Baltic amber

Short description: Type of amber from the Baltic area

Raw unpolished Baltic amber

Paleogeography of Early-Mid Eocene Europe, showing location of Baltic Amber deposit (labelled Gdansk)

Typical beach sand on the Baltic Sea where amber is often washed up.

Fishing for amber at the seacoast, Mikoszewo, close to Gdańsk, Poland.

The Baltic region is home to the largest known deposit of amber, called Baltic amber or succinite. It was produced sometime during the Eocene epoch, but exactly when is controversial. It has been estimated that these forests created more than 100,000 tons of amber.[1] Today, more than 90% of the world's amber comes from Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia. It is a major source of income for the region; the local Kaliningrad Amber Combine extracted 250 tonnes of it in 2014,[2] 400 tonnes in 2015.[3]

"Baltic amber" was formerly thought to include amber from the Bitterfeld brown coal mines in Saxony (Eastern Germany). Bitterfeld amber was previously believed to be only 20–22 million years old (Miocene), but a comparison of the animal inclusions in 2003 suggested that it was possibly Baltic amber that was redeposited in a Miocene deposit.[4] Further study of insect taxa in the ambers has shown Bitterfeld amber to be from the same forest as the Baltic amber forest, but separately deposited from a more southerly section, in a similar manner as Ukrainian Rovno amber.[5] Other sources of Baltic amber have been listed as coming from Poland and Russia.

Because Baltic amber contains from 3 to 8% succinic acid, it is also termed succinite.

## Contents

* 1 Geologic context
* 2 Baltic amber tree
* 3 Structure
* 4 Paleobiology
* 4.1 Flora
* 4.2 Fauna
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 Bibliography

## Geologic context

Open pit amber mine in Kaliningrad, showing the lithology of the Prussian Formation, the source rock of Baltic amber

In situ Baltic amber is derived from the sediments of the geological formation termed the Prussian Formation, formerly called the "Amber Formation", with the main amber bearing horizon being referred to as "Blue Earth", so named due to its glauconite content. The formation is exposed in the northern part of the Sambia Peninsula in Kaliningrad. Much of the Baltic amber has been secondarily redeposited in Pleistocene glacial till deposits across the North European Plain.[6] It has been proposed that the amber is secondarily redeposited in coastal lagoonal conditions after a marine transgression of the amber forest. The age of the amber is controversial, though it is generally interpreted as having been produced during the Eocene epoch (56-34 million years ago). Different authors have given estimates of 40-47 million years ago and 35-43 million years ago as the age of the amber.[7]

## Baltic amber tree

It is universally agreed that the amber is coniferous in origin. It was thought since the 1850s that the resin that became amber was produced by the tree Pinites succinifer, but research in the 1980s came to the conclusion that the resin originates from several species. More recently, it has been proposed, on the evidence of Fourier-transform infrared microspectroscopy (FTIR) analysis of amber and resin from living trees, that conifers of the family Sciadopityaceae were responsible.[1] The only extant representative of this family is the Japanese umbrella pine, Sciadopitys verticillata.

## Structure

General model of the structure of Baltic amber

The structure of Baltic amber (succinite) is complex. It is not a polymer, because it is not composed of a repeating pattern of mers of the same type. Rather it has a macromolecular structure arranged in a crosslinked network, in which the pores (free spaces) are filled by components of molecular structure (e.g. by mono- and sesquiterpenes). Thus the chemical structure of the amber may be described as a supramolecule.[8] The structure makes the amber denser, harder and more resistant to external factors. It also makes possible good preservation of plant and animal inclusions.[9]

## Paleobiology

Different colours of Baltic amber.

Numerous extinct genera and species of plants and animals have been discovered and scientifically described from inclusions in Baltic amber.[10] Inclusions of insects make up over 98% of the animals preserved in the amber, while all other arthropods, annelids, molluscs, nematodes, protozoans contribute less than 0.5% of the animals. Vertebrates are another 0.5% of the animals included and mostly are represented by mammal fur, feathers, and reptiles.[11]

Fossil brentid beetle

### Flora

Name  | Authors  | Year  | Family  | Notes  | Images

|
|
|
|
|

* Notoscyphus balticus[12]

Heinrichs et al

2015

Geocalycaceae

A liverwort

* Rhizomnium dentatum[13]

Heinrichs et al

2014

Mniaceae

A bryopsid moss

### Fauna

## See also

* Amber Coast
* Dominican amber
* Japanese amber
* Ukrainian amber

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Wolfe, A. P.; Tappert, R.; Muehlenbachs, K.; Boudreau, M.; McKellar, R. C.; Basinger, J. F.; Garrett, A. (2009). "A new proposal concerning the botanical origin of Baltic amber". Proceedings of the Royal Society B 276 (1672): 3403–3412. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0806. PMID 19570786.
2. ↑ "Russia: Amber covers beach after storm". BBC. 9 January 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-news-from-elsewhere-30743703.
3. ↑ "Amber mining". Amber Museum Kaliningrad. http://www.ambermuseum.ru/en/home/about_amber/extraction.
4. ↑ Dunlop, J. A.; Giribet, G. (2003). "The first Fossil Cyphophthalmid (Arachnida: Opiliones), from Bitterfeld Amber, Germany". Journal of Arachnology 31 (3): 371–378. doi:10.1636/h03-03. https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/14919191/arac-031-03-0371.pdf?sequence=1.
5. ↑ Perkovsky, E. E.; Zosimovich, V. Y.; Vlaskin, A. P. (2010). "Chapter 7: Rovno amber". in Penney, D.. Biodiversity of Fossils in Amber from the Major World Deposits. Siri Scientific Press. pp. 116–136. ISBN 978-0-9558636-4-6.
6. ↑ Penney, David; Acra, Fadi (2010). "Baltic Amber". Biodiversity of fossils in amber from the major world deposits. Siri Scientific Press. pp. 81–84. ISBN 978-0-9558636-4-6. OCLC 904772774. https://www.worldcat.org/title/biodiversity-of-fossils-in-amber-from-the-major-world-deposits/oclc/904772774.
7. ↑ Moser, Marina; Burks, Roger A.; Ulmer, Jonah M.; Heraty, John M.; Kamp, Thomas van de; Krogmann, Lars (2021-05-25). "Taxonomic description and phylogenetic placement of two new species of Spalangiopelta (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae: Ceinae) from Eocene Baltic amber" (in en). PeerJ 9: e10939. doi:10.7717/peerj.10939. ISSN 2167-8359. PMID 34113480. PMC 8162234. https://peerj.com/articles/10939.
8. ↑ Matuszewska A. Bursztyn (sukcynit), inne żywice kopalne, subfosylne I współczesne. Katowice, 2010.
9. ↑ Matushevskaya 2013, p. 8
10. ↑ Weitschat, W.; Wichard, W. (2002). Atlas of Plants and Animals in Baltic Amber. Pfeil. ISBN 978-3931516949.
11. ↑ Weitschat, W.; Wichard, W. (2010). "Chapter 6: Baltic amber". in Penney, D.. Biodiversity of Fossils in Amber from the Major World Deposits. Siri Scientific Press. pp. 80–115. ISBN 978-0-9558636-4-6.
12. ↑ Heinrichs, J; Schmidt, AR; Schäfer-Verwimp, A; Gröhn, C; Renner, MAM (2015). "The leafy liverwort Notoscyphus balticus sp. nov. (Jungermanniales) in Eocene Baltic amber". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 217: 39–44. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2015.02.006.
13. ↑ Heinrichs, J; Hedenäs, L; Schäfer-Verwimp, A; Feldberg, K; Schmidt, AR (2014). "An in situ preserved moss community in Eocene Baltic amber". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 210: 113–118. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2014.08.005.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Wheeler, W. M. (1914). "The Ants of the Baltic Amber". Schriften der Physikalisch-Ökonomischen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg 55 (4): 56–59.
15. ↑ Yunakov, N.N.; Kirejtshuk, A.G. (2011). "New genus and species of broad-nosed weevils from Baltic amber and notes on fossils of the subfamily Entiminae (Coleoptera, Curculionidae)". ZooKeys (160): 73–96. doi:10.3897/zookeys.160.2108. PMID 22303121.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Gibson, G. A. P. (2009). "Description of three New Genera and four New Species of Neanastatinae (Hymenoptera, Eupelmidae) from Baltic Amber, with Discussion of their Relationships to Extant Taxa". ZooKeys (20): 175–214. doi:10.3897/zookeys.20.161. http://pensoftonline.net/zookeys/index.php/journal/article/view/161. Retrieved 2011-03-29.
17. ↑ Balashov I.A. & Perkovsky E.E. 2020. An Eocene land snail Balticopta gusakovi gen.n., sp.n. (Stylommatophora: Gastrocoptidae) from Baltic amber // Invertebrate Zoology. Vol.17. No.1: 18–24.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Eskov, K. Y.; Zonstein, S. L. (2000). "The First Ctenizoid Mygalomorph Spiders from Eocene Baltic Amber (Araneida: Mygalomorphae: Ctenizidae)". Paleontological Journal 34 (3): S268–S274. Part 1; part 2, PDF.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Guglielmino, A.; Olmi, M. (2011). "Revision of fossil species of Deinodryinus, with description of a new species (Hymenoptera, Dryinidae)". ZooKeys (130): 495–504. doi:10.3897/zookeys.130.1326. PMID 22259295.
20. ↑ Chatzimanolis, S.; Engel, M. S. (2011). "A new species of Diochus from Baltic amber (Coleoptera, Staphylinidae, Diochini)". ZooKeys (138): 65–73. doi:10.3897/zookeys.138.1896. PMID 22144854. PMC 3208521. https://www.pensoft.net/J_FILES/1/articles/1896/1896-G-3-layout.pdf.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Engel, M. S. (1995). "A New Fossil Snake-Fly Species from Baltic Amber (Raphidioptera: Inocelliidae)". Psyche 102 (3–4): 187–193. doi:10.1155/1995/23626.
22. ↑ Azar, D.; Nel, A. (2008). "First Baltic amber megapodagrionid damselfly (Odonata: Zygoptera)". Annales de la Société Entomologique de France. New Series 44 (4): 451–457. doi:10.1080/00379271.2008.10697580. (Subscription content?)
23. ↑ Engel, M.S.; Ortega-Blanco, J. (2008). "The fossil crown wasp Electrostephanus petiolatus Brues in Baltic Amber (Hymenoptera, Stephanidae): designation of a neotype, revised classification, and a key to amber Stephanidae". ZooKeys (4): 55–64. doi:10.3897/zookeys.4.49.
24. ↑ Makarkin, VN; Wedmann, S; Weiterschan, T (2014). "First record of the family Ithonidae (Neuroptera) from Baltic amber". Zootaxa 3796 (2): 385–393. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3796.2.10. PMID 24870683.
25. ↑ Fischer, Thilo C.; Michalski, Artur; Hausmann, Axel (2019). "Geometrid caterpillar in Eocene Baltic amber (Lepidoptera, Geometridae)". Scientific Reports 9 (1): Article number 17201. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-53734-w. PMID 31748672. Bibcode: 2019NatSR...917201F.
26. ↑ Skalski, A. W. (1973). "Studies on the Lepidoptera from Fossil Resins. Part II. Epiborkhausenites obscurotrimaculatus gen. et sp. nov. (Oecophoridae) and a Tineid-Moth Discovered in the Baltic Amber". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 18 (1): 153–160. http://app.pan.pl/archive/published/app18/app18-153.pdf.
27. ↑ Szwedo, J. (2007). "Glisachaemus jonasdamzeni gen. et sp. nov. of Cixiidae from the Eocene Baltic amber (Hemiptera: Fulgoromorpha)". Alavesia 1: 109–116. http://ag.udel.edu/delpha/4299.pdf.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Kehlmaier, C; Dierick, M; Skevington, JH (2014). "Micro-CT studies of amber inclusions reveal internal genitalic features of big-headed flies, enabling a systematic placement of Metanephrocerus Aczel, 1948 (Insecta: Diptera: Pipunculidae)". Arthropod Systematics & Phylogeny 72 (1): 23–36.
29. ↑ Cockerell, T. D. A. (1906). "Fossil Hymenoptera from Florissant, Colorado". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 50 (2). https://archive.org/details/fossilhymenopter00cockiala.
30. ↑ Poinar, G. (2005). "Fossil Trigonalidae and Vespidae (Hymenoptera) in Baltic Amber". Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 107 (1): 55–63. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32142741.
31. ↑ Stworzewicz, E.; Pokryszko, B. M. (2006). "Eocene Terrestrial Snails (Gastropoda) from Baltic Amber". Annales Zoologici 56 (1): 215–224. http://www.miiz.waw.pl/periodicals/annales-zoologici/abstracts/AZ-56-1-abs.pdf.
32. ↑ Henderickx, H.; Tafforeau, P.; Soriano, C (2012). "Phase-contrast synchrotron microtomography reveals the morphology of a partially visible new Pseudogarypus in Baltic amber (Pseudoscorpiones: Pseudogarypidae)". Palaeontologia Electronica 15 (2;17A,11p): 1–11. http://palaeo-electronica.org/content/2012-issue-2-articles/252-pseudogarypus-synchrotron.
33. ↑ Alekseev, VI; Lord, NP (2014). "A new species of Xylolaemus (Coleoptera: Zopheridae: Colydiinae) from Baltic amber". Baltic Journal of Coleopterology 14 (1): 97–102. ISSN 1407-8619.
34. ↑ Poinar, G. Jr. (2000). "Fossil Onychophorans from Dominican and Baltic Amber: Tertiapatus dominicanus n.g., n.sp. (Tertiapatidae n.fam.) and Succinipatopsis balticus n.g., n.sp. (Succinipatopsidae n.fam.) with a Proposed Classification of the Subphylum Onychophora". Invertebrate Biology 119 (1): 104–9. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7410.2000.tb00178.x.
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Dlussky, GM; Dubovikoff, DA (2013). "Yantaromyrmex gen. n. – a new ant genus (Hymenoptera Formicidae) from Late Eocene ambers of Europe". Caucasian Entomological Bulletin 9 (2): 305–314. doi:10.23885/1814-3326-2013-9-2-305-314. http://www.antwiki.org/wiki/images/0/08/Dlussky,_G.M._&_Dubovikoff,_D.A._2013._Yantaromyrmex_gen._n._–_a_new_ant_genus_(Hymenoptera_Formicidae)_from_Late_Eocene_ambers_of_Europe.pdf.

## Bibliography

Matushevskaya, Aniela (2013). "Natural and artificial resins – chosen aspects of structure and properties". in Kostjashova, Z. V. (in ru). Янтарь и его имитации. Kaliningrad: Kaliningrad Amber Museum, Ministry of Culture (Kaliningrad region, Russia). p. 113. ISBN 978-5-903920-26-6. http://www.ambermuseum.ru/home/materials/read?id=548f584d138c69fc0a0002a9.

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Gemstones

Gemmological classifications by E. Ya. Kievlenko (1980), updated

Jewelry stones|

| 1st order|

* Diamond
* Ruby
* Emerald
* Blue Sapphire
* Alexandrite
* Natural marine pearls

|

2nd order|

* Pink sapphire
* Demantoid
* Tsavorite
* Spinel
* Precious Black Opal
* Tanzanite

3rd order|

* Yellow, Green, Violet Sapphires
* Aquamarine
* Orange topaz (Imperial)
* Rubellite
* Precious White and Fire Opal

4th order|

* Tourmaline — Verdelite
* Indicolite, polychromous
* Beryl]] — Heliodor, pink, yellow-green
* Topaz yellow, blue, pink
* Peridot
* Garnets — Spessartine (malaya), Rhodolite, Almandine, Pyrope
* Amethyst
* Citrine
* Blue Turquoise

Jewelry-Industrial
stones|

| 1st order|

* Lazurite
* Jadeite
* Nephrite
* Malachite
* Amber (Baltic amber)
* Chrysoprase
* Charoite

|

2nd order|

* Agate
* Amazonite
* Rhodonite
* Colorless, smoky and pink quartz
* Hematite
* Common opal
* Opaque iridescent feldspars

Industrial stones|

* Jasper
* Graphic granite
* Petrified wood
* Cacholong (Porouse opal)
* Marble onyx
* Obsidian
* Listwanite (green mica)
* Jet
* Selenite
* Fluorite
* Serpentinite
* Aventurine quartzite
* Ophicalcite (Serpentine/Calcite)
* Pagodite (Pyrophyllite/Talc)

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