasty did in fact control Babylon and the remnants of its empire for a time after its sack by the Hittites in 1531 BC.[25][26]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Ilumael or Ilum-ma-ilī | c. 1700 BC | Contemporary of Samsu-iluna and Abi-eshuh of the First Dynasty of Babylon
Itti-ili-nībī |  |
Damqi-ilišu II |  |
Iškibal |  |
Šušši |  |
Gulkišar |  |
mDIŠ+U-EN (reading unknown) |  |
Pešgaldarameš |  | Son of Gulkishar
Ayadaragalama |  | Son (=descendant) of Gulkishar
Akurduana |  |
Melamkurkurra |  |
Ea-gâmil | ca. 1460 BC | Contemporary of Ulamburiash of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon

Hittite Old Kingdom

Main article: History:Hittites

The absolute chronology of the Hittite Old Kingdom hinges entirely on the date of the sack of Babylon. In 1531 BC, for reasons that are still extremely unclear, Mursili I marched roughly 500 miles from Aleppo to Babylon, sacked it, and then promptly returned home, never to return. Other than that event, all the available chronological synchronisms are local to the region in and near Anatolia.

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Pusarruma |  |
Labarna I |  |
Hattusili I or Labarna II | 1586–1556 BC | Grandfather of Mursili I
Mursili I | 1556–1526 BC | Sacked Babylon in reign of Samsu-Ditana of Babylon
Hantili I | 1526–1496 BC |
Zidanta I | 1496–1486 BC |
Ammuna | 1486–1466 BC | Son of Hantili I
Huzziya I | 1466–1461 BC | Son of Ammuna
telepinu | began 1460 BC |

## Late Bronze Age

The Middle Assyrian period (14th to 12th centuries)

Third Babylon Dynasty (Kassite)

The Kassites first appeared during the reign of Samsu-iluna of the First Babylonian dynasty and after being defeated by Babylon, moved to control the city-state of Mari. Some undetermined amount of time after the fall of Babylon, the Kassites established a new Babylonian dynasty. The Babylonian king list identifies 36 kings reigning 576 years, however, only about 18 names are legible. A few more were identified by inscriptions. There is some confusion in the middle part of the dynasty because of conflicts between the Synchronistic Chronicle and Chronicle P. The later kings are well attested from kudurru steles. Relative dating is from sychronisms with Egypt, Assyria and the Hittites. The dynasty ends with the defeat of Enlil-nadin-ahi by Elam.[27][28][29][30]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Agum II or Agum-Kakrime |  |
Burnaburiash I |  | Treaty with Puzur-Ashur III of Assyria
Kashtiliash III |  |
Ulamburiash |  | Conquers the first Sealand dynasty
Agum III |  |
Karaindash |  | Treaty with Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria
Kadashman-harbe I |  | Campaign against the Sutû
Kurigalzu I | ended 1375 BC | Founder of Dur-Kurigalzu and contemporary of Thutmose IV
Kadashman-Enlil I | 1374–1360 BC | Contemporary of Amenophis III of the Egyptian Amarna letters
Burnaburiash II | 1359–1333 BC | Contemporary of Akhenaten and Ashur-uballit I
Kara-hardash | 1333 BC | Grandson of Ashur-uballit I of Assyria
Nazi-Bugash or Shuzigash | 1333 BC | Usurper "son of a nobody"
Kurigalzu II | 1332–1308 BC | Son of Burnaburiash II, Fought Battle of Sugagi with Enlil-nirari of Assyria
Nazi-Maruttash | 1307–1282 BC | Contemporary of Adad-nirari I of Assyria
Kadashman-Turgu | 1281–1264 BC | Contemporary of Hattusili III of the Hittites
Kadashman-Enlil II | 1263–1255 BC | Contemporary of Hattusili III of the Hittites
Kudur-Enlil | 1254–1246 BC | Time of Nippur renaissance
Shagarakti-Shuriash | 1245–1233 BC | "Non-son of Kudur-Enlil" according to Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria
Kashtiliashu IV | 1232–1225 BC | Contemporary of Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria
Enlil-nadin-shumi | 1224 BC | Assyria installed vassal king
Kadashman-Harbe II | 1223 BC | Assyria installed vassal king
Adad-shuma-iddina | 1222–1217 BC | Assyria installed vassal king
Adad-shuma-usur | 1216–1187 BC | Contemporary of Ashur-nirari III of Assyria
Meli-Shipak II | 1186–1172 BC | Correspondence with Ninurta-apal-Ekur confirming foundation of Near East chronology
Marduk-apla-iddina I | 1171–1159 BC |
Zababa-shuma-iddin | 1158 BC | Defeated by Shutruk-Nahhunte of Elam
Enlil-nadin-ahi | 1157–1155 BC | Defeated by Kutir-Nahhunte of Elam

Mitanni

Perhaps because the capital of Mitanni, Washukanni, has not yet been found, there are no available king lists, year lists, or royal inscriptions. Fortunately, a fair amount of diplomatic, Hittite, and Assyrian sources exist to firm up the chronology. Having become powerful under Shaushtatar, Mitanni eventually falls into the traditional trap of dynasties, the contest for succession. Tushratta and Artatama II both claim the kingship and the Hittites and Assyrians take advantage of the situation. After that, Mitanni was no longer a factor in the region.[31][32]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Kirta | ca. 1500 BC |
Parshatatar or Parrattarna |  | Son of Kirta
Shaushtatar |  | Contemporary of Idrimi of Alalakh, Sacks Ashur
Artatama I |  | Treaty with Pharaoh Thutmose IV of Egypt, Contemporary of Pharaoh Amenhotep II of Egypt
Shuttarna II |  | Daughter marries Pharaoh Amenhotep III of Egypt in his year 10
Artashumara |  | Son of Shutarna II, brief reign
Tushratta | ca. 1350 BC | Contemporary of Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites and Pharaohs Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV of Egypt, Amarna letters
Artatama II |  | Treaty with Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites, ruled same time as Tushratta
Shuttarna III |  | Contemporary of Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites
Shattiwaza |  | Mitanni becomes vassal of the Hittite Empire
Shattuara I |  | Mittani becomes vassal of Assyria under Adad-nirari I
Wasashatta |  | Son of Shattuara I

Assyrian Middle Kingdom

Main article: Place:Assyria

Long a minor player, after the defeat of its neighbor Mitanni by the Hittites, Assyria rises to the ranks of a major power under Ashur-uballit I. The period is marked by conflict with rivals Babylon and the Hittites as well as diplomatic exchanges with Egypt, in the Amarna letters. Note that after the excavation, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of various Neo-Assyrian documents, such as the Assyrian king list, scholars assumed that the chronological data for earlier Assyrian periods could be taken as accurate history. That view has changed over the years and the early Assyrian chronology is being re-assessed. Since there is yet no consensus, the traditional order and regnal lengths will be followed.[33][34][35]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Eriba-Adad I | 1380–1353 BC |
Ashur-uballit I | 1353–1318 BC | Contemporary of Burnaburiash II of Babylon and Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites
Enlil-nirari | 1317–1308 BC | Fought Battle of Sugagi with Kurigalzu II of Babylon, Son of Ashur-uballit I
Arik-den-ili | 1307–1296 BC |
Adad-nirari I | 1295–1264 BC | Contemporary of Shattuara I and Wasashatta of Mitanni
Shalmaneser I | 1263–1234 BC | Son of Adad-nirari I
Tukulti-Ninurta I | 1233–1197 BC | Contemporary of Kashtiliashu IV of Babylon
Ashur-nadin-apli | 1196–1194 BC | Son of Tukulti-Ninurta I
Ashur-nirari III | 1193–1188 BC | Contemporary of Adad-shuma-usur of Babylon and Son of Ashur-nadin-apli
Enlil-kudurri-usur | 1187–1183 BC | Son of Tukulti-Ninurta I
Ninurta-apal-Ekur | 1182–1180 BC |

Hittite New Kingdom

Main article: History:Hittites

Beginning under his father, Suppiluliuma I brought the Hittites from obscurity into an empire that lasts for almost 150 years. The Hittite New Kingdom reaches its height after the defeat of Mitanni, an event which ironically leads to the rise of Assyria. The dynasty ends with the destruction of Hattusa by parties undetermined but which may have included the Sea People and the Kaskians.[36][37][38][39]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Tudhaliya III | 1360–1344 BC | Son of Tudhaliya II
Suppiluliuma I | 1344–1322 BC | Son of Tudhaliya III, Contemporary of Tushratta of Mitanni
Arnuwanda II | 1322–1321 BC | Son of Suppiluliuma I
Mursili II | 1321–1295 BC | Son of Suppiluliuma I; Mursili's eclipse
Muwatalli II | 1295–1272 BC | Son of Mursili II, Battle of Kadesh in year 5 of Ramses II of Egypt,
Mursili III or Urhi-Teshub | 1272–1267 BC | Son of Muwatalli II
Hattusili III | 1267–1237 BC | Son of Mursili II, Treaty in year 21 of Ramses II of Egypt, Contemporary of Shalmaneser I of Assyria & Kadashman-Turgu of Babylon
Tudhaliya IV | 1237–1209 BC | Son of Hattusili III, Battle of Nihriya
Arnuwanda III | 1209–1207 BC | Son of Tudhaliya IV
Suppiluliuma II | 1207–1178 BC | Son of Tudhaliya IV, Fall of Hattusa

Kings of Ugarit

A client state of Mitanni and later the Hittites, Ugarit was nonetheless a significant player in the region. While regnal lengths and an absolute chronology for Ugarit are not yet available, the known order of kings and some firm synchronisms make it reasonably placeable in time. The fall of Ugarit has been narrowed down to the range from the reign of Pharaoh Merneptah to the 8th year of Pharaoh Rameses III of Egypt. This is roughly the same time that Hattusa is destroyed.[40][41]

Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes

|
|

Ammittamru I | ca. 1350 BC |
Niqmaddu II |  | Contemporary of Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites
Arhalba |  |
Niqmepa |  | Treaty with Mursili II of the Hittites, Son of Niqmadu II,
Ammittamru II |  | Contemporary of Bentisina of Amurru, Son of Niqmepa
Ibiranu |  |
Niqmaddu III |  |
Ammurapi | ca. 1200 BC | Contemporary of Chancellor Bay of Egypt, Ugarit is destroyed

## See also

* Timeline of the Middle East
* Chronology of the ancient Near East

## Notes

1. ↑ Manning, S. W.; Kromer, B.; Kuniholm, P. I.; and Newton, M. W. 2001 Anatolian tree-rings and a new chronology for the east Mediterranean Bronze-Iron Ages. Science 294: 2532-35.
2. ↑ Sturt W. Manning et al., Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology, PlosONE July 13 2016
3. ↑ [1], Schwartz, Glenn, 2008. "Problems of Chronology: Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Syro-Levantine Region." In Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., edited by Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel, and Jean M. Evans: 450-452.
4. ↑ A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla, Alfonso Archi, Maria Giovanna Biga, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 55, 2003, pp. 1-44
5. ↑ Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions: Presargonic Inscriptions, Jerold S. Cooper, Eisenbrauns, 1986, ISBN 0-940490-82-X
6. ↑ The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization, H. Weiss et al., Science, Aug 20, pp. 995-1004, 1993
7. ↑ Historical Perception in the Sargonic Literary Tradition. The Implication of Copied Texts, Rosetta 1, pp 1-9, 2006
8. ↑ The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334-2113), Douglas R. Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8020-0593-4
9. ↑ Reallexikon der Assyriologie by Erich Ebling, Bruno Meissner, 1993, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-003705-X
10. ↑ Gudea and His Dynasty, Dietz Otto Edzard, 1997, University of Toronto Press ISBN 0-8020-4187-6
11. ↑ The Calendar of Neo-Sumerian Ur and Its Political Significance, Magnus Widell, University of Chicago, 2004
12. ↑ A Sumerian reading-book, C.J Gadd, The Clarendon Press, 1924
13. ↑ The Ancient Near East: C.3000-330 B.C. By Amélie Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-415-16762-0
14. ↑ Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC) by Douglas Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8020-4198-1
15. ↑ The ruling family of Ur III Umma. A Prosopographical Analysis of an Elite Family in Southern Iraq 4000 Years ago , J.L. Dahl, UCLA dissertation, 2003
16. ↑ "Ancient Eclipses and Dating the Fall of Babylon"[yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}], Boris Banjevic, Publ. Astron. Obs. Belgrade No. 80 (2006), 251 – 257
17. ↑ Kings of Isin Year Names
18. ↑ The Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595), Douglas R. Frayne, University Of Toronto Press, 1990, ISBN 0-8020-5873-6
19. ↑ The Rulers of Larsa , M. Fitzgerald, Yale University Dissertation, 2002
20. ↑ Larsa Year Names, Marcel Segrist, Andrews University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-943872-54-5
21. ↑ Chronology of the Larsa Dynasty, E.M. Grice, C.E. Keiser, M. Jastrow, AMS Press, 1979, ISBN 0-404-60274-6
22. ↑ Chronicle of early kings at Livius.org
23. ↑ The Proclamation of Telipinu
24. ↑ Albert Kirk Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian chronicles, Eisenbrauns, 2000 ISBN 1-57506-049-3
25. ↑ W. G. Lambert, The Home of the First Sealand Dynasty, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 208-210, 1974
26. ↑ Stephanie Dalley, Babylonian Tablets from The First Sealand Dynasty in the Schoyen Collection, CDL Press, 2009 ISBN 1-934309-08-7
27. ↑ The Collapse of a Complex State, A Reappraisal of the End of the First Dynasty of Babylon 1683–1597 B.C., Seth Richardson, dissertation, Columbia University, 2002
28. ↑ J. A. Brinkman (1976). Materials for the Study of Kassite History, Vol. I (MSKH I). Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
29. ↑ The Kassites of Ancient Mesopotamian: Origins, Politics, and Culture, Walter Sommerfield, vol 2 of J. M. Sasson ed. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995
30. ↑ "The Kassites and Near Eastern Chronology," Albrecht Goetze, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1964, pp. 97–101.
31. ↑ Pharaoh and his Brothers, S Jakob
32. ↑ Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East, Trevor Bryce, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0-415-25857-X
33. ↑ "Comments on the Nassouhi Kinglist and the Assyrian Kinglist Tradition," J.A. Brinkman, Orientalia N.S 42, 1973
34. ↑ Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia BC, A.K. Grayson, University of Toronto Press, 1987, ISBN 0-8020-2605-2
35. ↑ "The Chronology of Ancient Assyria Re-assessed," B. Newgrosh, JACF, vol. 08, pp. 78–106, 1999
36. ↑ Bryce, T., 'The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite perspective', BMSAES 6 (2006), 1–11
37. ↑ Sürenhagen, D., 'Forerunners of the Hattusili-Ramesses treaty', BMSAES 6 (2006), 59–67
38. ↑ Hittite Studies in Honor of Harry A. Hoffner Jr. on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday. Eisenbrauns, 2003, ISBN 1-57506-079-5
39. ↑ Hittite Diplomatic Texts, G Brinkman, Scholars Press, 1999, ISBN 0-7885-0551-3
40. ↑ Handbook of Ugaritic Studies, edited by Wilfred G. E. Watson and Nicolas Wyatt, Brill, 1999, ISBN 90-04-10988-9
41. ↑ The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, Marguerite Yon, Eisenbrauns, 2006, ISBN 1-57506-029-9

## References

* Schwartz, Glenn (2008). "Problems of Chronology: Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Syro-Levantine Region". in Aruz, Joan; Benzel, Kim; Evans, Jean M.. Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C.. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 450–452. ISBN 978-0300141436. https://archive.org/details/beyondbabylonart0000unse/page/450.
* Newgrosh, Bernard (2007). Chronology at the Crossroads: The Late Bronze Age in Western Asia. Troubador Publishing. ISBN 1-906221-62-6.
* Bryce, Trevor (2005). The Kingdom of the Hittites (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-928132-7.
* Van De Mieroop, Marc (2006). A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000 - 323 BC. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-4911-6.
* Leick, Gwendolyn (2003). Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-026574-0.
* Gasche, H.; Armstrong, J.A.; Cole, S.W.; Gurzadyan, V.G. (1998). Dating the Fall of Babylon: A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology. University of Ghent and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. ISBN 978-1885923103.

## External links

* Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative
* Chronicles at Livius.org
* Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature

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