Approval voting

Short description: Single-winner electoral system

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On an approval ballot, the voter can select any number of candidates.

Template:Electoral systems sidebar Approval voting is a single-winner rated voting system where voters approve of any number of candidates named on a ballot, and the candidate with the most votes is victorious. The method is designed to eliminate vote-splitting while keeping election administration simple and easy to count, requiring only a single score for each candidate. Proponents of approval voting argue that the system more accurately represents candidates not belonging to a major party.[1]

While approval voting is primarily considered in single-winner contexts, application to multiple-winner contexts is also possible. For example, if there are ten seats to be filled, the ten most-voted candidates would be selected.[2] Winners can be selected in a single round of approval voting, but preliminary "narrowing" rounds can be included.

Approval voting has been used in both organizational and political elections to improve representativeness and voter satisfaction. As the number of candidates a voter may approve of is unlimited, approval voting is immune to overvoting.

Critics of approval voting have argued the simple ballot format is a disadvantage, as it forces a binary choice for each candidate in place of the expressive grades of other rated voting rules. However, supporters of approval voting see grading as necessitating strategic voting and complicating the job of the voter.

## Contents

* 1 Effect on elections
* 2 Use
* 2.1 Current electoral use
* 2.1.1 Latvia
* 2.1.2 United States
* 2.2 Use by organizations
* 2.3 Historical
* 3 Strategic voting
* 3.1 Overview
* 3.2 Sincere voting
* 3.2.1 Examples
* 3.3 Sincere strategy with ordinal preferences
* 3.3.1 Dichotomous preferences
* 3.3.2 Approval threshold
* 3.4 Strategy with cardinal utilities
* 3.5 Strategy examples
* 3.6 Dichotomous cutoff
* 4 Compliance with voting system criteria
* 5 See also
* 6 Notes
* 7 References
* 7.1 Sources
* 8 External links

## Effect on elections

Research by social choice theorists Steven Brams and Dudley R. Herschbach found that approval voting would increase voter participation, prevent minor-party candidates from being spoilers, and reduce negative campaigning.[3] Brams' research concluded that approval can be expected to elect majority-preferred candidates in practical election scenarios, avoiding the center squeeze common to ranked-choice voting and primary elections.[4][5]

One study showed that approval would not have chosen the same two winners as plurality voting (Jacques Chirac and Jean-Marie Le Pen) in the first round of the 2002 French presidential election; it instead would have chosen Chirac and Lionel Jospin as the top two candidates to proceed to the runoff.

In the actual election, Le Pen lost by an overwhelming margin in the runoff, 82.2% to 17.8%, a sign that the true top two candidates had not been found. In the approval voting survey primary, Chirac took first place with 36.7%, compared to Jospin at 32.9%. Le Pen, in that study, received 25.1% and so would not have made the cut to the second round. In the real primary election, the top three were Chirac, 19.9%, Le Pen, 16.9%, and Jospin, 16.2%.[6] A study of various evaluative voting methods (approval and score voting) during the 2012 French presidential election showed that "unifying" candidates tended to do better, and polarizing candidates did worse, as compared to under plurality voting.[7]

## Use

### Current electoral use

#### Latvia

The Latvian parliament uses a modified version of approval voting within open list proportional representation, in which voters can cast either positive (approval) votes, negative votes or neither for any number of candidates.[8]

#### United States

Missouri

In November 2020, St. Louis, Missouri, passed Proposition D with 70% voting to authorize a variant of approval (unified primary) for municipal offices.[9] In 2021, the first mayoral election with approval voting saw Tishaura Jones and Cara Spencer move on to the general with 57% and 46% support. Lewis Reed and Andrew Jones were eliminated with 39% and 14% support, resulting in an average of 1.6 candidates supported by each voter in the 4 person race.[10]

North Dakota

In 2018, Fargo, North Dakota, passed a local ballot initiative adopting approval for the city's local elections, becoming the first United States city and jurisdiction to adopt approval.[11][12] Previously in 2015, a Fargo city commissioner election had suffered from six-way vote-splitting, resulting in a candidate winning with 22% plurality of the vote.[13]

The first election was held June 9, 2020, selecting two city commissioners, from seven candidates on the ballot.[14] Both winners received over 50% approval, with an average 2.3 approvals per ballot, and 62% of voters supported the change to approval in a poll.[15] A poll by opponents of approval was conducted to test whether voters had in fact voted strategically according to the Burr dilemma.[16] They found that 30% of voters who bullet voted did so for strategic reasons, while 57% did so because it was their sincere opinion.[17][18] Fargo's second approval election took place in June 2022, for mayor and city commission. The incumbent mayor was re-elected from a field of 7 candidates, with an estimated 65% approval, with voters expressing 1.6 approvals per ballot, and the two commissioners were elected from a field of 15 candidates, with 3.1 approvals per ballot.[19]

In 2023, the North Dakota legislature passed a bill which intended to ban approval voting. The bill was vetoed by governor Doug Burgum, citing the importance of "home rule" and allowing citizens control over their local government. The legislature attempted to overrule the veto but failed.[20] In April 2025, Governor Kelly Armstrong signed a bill banning ranked-choice voting and approval voting in the state, ending the practice in Fargo.[21]

Utah

Emily Buss (politician)#2025 special primary

### Use by organizations

Approval has been used in privately administered nomination contests by the Independent Party of Oregon in 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2016. Oregon is a fusion voting state, and the party has cross-nominated legislators and statewide officeholders using this method; its 2016 presidential preference primary did not identify a potential nominee due to no candidate earning more than 32% support.[22][23][24] The party switched to using STAR voting in 2020.[25][26]

It is also used in internal elections by the American Solidarity Party;[27] the Green Parties of Texas[28][29] and Ohio;[30] the Libertarian National Committee;[31] the Libertarian parties of Texas,[32] Colorado,[33][34] Arizona,[35] and New York;[36] Alliance 90/The Greens in Germany;[37] and the Czech[38] and German Pirate Party.[39][40][41]

Approval has been adopted by several societies: the Society for Social Choice and Welfare (1992),[42] Mathematical Association of America (1986),[43] the American Mathematical Society,[44] the Institute of Management Sciences (1987) (now the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences),[45] the American Statistical Association (1987),[46] and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (1987).

Steven Brams' analysis of the 5-candidate 1987 Mathematical Association of America presidential election shows that 79% of voters cast a ballot for one candidate, 16% for 2 candidates, 5% for 3, and 1% for 4, with the winner earning the approval of 1,267 (32%) of 3,924 voters.[5][47] The IEEE board in 2002 rescinded its decision to use approval. IEEE Executive Director Daniel J. Senese stated that approval was abandoned because "few of our members were using it and it was felt that it was no longer needed."[5]

Approval voting was used for Dartmouth Alumni Association elections for seats on the College Board of Trustees, but after some controversy[48] it was replaced with traditional runoff elections by an alumni vote of 82% to 18% in 2009.[49] Dartmouth students started to use approval voting to elect their student body president in 2011. In the first election, the winner secured the support of 41% of voters against several write-in candidates.[50] In 2012, Suril Kantaria won with the support of 32% of the voters.[51] In 2013, 2014 and 2016, the winners also earned the support of under 40% of the voters.[52][53][54] Results reported in The Dartmouth show that in the 2014 and 2016 elections, more than 80 percent of voters approved of only one candidate.[53][54] Students replaced approval voting with plurality voting before the 2017 elections.[55]

### Historical

Rows of secret approval vote boxes from early 1900s Greece, where the voter drops a marble to the right or left of the box, through a tube, one for each candidate standing

Robert J. Weber coined the term "Approval Voting" in 1971.[56] It was more fully published in 1978 by political scientist Steven Brams and mathematician Peter Fishburn.[57]

Historically, several voting methods that incorporate aspects of approval have been used:

* Approval was used for papal conclaves between 1294 and 1621, with an average of about forty cardinals engaging in repeated rounds of voting until one candidate was listed on at least two-thirds of ballots.[58]
* In the 13th through 18th centuries, the Republic of Venice elected the Doge of Venice using a multi-stage process that featured random selection and voting that allowed approval of multiple candidates.[59][60]
* According to Steven J. Brams, approval was used for unspecified elections in 19th century England.[61]
* The Secretary-General of the United Nations is elected in a multi-round straw poll process where, in each round, members of the Security Council may approve or disapprove of candidates, or decide to express no opinion. Disapproval by permanent members of the Security Council is similar to a veto. A candidate with no vetoes, at least nine votes, and more votes than any other candidate is considered to be likely to be supported by the Security Council in its formal recommendation vote.[62][63]
* Approval was used in Greek legislative elections from 1864 to 1923, after which it was replaced with party-list proportional representation.[64]
* Sequential proportional approval voting was used in Swedish elections in the early 20th century, prior to being replaced by party-list proportional representation.

The idea of approval was adopted by X. Hu and Lloyd Shapley in 2003 in studying authority distribution in organizations.[65]

## Strategic voting

### Overview

Approval voting allows voters to select all the candidates whom they consider to be reasonable choices.

Strategic approval differs from ranked voting (aka preferential voting) methods where voters are generally forced to reverse the preference order of two options, which if done on a larger scale can cause an unpopular candidate to win. Strategic approval, with more than two options, involves the voter changing their approval threshold. The voter decides which options to give the same rating, even if they were to have a preference order between them. This leaves a tactical concern any voter has for approving their second-favorite candidate, in the case that there are three or more candidates. Approving their second-favorite means the voter harms their favorite candidate's chance to win. Not approving their second-favorite means the voter helps the candidate they least desire to beat their second-favorite and perhaps win.

Approval technically allows for but is strategically immune to push-over and burying.

Bullet voting occurs when a voter approves only candidate "a" instead of both "a" and "b" for the reason that voting for "b" can cause "a" to lose. The voter would be satisfied with either "a" or "b" but has a moderate preference for "a". Were "b" to win, this hypothetical voter would still be satisfied. If supporters of both "a" and "b" do this, it could cause candidate "c" to win. This creates the "chicken dilemma", as supporters of "a" and "b" are playing chicken as to which will stop strategic voting first, before both of these candidates lose.

Compromising occurs when a voter approves an additional candidate who is otherwise considered unacceptable to the voter to prevent an even worse alternative from winning.

### Sincere voting

Approval experts describe sincere votes as those "... that directly reflect the true preferences of a voter, i.e., that do not report preferences 'falsely.'"[66] They also give a specific definition of a sincere approval vote in terms of the voter's ordinal preferences as being any vote that, if it votes for one candidate, it also votes for any more preferred candidate. This definition allows a sincere vote to treat strictly preferred candidates the same, ensuring that every voter has at least one sincere vote. The definition also allows a sincere vote to treat equally preferred candidates differently. When there are two or more candidates, every voter has at least three sincere approval votes to choose from. Two of those sincere approval votes do not distinguish between any of the candidates: vote for none of the candidates and vote for all of the candidates. When there are three or more candidates, every voter has more than one sincere approval vote that distinguishes between the candidates.

#### Examples

Based on the definition above, if there are four candidates, A, B, C, and D, and a voter has a strict preference order, preferring A to B to C to D, then the following are the voter's possible sincere approval votes:

* vote for A, B, C, and D
* vote for A, B, and C
* vote for A and B
* vote for A
* vote for no candidates

If the voter instead equally prefers B and C, while A is still the most preferred candidate and D is the least preferred candidate, then all of the above votes are sincere and the following combination is also a sincere vote:

* vote for A and C

The decision between the above ballots is equivalent to deciding an arbitrary "approval cutoff." All candidates preferred to the cutoff are approved, all candidates less preferred are not approved, and any candidates equal to the cutoff may be approved or not arbitrarily.

### Sincere strategy with ordinal preferences

A sincere voter with multiple options for voting sincerely still has to choose which sincere vote to use. Voting strategy is a way to make that choice, in which case strategic approval includes sincere voting, rather than being an alternative to it.[67] This differs from other voting systems that typically have a unique sincere vote for a voter.

When there are three or more candidates, the winner of an approval election can change, depending on which sincere votes are used. In some cases, approval can sincerely elect any one of the candidates, including a Condorcet winner and a Condorcet loser, without the voter preferences changing. To the extent that electing a Condorcet winner and not electing a Condorcet loser is considered desirable outcomes for a voting system, approval can be considered vulnerable to sincere, strategic voting.[68] In one sense, conditions where this can happen are robust and are not isolated cases.[69] On the other hand, the variety of possible outcomes has also been portrayed as a virtue of approval, representing the flexibility and responsiveness of approval, not just to voter ordinal preferences, but cardinal utilities as well.[70]

#### Dichotomous preferences

Approval avoids the issue of multiple sincere votes in special cases when voters have dichotomous preferences. For a voter with dichotomous preferences, approval is strategyproof.[71] When all voters have dichotomous preferences and vote the sincere, strategy-proof vote, approval is guaranteed to elect a Condorcet winner.[72] However, having dichotomous preferences when there are three or more candidates is not typical. It is an unlikely situation for all voters to have dichotomous preferences when there are more than a few voters.[67]

Having dichotomous preferences means that a voter has bi-level preferences for the candidates. All of the candidates are divided into two groups such that the voter is indifferent between any two candidates in the same group and any candidate in the top-level group is preferred to any candidate in the bottom-level group.[73] A voter that has strict preferences between three candidates—prefers A to B and B to C—does not have dichotomous preferences.

Being strategy-proof for a voter means that there is a unique way for the voter to vote that is a strategically best way to vote, regardless of how others vote. In approval, the strategy-proof vote, if it exists, is a sincere vote.[66]

#### Approval threshold

Another way to deal with multiple sincere votes is to augment the ordinal preference model with an approval or acceptance threshold. An approval threshold divides all of the candidates into two sets, those the voter approves of and those the voter does not approve of. A voter can approve of more than one candidate and still prefer one approved candidate to another approved candidate. Acceptance thresholds are similar. With such a threshold, a voter simply votes for every candidate that meets or exceeds the threshold.[67]

With threshold voting, it is still possible to not elect the Condorcet winner and instead elect the Condorcet loser when they both exist. However, according to Steven Brams, this represents a strength rather than a weakness of approval. Without providing specifics, he argues that the pragmatic judgments of voters about which candidates are acceptable should take precedence over the Condorcet criterion and other social choice criteria.[74]

### Strategy with cardinal utilities

Voting strategy under approval is guided by two competing features of approval. On the one hand, approval fails the later-no-harm criterion, so voting for a candidate can cause that candidate to win instead of a candidate more preferred by that voter. On the other hand, approval satisfies the monotonicity criterion, so not voting for a candidate can never help that candidate win, but can cause that candidate to lose to a less preferred candidate. Either way, the voter can risk getting a less preferred election winner. A voter can balance the risk-benefit trade-offs by considering the voter's cardinal utilities, particularly via the von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem, and the probabilities of how others vote.

A rational voter model described by Myerson and Weber specifies an approval strategy that votes for those candidates that have a positive prospective rating.[75] This strategy is optimal in the sense that it maximizes the voter's expected utility, subject to the constraints of the model and provided the number of other voters is sufficiently large.

An optimal approval vote always votes for the most preferred candidate and not for the least preferred candidate, which is a dominant strategy. An optimal vote can require supporting one candidate and not voting for a more preferred candidate if there 4 candidates or more, e.g. the third and fourth choices are correlated to gain or lose decisive votes together; however, such situations are inherently unstable, suggesting such strategy should be rare.[76]

Other strategies are also available and coincide with the optimal strategy in special situations. For example:

* Vote for the candidates that have above average utility. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if the voter thinks that all pairwise ties are equally likely.[77]
* Vote for any candidate that is more preferred than the expected winner and also vote for the expected winner if the expected winner is more preferred than the expected runner-up. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy if there are three or fewer candidates or if the pivot probability for a tie between the expected winner and expected runner-up is sufficiently large compared to the other pivot probabilities. This strategy, if used by all voters, implies at equilibrium the election of the Condorcet winner whenever it exists.[78]
* Vote for the most preferred candidate only. This strategy coincides with the optimal strategy when the best candidate is either much better than all others (i.e. is the only one with a positive expected value).[79]
* If all voters are rational and cast a strategically optimal vote based on a common knowledge of how all other voters vote except for small-probability, statistically independent errors, then the winner will be the Condorcet winner, if one exists.[80]

### Strategy examples

In the example election described here, assume that the voters in each faction share the following von Neumann–Morgenstern utilities, fitted to the interval between 0 and 100. The utilities are consistent with the rankings given earlier and reflect a strong preference each faction has for choosing its city, compared to weaker preferences for other factors such as the distance to the other cities.

Voter utilities for each candidate city  Fraction of voters (living close to) | Candidates  | Average

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Memphis  | Nashville  | Chattanooga  | Knoxville
Memphis (42%)  | 100 | 15 | 10 | 0 | 31.25
Nashville (26%)  | 0 | 100 | 20 | 15 | 33.75
Chattanooga (15%)  | 0 | 15 | 100 | 35 | 37.5
Knoxville (17%)  | 0 | 15 | 40 | 100 | 38.75

Using these utilities, voters choose their optimal strategic votes based on what they think the various pivot probabilities are for pairwise ties. In each of the scenarios summarized below, all voters share a common set of pivot probabilities.

Approval Voting results for scenarios using optimal strategic voting  Strategy scenario  | Winner  | Runner-up  | Candidate vote totals

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Memphis  | Nashville  | Chattanooga  | Knoxville
Zero-info  | Memphis | Chattanooga | 42 | 26 | 32 | 17
Memphis leading Chattanooga  | Three-way tie | 42 | 58 | 58 | 58
Chattanooga leading Knoxville  | Chattanooga | Nashville | 42 | 68 | 83 | 17
Chattanooga leading Nashville  | Nashville | Memphis | 42 | 68 | 32 | 17
Nashville leading Memphis  | Nashville | Memphis | 42 | 58 | 32 | 32

In the first scenario, voters all choose their votes based on the assumption that all pairwise ties are equally likely. As a result, they vote for any candidate with an above-average utility. Most voters vote for only their first choice. Only the Knoxville faction also votes for its second choice, Chattanooga. As a result, the winner is Memphis, the Condorcet loser, with Chattanooga coming in second place. In this scenario, the winner has minority approval (more voters disapproved than approved) and all the others had even less support, reflecting the position that no choice gave an above-average utility to a majority of voters.

In the second scenario, all of the voters expect that Memphis is the likely winner, that Chattanooga is the likely runner-up, and that the pivot probability for a Memphis-Chattanooga tie is much larger than the pivot probabilities of any other pair-wise ties. As a result, each voter votes for any candidate they prefer more than the leading candidate, and also vote for the leading candidate if they prefer that candidate more than the expected runner-up. Each remaining scenario follows a similar pattern of expectations and voting strategies.

In the second scenario, there is a three-way tie for first place. This happens because the expected winner, Memphis, was the Condorcet loser and was also ranked last by any voter that did not rank it first.

Only in the last scenario does the actual winner and runner-up match the expected winner and runner-up. As a result, this can be considered a stable strategic voting scenario. In the language of game theory, this is an "equilibrium." In this scenario, the winner is also the Condorcet winner.

### Dichotomous cutoff

Modeling voters with a 'dichotomous cutoff' assumes a voter has an immovable approval cutoff, while having meaningful cardinal preferences. This means that rather than voting for their top 3 candidates, or all candidates above the average approval, they instead vote for all candidates above a certain approval 'cutoff' that they have decided. This cutoff does not change, regardless of which and how many candidates are running, so when all available alternatives are either above or below the cutoff, the voter votes for all or none of the candidates, despite preferring some over others. This could be imagined to reflect a case where many voters become disenfranchised and apathetic if they see no candidates they approve of. In a case such as this, many voters may have an internal cutoff, and would not simply vote for their top 3, or the above average candidates.

For example, in this scenario, voters are voting for candidates with approval above 50% (bold signifies that the voters voted for the candidate):

Proportion of electorate  | Approval of Candidate A  | Approval of Candidate B  | Approval of Candidate C  | Approval of Candidate D  | Average approval

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25%  | 90% | 60% | 40% | 10% | 50%
35%  | 10% | 90% | 60% | 40% | 50%
30%  | 40% | 10% | 90% | 60% | 50%
10%  | 60% | 40% | 10% | 90% | 50%

C wins with 65% of the voters' approval, beating B with 60%, D with 40% and A with 35%

If voters' threshold for receiving a vote is that the candidate has an above average approval, or they vote for their two most approved of candidates, this is not a dichotomous cutoff, as this can change if candidates drop out. On the other hand, if voters' threshold for receiving a vote is fixed (say 50%), this is a dichotomous cutoff, and satisfies IIA as shown below:

A drops out, candidates voting for above average approval  Proportion of electorate  | Approval of Candidate A  | Approval of Candidate B  | Approval of Candidate C  | Approval of Candidate D  | Average approval

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25%  | – | 60% | 40% | 10% | 37%
35%  | – | 90% | 60% | 40% | 63%
30%  | – | 10% | 90% | 60% | 53%
10%  | – | 40% | 10% | 90% | 47%

B now wins with 60%, beating C with 55% and D with 40%

A drops out, candidates voting for approval > 50%  Proportion of electorate  | Approval of Candidate A  | Approval of Candidate B  | Approval of Candidate C  | Approval of Candidate D  | Average approval

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25%  | – | 60% | 40% | 10% | 37%
35%  | – | 90% | 60% | 40% | 63%
30%  | – | 10% | 90% | 60% | 53%
10%  | – | 40% | 10% | 90% | 47%

With dichotomous cutoff, C still wins.

D drops out, candidates voting for top 2 candidates  Proportion of electorate  | Approval of Candidate A  | Approval of Candidate B  | Approval of Candidate C  | Approval of Candidate D  | Average approval

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25%  | 90% | 60% | 40% | – | 63%
35%  | 10% | 90% | 60% | – | 53%
30%  | 40% | 10% | 90% | – | 47%
10%  | 60% | 40% | 10% | – | 37%

B now wins with 70%, beating C and A with 65%

D drops out, candidates voting for approval > 50%  Proportion of electorate  | Approval of Candidate A  | Approval of Candidate B  | Approval of Candidate C  | Approval of Candidate D  | Average approval

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25%  | 90% | 60% | 40% | – | 63%
35%  | 10% | 90% | 60% | – | 53%
30%  | 40% | 10% | 90% | – | 47%
10%  | 60% | 40% | 10% | – | 37%

With dichotomous cutoff, C still wins.

## Compliance with voting system criteria

Template:Incomplete table Most of the mathematical criteria by which voting systems are compared were formulated for voters with ordinal preferences. In this case, approval voting requires voters to make an additional decision of where to put their approval cutoff (see examples above). Depending on how this decision is made, approval satisfies different sets of criteria.

There is no ultimate authority on which criteria should be considered, but the following are criteria that many voting theorists accept and consider desirable:

Voting model: | Majority | Monotone and Participation | Condorcet and Smith | IIA | Clone independence | Reversal symmetry  | Sincere favorite | Strategyproof

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Zero information[75] | No  | Yes  | No  | No  | No  | Yes  | Yes  | No
Yes  | Yes  | Yes  | No  |  |  | Yes  | No
Trembling ballots[80] | Yes  | Yes  | Yes  | No  |  |  | Yes  | No
Binary preferences[56][note 1] | Yes  | Yes  | Yes  | Yes  | Yes  | Yes  | Yes  | Yes

## See also

Some variants and generalizations of approval voting are:

* Multiwinner approval voting — multiple candidates may be elected, instead of just one.
* Fractional approval voting — the election outcome is a distribution - assigning a fraction to each candidate.
* Score voting (also called range voting) — is simply approval voting where voters can give a wider range of scores than 0 or 1 (e.g. 0-5 or 0–7).
* Combined approval voting — form of score voting with three levels that uses a scale of (-1, 0, +1) or (0, .5, 1).
* D21 – Janeček method — limited to two approval and one negative vote per voter.
* Unified primary — a nonpartisan primary that uses approval voting for the first round.

## Notes

1. ↑ Assuming voters have only two categories of preference ("approve" and "disapprove"). Voters are indifferent between any two candidates they approve, and between any two they disapprove.[73] As a result, a voter's approval of a candidate does not depend on what the other alternatives are.

## References

1. ↑ Hamlin, Aaron; Hua, Whitney (2023-09-01). "The case for approval voting". Constitutional Political Economy 34 (3): 337. doi:10.1007/s10602-022-09381-x. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10602-022-09381-x. Retrieved 22 March 2026.
2. ↑ Hamlin, Aaron; Hua, Whitney (2023-09-01). "The case for approval voting". Constitutional Political Economy 34 (3): 336. doi:10.1007/s10602-022-09381-x. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10602-022-09381-x. Retrieved 22 March 2026.
3. ↑ Brams, Steven J.; Herschbach, Dudley R. (2001). "The Science of Elections". Science 292 (5521): 1449. doi:10.1126/science.292.5521.1449. PMID 11379606.
4. ↑ Brams, Steven J. (2008). Mathematics and Democracy: Designing Better Voting and Fair-Division Procedures. Princeton University Press. p. 16. ISBN 9780691133218. https://archive.org/details/mathematicsdemoc00bram.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Brams, Steven J.; Fishburn, Peter C. (August 2003). "Going from Theory to Practice: The Mixed Success of Approval Voting". American Political Science Association. http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/theory_to_practice.pdf. Retrieved May 8, 2010.
6. ↑ Laslier, Jean-François; Vander Straeten, Karine (April 2003). "Approval Voting: An Experiment during the French 2002 Presidential Election". p. 6. http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/VPP/VPPpdf_Wshop2/jflkvdscaen.pdf.
7. ↑ Baujard, Antoinette; Igersheim, Herrade; Lebon, Isabelle; Gavrel, Frédéric; Laslier, Jean-François (June 1, 2014). "Who's favored by evaluative voting? An experiment conducted during the 2012 French presidential election". Electoral Studies 34: 131–145. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2013.11.003. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00803024/file/cahier_2013-05.pdf.
8. ↑ "How do elections work in Latvia?" (in en). https://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/how-do-elections-work-in-latvia/.
9. ↑ "St. Louis Voters Approve Nonpartisan Elections". U.S. News & World Report. November 4, 2020. https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/missouri/articles/2020-11-04/st-louis-voters-approve-nonpartisan-elections.
10. ↑ Clancy, Sam (March 2, 2021). "Tishaura Jones, Cara Spencer advance to general election in race for St. Louis Mayor". KSDK (St. Louis, MO). https://www.ksdk.com/article/news/politics/elections/tishaura-jones-cara-spencer-st-louis-mayor-race/63-34335593-223a-431b-ac63-b17eb2495841.
11. ↑ One of America's Most Famous Towns Becomes First in the Nation to Adopt Approval Voting , accessed November 7, 2018
12. ↑ Moen, Mike (June 10, 2020). "Fargo Becomes First U.S. City to Try Approval Voting". Public News Service. https://www.publicnewsservice.org/2020-06-10/civic-engagement/fargo-becomes-first-u-s-city-to-try-approval-voting/a70495-1.
13. ↑ Piper, Kelsey (November 15, 2018). "This city just approved a new election system never tried before in America" (in en). https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2018/11/15/18092206/midterm-elections-vote-fargo-approval-voting-ranked-choice.
14. ↑ Amundson, Barry (June 9, 2020). "Strand and Preston emerge as leaders in Fargo City Commission race" (in en). https://www.inforum.com/news/government-and-politics/6528646-Strand-and-Preston-emerge-as-leaders-in-Fargo-City-Commission-race.
15. ↑ "Fargo's First Approval Voting Election: Results and Voter Experience" (in en-US). June 17, 2020. https://www.electionscience.org/commentary-analysis/fargos-first-approval-voting-election-results-and-voter-experience/.
16. ↑ Nagel, Jack H. (2007). "The Burr Dilemma in Approval Voting" (in en). The Journal of Politics 69 (1): 43–58. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00493.x. ISSN 0022-3816. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00493.x.
17. ↑ RCV for Colorado. "Approval Voting Case Study". https://drive.google.com/file/d/11_puAt_0JYw0NSL2ykqGz_bZfmic45AP/view?usp=sharing&usp=embed_facebook.
18. ↑ "Guest opinion: Emma Donahue and Linda S. Templin: Ballot issue 2E just makes sense - Ranked Choice Voting for Colorado" (in en-US). https://rcvforcolorado.org/guest-opinion-emma-donahue-and-linda-s-templin-ballot-issue-2e-just-makes-sense/. "Triton Polling called Fargo voters and found that a significant number had gamed that voting method by bullet voting, just like the experts said they would."
19. ↑ Hamlin, Aaron (June 16, 2022). "Fargo's Second Approval Voting Election Runs Smoothly" (in en-US). https://electionscience.org/commentary-analysis/fargos-second-approval-voting-election-runs-smoothly/.
20. ↑ Carvel, Tasha (April 19, 2023). "Fargo approval voting survives after Senate fails to override Burgum veto of ban". The Mighty 790 KFGO (Fargo, ND). https://kfgo.com/2023/04/19/794980/.
21. ↑ Dura, Jack (April 16, 2025). "North Dakota governor signs bill doing away with Fargo's unusual voting system". Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/fargo-north-dakota-legislature-voting-elections-8f85df3e17bf77fd7af41693569831ac.
22. ↑ Peralta, Sal (June 17, 2016). "Following tense primary, Independent Party plans presidential preference vote (OPINION)" (in en-US). The Oregonian. http://www.oregonlive.com/opinion/index.ssf/2016/06/following_tense_primary_indepe.html.
23. ↑ Radnovich, Connor (April 21, 2018). "Independent Party's internal conflict highlighted in Oregon governor race" (in en). Statesman Journal. https://www.statesmanjournal.com/story/news/politics/2018/04/21/oregon-independent-party-governor-candidates-internal-conflict-highlighted/530248002/.
24. ↑ Richie, Rob (December 14, 2016). "New Lessons from Problems with Approval Voting in Practice". FairVote. http://www.fairvote.org/new_lessons_from_problems_with_approval_voting_in_practice.
25. ↑ "STAR VOTING ANNOUNCEMENT" (in en). Salem. April 7, 2020. https://www.indparty.com/election-notice.
26. ↑ "Independent Party of Oregon to utilize STAR system for primary" (in en). Herald and News. April 8, 2020. https://www.heraldandnews.com/news/local_news/independent-party-of-oregon-to-utilize-star-system-for-primary/article_b475ff5a-75c7-55f8-8e46-95b483eaff28.html.
27. ↑ Covich, Skylar. "Vice-Chair's Remarks". https://solidarity-party.org/16112120-b9ec-4746-9bff-c2d18e7662b9/.
28. ↑ "Platform". Green Party of Texas. http://www.txgreens.org/platform#reform. "We support switching to a preferential voting method, such as approval voting."
29. ↑ "By-Laws". Green Party of Texas. http://www.txgreens.org/by_laws. "The Co-Chair, Treasurer, and Secretary positions shall be filled by using approval voting."
30. ↑ "Ohio Green Party Presidential Nominating Convention (Columbus)". Ohio Green Party. http://www.ohiogreens.org/event/ohio-green-party-presidential-nominating-convention-columbus-results. "We have agreed to use "approval voting" as opposed to "instant runoff voting" to make the Ohio Green Party choice for president"
31. ↑ "MEETING MINUTES LIBERTARIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE". October 4, 2020. https://lpedia.org/w/images/f/fa/LNC-MEETING_2020-10-04_FINAL.pdf#page=10. "VOTING METHOD: Approval Voting per OpaVote. Vote for as many candidates as desired."
32. ↑ "State Platform". Libertarian Party of Texas. http://www.lptexas.org/state-platform. "We also believe that all races should be decided by Approval Voting"
33. ↑ "Document:Colorado State Party Bylaws 2021". https://lpedia.org/wiki/Document:Colorado_State_Party_Bylaws_2021. "For any partisan offices, Convention Delegates shall vote by approval voting"
34. ↑ "Colorado Convention 2018" (in en). LPedia. https://lpedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Convention_2018. "All candidates were selected by approval voting via standing vote."
35. ↑ "Bylaws" (in en-US). https://azlp.org/about/bylaws/. "The remaining Delegates … shall be elected by approval voting … should there be more Delegate Candidates than allotted seats."
36. ↑ "Rules of the Libertarian Party". November 7, 2021. https://lpny.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/24/2021/11/LPNY-RULES-2021-11-07.pdf#page=10. "All elections shall be held with approval voting"
37. ↑ "Grüne München: Satzung" (in de). January 18, 2017. https://www.gruene-muenchen.de/partei/satzung/. "Delegierte für Bundes, Landes- und Bezirksversammlungen werden per Zustimmungsblockwahl gewählt. Jede*r Stimmberechtigte hat so viele Stimmen, wie Bewerber*innen zur Wahl stehen, und kann jeder*m Bewerber*in eine oder keine Stimme geben."
38. ↑ "Jednací řád celostátního fóra" (in cs). https://wiki.pirati.cz/rules/jdr.
39. ↑ "Akzeptanzwahl – Piratenwiki" (in de). https://wiki.piratenpartei.de/Akzeptanzwahl. "Die Akzeptanzwahl ist aktuell das Standard-Wahlverfahren beim Großteil aller Parteitage in der Piratenpartei."
40. ↑ "Bundesparteitag 2010.1/Geschäftsordnung" (in de). German Pirate Party. http://wiki.piratenpartei.de/Bundesparteitag_2010.1/Geschäftsordnung#Wahlen_zu_Vorstand_und_Schiedsgericht.
41. ↑ "Election Data from the German Pirate Party (Piratenpartei)". The Center for Election Science. https://sites.google.com/a/electology.org/www/pirate-elections-germany.
42. ↑ "Statutes of the Society for Social Choice and Welfare". Society for Social Choice and Welfare. http://www.unicaen.fr/recherche/mrsh/sites/all/themes/simpler2/scw/statutesSCW.pdf.
43. ↑ "MAA Bylaws". Mathematical Association of America. August 7, 2010. http://www.maa.org/about-maa/governance/governance-documents/bylaws#article9.
44. ↑ "2015 American Mathematical Society Elections". American Mathematical Society. https://www.ams.org/notices/201508/rnoti-p931a.pdf.
45. ↑ "Constitution of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences". Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences. August 2017. p. 7. https://www.informs.org/content/download/363531/3797055/file/Constitution and Bylaws August 2017.pdf.
46. ↑ "Bylaws of the American Statistical Association". American Statistical Association. September 19, 2018. https://www.amstat.org/asa/files/pdfs/ABT-Bylaws.pdf.
47. ↑ Brams, Steven J.; Fishburn, Peter C. (2010). "Going from Theory to Practice: The Mixed Success of Approval Voting". in Laslier, Jean-François (in en). Handbook on Approval Voting. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 19–37. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-02839-7_3. ISBN 9783642028380. https://archive.org/details/handbookonapprov00lasl.
48. ↑ "Verbum Ultimum: Making Amends". The Dartmouth. April 3, 2009. https://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2009/04/verbum-ultimum-making-amends.
49. ↑ "Dartmouth Alumni Association Election Results: New Executive Committee Elected; Constitutional Amendment Passes". Dartmouth Office of Alumni Relations. May 9, 2009. https://alumni.dartmouth.edu/content/dartmouth-alumni-association-election-results-new-executive-committee-elected-constitutional.
50. ↑ Bruschi, Nathan (April 16, 2011). "Hix '12, Dartmouth Student Body, both shafted in student election". The Little Green Blog. http://thelittlegreenblog.blogspot.com/2011/04/hix-12-dartmouth-student-body-both.html.
51. ↑ Shkuratov, Marina (April 16, 2012). "Kantaria, Danford win Student Assembly elections". The Dartmouth. https://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2012/04/kantaria-danford-win-student-assembly-elections.
52. ↑ Riordan, Michael (April 15, 2013). "Ferrari, Zhu elected to lead Student Assembly". The Dartmouth. https://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2013/04/ferrari-zhu-elected-to-lead-student-assembly.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 McGahan, Sara (April 15, 2014). "Dennis, Cunningham to lead Assembly". The Dartmouth. https://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2014/04/dennis-cunningham-to-lead-assembly.
54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Jiang, Heyi (April 17, 2016). "Harrington will be Student Assembly president". The Dartmouth. https://www.thedartmouth.com/article/2016/04/harrington-wins-student-assembly-president-election.
55. ↑ [1], Dartmouth student constitution
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Brams, Steven J.; Fishburn, Peter C. (2007), Approval Voting, Springer-Verlag, p. xv, ISBN 978-0-387-49895-9, https://books.google.com/books?id=e7h7evxSclIC&pg=PR5
57. ↑ Brams, Steven; Fishburn, Peter (1978). "Approval Voting". American Political Science Review 72 (3): 831–847. doi:10.2307/1955105.
58. ↑ Colomer, Josep M.; McLean, Iain (1998). "Electing Popes: Approval Balloting and Qualified-Majority Rule". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 29 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1162/002219598551616.
59. ↑ Lines, Marji (1986). "Approval Voting and Strategy Analysis: A Venetian Example". Theory and Decision 20 (2): 155–172. doi:10.1007/BF00135090.
60. ↑ Mowbray, Miranda; Gollmann, Dieter (July 2007). "Electing the Doge of Venice: analysis of a 13th Century protocol". IEEE Computer Security Foundations Symposium. Venice, Italy. http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2007/HPL-2007-28R1.pdf.
61. ↑ Brams, Steven J. (April 1, 2006). The Normative Turn in Public Choice (PDF) (Speech). Presidential Address to Public Choice Society. New Orleans, Louisiana. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 31, 2010. Retrieved May 8, 2010.
62. ↑ "The "Wisnumurti Guidelines" for Selecting a Candidate for Secretary-General". http://www.unsgselection.org/files/WisnumurtiGuidelinesSelectingCandidateSecretary-General.pdf.
63. ↑ Tharoor, Shashi (October 21, 2016). "The inside Story of How I Lost the Race for the UN Secretary-General's Job in 2006" (in en). http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/cover-story/the-inside-story-of-how-i-lost-the-race-for-the-un-secretary-generals-job-in-2006-shashi-tharoor.
64. ↑ Mavrogordatos, George Th. (1983) (in en). Stillborn Republic: Social Coalitions and Party Strategies in Greece 1922–1936. University of California Press. pp. 351–352. http://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MbSifRqxM1EC.
65. ↑ Hu, Xingwei; Shapley, Lloyd S. (2003). "On Authority Distributions in Organizations". Games and Economic Behavior 45 (1): 132–170. doi:10.1016/S0899-8256(03)00130-1.
66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 Brams & Fishburn 1983, p. 29.
67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 Niemi, R. G. (1984). "The Problem of Strategic Behavior under Approval Voting". American Political Science Review 78 (4): 952–958. doi:10.2307/1955800.
68. ↑ Yilmaz, M. R. (1999). "Can we improve upon approval voting?". European Journal of Political Economy 15 (1): 89–100. doi:10.1016/S0176-2680(98)00043-3.
69. ↑ Saari, Donald G.; Van Newenhizen, Jill (2004). "The problem of indeterminancy in approval, multiple, and truncated voting systems". Public Choice 59 (2): 101–120. doi:10.1007/BF00054447.
70. ↑ Saari, Donald G.; Van Newenhizen, Jill (2004). "Is approval voting an 'unmitigated evil?' A response to Brams, Fishburn, and Merrill". Public Choice 59 (2): 133–147. doi:10.1007/BF00054449.
71. ↑ Brams & Fishburn 1983, p. 31.
72. ↑ Brams & Fishburn 1983, p. 38.
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Brams & Fishburn 1983, p. 16–17.
74. ↑ Brams, S. J.; Remzi Sanver, M. (2005). "Critical strategies under approval voting: Who gets ruled in and ruled out". Electoral Studies 25 (2): 287–305. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2005.05.007.
75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Myerson, R.; Weber, R. J. (1993). "A theory of Voting Equilibria". American Political Science Review 87 (1): 102–114. doi:10.2307/2938959. http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/research/math/papers/782.pdf.
76. ↑ Dutta, B; De Sinopoli, F.; Laslier, J.-F. (2006). "Approval voting: three examples". International Journal of Game Theory 35: 27–38. doi:10.1007/s00182-006-0053-2.
77. ↑ Brams & Fishburn 1983, p. 85.
78. ↑ Laslier, J.-F. (2009). "The Leader rule: a model of strategic approval voting in a large electorate". Journal of Theoretical Politics 21 (1): 113–136. doi:10.1177/0951629808097286.
79. ↑ Brams & Fishburn 1983, p. 74, 81.
80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 Laslier, J.-F. (2006) "Strategic approval voting in a large electorate," IDEP Working Papers No. 405 (Marseille, France: Institut D'Economie Publique)

### Sources

* Brams, Steven J.; Fishburn, Peter C. (1983). Approval Voting. Boston: Birkhäuser. ISBN 3764331240. https://archive.org/details/approvalvoting00bram.

## External links

* Approval Voting Article by The Center for Election Science
* Could approval Voting Prevent Electoral Disaster? Video by Big Think
* Approval Voting on Dichotomous Preferences Article by Marc Vorsatz.
* Scoring Rules on Dichotomous Preferences Article by Marc Vorsatz.
* The Arithmetic of Voting article by Guy Ottewell
* Critical Strategies Under approval Voting: Who Gets Ruled In And Ruled Out Article by Steven J. Brams and M. Remzi Sanver.
* Quick and Easy Voting for Normal People YouTube video

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Electoral systems

Part of the politics and election series

Single-winner voting system|

* Approval voting
* Unified Primary
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Semi-proportional representation|

* Parallel voting
* Single non-transferable vote
* Cumulative voting
* Limited voting
* Proportional approval voting
* Sequential proportional approval voting
* Satisfaction approval voting
* Alternative vote plus

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