Central Europe

Short description: Region of Europe

Different views of Central Europe

The cultural-spatial borders of Europe according to the Standing Committee on Geographical Names, Germany. The map displays two different segment-bordering ways superimposed on each other.[1]

Central Europe according to The World Factbook (2009),[2] and Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (1998).

Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern, Southern, Western and Northern Europe.[3][4] Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity;[5][6] however, countries in this region also share certain historical and cultural similarities.[7][8]

The region is variously defined but often includes Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.[2][1] Throughout much of the Early Modern period, the territories of Poland and Lithuania were part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire came to occupy most of present-day Croatia and present-day Hungary,[9][10][11] and southern parts of present-day Slovakia.[12][13][14] The various German Principalities, the Kingdom of Bohemia (present-day Czech Republic), the Duchy of Carniola (part of present-day Slovenia), and the Old Swiss Confederacy were within the Holy Roman Empire. During the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy came to reign over the territories of Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, alongside parts of Serbia, Germany, Italy and Switzerland.[15] Between the early 18th and the early 20th centuries, Central Europe had a substantial Jewish population.[16]

Since the Cold War, the countries that make up Central Europe have historically been and in some cases continue to be[17] divided into either Eastern or Western Europe.[18][19] After World War II, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain[20] into two parts, the capitalist Western Bloc and the socialist Eastern Bloc, although Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia (encompassing the territories of present-day Croatia, Slovenia and various other South Slavic nations) declared neutrality. The Berlin Wall was one of the most visible symbols of this division.[21] Respectively, countries in Central Europe have historical, cultural and geopolitical ties with these wider regions of Europe.[22][23][24][25]

Central Europe began a "strategic awakening" in the late 20th and early 21st centuries,[26] with initiatives such as the Central European Defence Cooperation, the Central European Initiative, Centrope, and the Visegrád Four Group. That awakening was accelerated by writers and other intellectuals, who recognized the societal paralysis of decaying dictatorships and felt compelled to speak up against Soviet oppression.[27]

## Contents

* 1 Historical perspective
* 1.1 Middle Ages and early modern period
* 1.2 Before World War I
* 1.3 Interwar period
* 1.4 Mitteleuropa
* 1.5 Central Europe during World War II
* 1.6 Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain
* 1.7 Roles
* 2 Definitions
* 2.1 Academic
* 2.2 Encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries
* 2.3 Geographical
* 2.4 Governmental and standards organisations
* 2.5 Map gallery
* 3 States
* 3.1 Other countries and regions
* 4 Geography
* 5 Demography
* 6 Economy
* 6.1 Currencies
* 6.2 Human Development Index
* 6.3 Globalisation
* 6.4 Prosperity Index
* 6.5 Corruption
* 6.6 Rail
* 6.7 River transport and canals
* 6.8 Agriculture
* 6.9 Business
* 6.10 Tourism
* 7 Education
* 7.1 Languages
* 7.2 Education performance
* 7.3 Higher education
* 7.3.1 Universities
* 7.3.2 Central European University
* 8 Culture and society
* 8.1 Research
* 8.2 Architecture
* 8.3 Religion
* 8.4 Cuisine
* 8.5 Human rights
* 8.6 Literature
* 8.7 Media
* 8.8 Sport
* 9 Politics
* 9.1 Organisations
* 9.2 Democracy Index
* 9.3 Global Peace Index
* 10 Central European Time
* 11 In popular culture
* 12 See also
* 13 References
* 14 General and cited references
* 15 Further reading
* 16 External links

## Historical perspective

### Middle Ages and early modern period

In the early Middle Ages, Central Europe had a diverse landscape, with various ethnic groups inhabiting the region. Germanic tribes, among them the Franks, Alemans and Bavarians, were predominantly situated in the west, and Slavic tribes were predominantly in the east.[28] However, the region encompassed a wide spectrum of additional tribes and communities.

From the late 6th century to the early 9th century, the area roughly corresponding to the Carpathian Basin was part of the Avar Khaganate, the realm of the Pannonian Avars.[29][30] While the Avars dominated the east of what is now Austria, its north and south were under Germanic and Slavic influence, respectively.[31] Meanwhile, the territories now comprising Germany and Switzerland were under the influence of the Merovingian dynasty, and later the Carolingian dynasty.[32][33] Various Slavic tribes that inhabited eastern Central Europe established settlements during this period, primarily in present-day Croatia, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia.[34] The territory of Lithuania was inhabited by Baltic tribes. Amongst them were the Samogitians, Lithuanians and Curonians.[16]

The Holy Roman Empire was founded at the turn of the 9th century, following the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III.[35] At its inception, it incorporated present-day Germany and nearby regions, including parts of what is now Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Switzerland. Three decades later, Great Moravia, centred on present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia, became one of the first West Slavic states to be founded in Central Europe. In the late 9th Century, the Hungarian tribes, originating eastward on the Eurasian Steppe,[36][37] settled in the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary.[38]

Following the Christianization of various Central European countries, elements of cultural unity emerged within the region, specifically Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe remained Eastern Orthodox, and was dominated by Byzantine cultural influence. After the East–West Schism in 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic Western and Central Europe within the framework of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church Slavonic and the Cyrillic alphabet.[39][40][41][42]

* Frankish Empire and its tributaries in 814

* East Francia in 843

* Possible furthest extent of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I (870–894)

Possible furthest extent of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I (870–894)

* Duchy of Poland under the Piast dynasty in 1000

* Duchy of Bohemia (Czech Duchy) in 1000

Duchy of Bohemia (Czech Duchy) in 1000

* Kingdom of Germany in 1004

Kingdom of Germany in 1004

* Kingdom of Hungary in 1190

* Kingdom of Croatia in 1260

Kingdom of Croatia in 1260

* Holy Roman Empire in 1600

* Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its fiefs in 1619

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and its fiefs in 1619

* German Confederation in 1815

German Confederation in 1815

* Austrian Empire in 1815

According to the historian Jenő Szűcs, Central Europe at the end of the 1st millennium became influenced by Western European developments. Szűcs argued that between the 11th and 15th centuries, Christianization influenced the cultures within Central Europe, and well-defined social features were also implemented in the region based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after the turn of the millennium was the spread of Magdeburg rights in some cities and towns of Western Europe. They began to spread in the mid-13th century in Central European countries and brought about self-governments of towns and counties.[43]

In 1335, the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary and Croatia met in the castle of Visegrád[44] and agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce. That has inspired the post-Cold War Visegrád Group.[44]

In 1386, Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, converted to Christianity (specifically Catholicism) and subsequently became King of Poland through marriage to Queen Jadwiga of Poland. That initiated the Christianization of Lithuania and resulted in the Union of Krewo, signifying a personal union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. The union commenced an enduring political alliance between the two entities and laid the foundations for the later establishment of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569.[45]

Between the 15th and the early 16th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, which was then in personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary, served as a significant maritime gateway of Central Europe, with its ports facilitating key trade routes between Central Europe and the Mediterranean.[46][47] The Republic of Ragusa emerged as a prominent hub for cultural exchange during this time.[46] Following the Ottoman and Habsburg wars of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, under Habsburg rule, began to regain its position as a significant trade route, restoring ports and revitalising commercial activity.

### Before World War I

A view of Central Europe dating from the time before World War I (1902):[48]

Central European countries and regions: the German Empire and the Habsburg monarchy (without Bosnia and Herzegovina and Dalmatia)

Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and Southeastern/Eastern Europe: Romania

Before 1870, the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom.[49] The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century,[50] but it developed further and became an object of intensive interest towards the 20th century. However, the first concept mixed science, politics, and economy and was strictly connected with the aspirations of German states to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. At the Frankfurt Parliament, which was established in the wake of the March Revolution of 1848, there were multiple competing ideas for the integration of German-speaking areas, including the mitteleuropäische Lösung (Central European Solution) propagated by Austria, which sought to merge the smaller German-speaking states with the multi-ethnic Habsburg monarchy, but was opposed by Prussia and others. An imperialistic idea of Mitteleuropa also became popular in the German Empire, which was established in 1871 and experienced intensive economic growth. The term was used when the Union of German Railway Administrations established the Mitteleuropäische Eisenbahn-Zeit (Central European Railway Time) time zone, which was applied by the railways from 1 June 1891 and was later widely adopted in civilian life; the time zone's name has been shortened to the present-day Central European Time.[51]

The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula or even the Dnieper and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans.[52] An example of this vision of Central Europe may be seen in Joseph Partsch's book of 1903.[53]

On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic, and cultural domination. The "bible" of the concept was Friedrich Naumann's book Mitteleuropa[54] in which he called for an economic federation to be established after World War I. Naumann's proposed a federation with Germany and the Habsburg monarchy as its centre that would eventually unite all external European nations through economic prosperity.[55] The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}

### Interwar period

Interwar Central Europe according to Emmanuel de Martonne (1927)

CE countries, Sourcebook of Central European Avant-Gardes 1910–1930 (L.A. County Museum of Art)[56]

The interwar period (1918–1938) brought a new geopolitical system, as well as economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took on a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part, particularly to the countries that had reappeared on the map of Europe. Central Europe ceased to be the area of German aspiration to lead or dominate and became a territory of various integration movements aiming at resolving political, economic, and national problems of "new" states, being a way to face German and Soviet pressures. However, the conflict of interests was too major, and neither the Little Entente nor Intermarium (Międzymorze) ideas succeeded. The Hungarian historian Magda Ádám wrote in her study Versailles System and Central Europe (2006): "Today we know that the bane of Central Europe was the Little Entente, military alliance of Czechoslovakia, Romania and Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), created in 1921 not for Central Europe's cooperation nor to fight German expansion, but in a wrong perceived notion that a completely powerless Hungary must be kept down".[57] The events preceding World War II in Europe, including the so-called Western betrayal such as the Munich Agreement, were very much enabled by the rising nationalism and ethnocentrism that typified that period.

The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe. Before World War I, it embraced mainly German-speaking states, and non-German speaking territories were an area of intended German penetration and domination, with German leadership being the 'natural' result of economic dominance.[50] Post-war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept. At the time, the scientists took an interest in the idea: the International Historical Congress in Brussels in 1923 was committed to Central Europe, and the 1933, Congress continued the discussions.[58]

According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927, Central Europe encompassed Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, northern Italy and northern Yugoslavia. The author uses both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe but failed to take into account the legal development or the social, cultural, economic, and infrastructural developments in those countries.[59]

The avant-garde movements of Central Europe contributed to the evolution of modernism and reached their its peak throughout the continent during the 1920s. The Sourcebook of Central European avantgards (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) contains primary documents of the avant-gardes in the territories of Austria, Germany, Poland (including western parts of present-day Belarus and Ukraine, and southern parts of Lithuania), Czechoslovakia (including the Czech Republic and Slovakia), Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia (including present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and Slovenia) from 1910 to 1930.[56]

### Mitteleuropa

With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire around 1800, there was a consolidation of power among the Habsburgs and the Hohenzollerns as the two major states in the area. They had much in common and occasionally cooperated in various channels, but more often competed. One approach in the various attempts at cooperation, was the conception of a set of supposed common features and interests, and this idea led to the first discussions of a Mitteleuropa in the mid-nineteenth century, as espoused by Friedrich List and Karl Ludwig Bruck. These were mostly based on economic issues.[60]

Mitteleuropa may refer to a historical concept or a contemporary German definition of Central Europe. As a historical concept, the German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal translation into English, Middle Europe[61]) is an ambiguous German concept.[61] According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus.[62] Later on, Professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being.[63]

In Germany, the word's connotation was also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line.[64]

The term "Mitteleuropa" conjures up negative historical associations among some people although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region.[65] Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century.[66] Jews at the turn of the 20th century became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, but the Nazi conceptualisation of "Mitteleuropa" sought to destroy that culture.[67] The term "Mitteleuropa" is widely used in German education and media without a negative meaning, especially since the end of communism.[68] Many people from the new states of Germany do not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term "Mitteleuropa".[69]

### Central Europe during World War II

German-occupied Europe at the height of the Axis conquests in 1942

During World War II, Central Europe was largely occupied by Nazi Germany. Many areas were a battle area and were devastated. The mass murder of the Jews depopulated many of their centuries-old settlement areas or settled other people there and their culture was wiped out. Both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of "live and let live" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages and tried to assert their own ideologies and power interests in Central Europe.[70] There were various Allied plans for state order in Central Europe for post-war. While Stalin tried to get as many states under his control as possible, Winston Churchill preferred a Central European Danube Confederation to counter those countries against Germany and Russia. There were also plans to add Bavaria and Württemberg to an enlarged Austria.[71] There were also various resistance movements around Otto von Habsburg that pursued that goal. The group around the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier also planned in that direction, which also successfully helped the Allies to wage war by, among other things, forwarding production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the United States.[72][73] Otto von Habsburg tried to relieve Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and northern Yugoslavia (particularly the territories of present-day Croatia and Slovenia) from German and Soviet influence and control.[74][75] There were various considerations to prevent German and Soviet power in Europe after the war. Churchill's idea of reaching the area around Vienna before the Russians via an operation from the Adriatic had not been approved by the Western Allied chiefs of staff.[76] As a result of the military situation at the end of the war, Stalin's plans prevailed and much of Central Europe came under Soviet control.[77][78]

### Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain

Neutral and Non-Aligned European States during the Cold War:

Neutral: Austria, Finland, Sweden and Switzerland

Non-Aligned: Cyprus, Malta and Yugoslavia

Following World War II, parts of Central Europe became part of the Eastern Bloc. The boundary between the two blocks was called the Iron Curtain. Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia remained neutral.

The post-World War II period brought blocking of research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe.[79] Following the Fall of Communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially the anti-communist opposition, returned to their research.[80]

According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term)[81] most Central European states were unable to preserve their political independence and became Soviet satellites. Besides Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, only the marginal European states of Cyprus, Finland, Malta and Sweden preserved their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out of any military alliances in Europe.

The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer an East Germany and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated.[82][83] It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary.[84] The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all. This broke the bracket of the Eastern Bloc and Central Europe subsequently became free from communism.[85][86][87]

### Roles

According to American professor Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád attended by the Czechoslovak, Hungarian and Polish presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished.[88]

The European floristic regions

The Pannonian Plain, between the Alps (west), the Carpathians (north and east), and the Dinaric Alps (southwest)

Carpathian countries (north-west to south-east): CZ, AT, PL, SK, HU, UA, RO, RS

American professor Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways.[89] According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[89] He argued that there is no precise way to define Central Europe and that the region may even include Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia and Serbia.[90]

## Definitions

The issue of how to name and define the Central European area is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author. The concept of "Central Europe" appeared in the 19th century. It was understood as a contact zone between the Southern and Northern areas, and later the Eastern and Western areas of Europe. Thinkers portrayed "Central Europe" either as a separate region, or a buffer zone between these regions.

In the early nineteenth century, the terms "Middle" or "Central" Europe (known as "Mitteleuropa" in German and "Europe centrale" in French) were introduced in geographical scholarship in both German and French languages. At first, these terms were linked to the regions spanning from the Pyrenees to the Danube, which, according to German authors, could be united under German authority. However, after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French began to exclude France from this area, and later the Germans also adopted this perspective by the end of World War I.[91]

The concept of "Central" or "Middle Europe", understood as a region with German influence, lost a significant part of its popularity after WWI and was completely dismissed after WWII. Two defeats of Germany in the world wars, combined with the division of Germany, an almost complete disappearance of German-speaking communities in these countries, and the Communist-led isolation of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia from the Western world, turned the concept of "Central/Middle Europe" into an anachronism. On the other side, the non-German areas of Central Europe were almost universally regarded as "Eastern European" primarily associated with the Soviet sphere of influence in the late 1940s–1980s.

For the most part, this geographical framework lost its attraction after the end of the Cold War. A number of Post-Communist countries rather re-branded themselves in the 1990s as "Central European.", while avoiding the stained wording of "Middle Europe," which they associated with German influence in the region. This reinvented concept of "Central Europe" excluded Germany, Austria and Switzerland, reducing its coverage chiefly to Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania and Yugoslavia.[91]

### Academic

The main proposed regional definitions, gathered by Polish historian Jerzy Kłoczowski and others, include:[92]

* West-Central and East-Central Europe – this conception, presented in 1950,[93] distinguishes two regions in Central Europe: the German West-Centre and the East-Centre covered by a variety of nations from Finland to Greece, placed between the great empires of Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union.
* Central Europe as a region comprising countries in mainland Europe speaking West Germanic (Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland) and West Slavic languages (the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland).[94]
* Central Europe as the area of the cultural heritage of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation (since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the importance of this concept.

Habsburg-ruled lands (divided between Cisleithanian/Austrian-administered and Transalthanian/Hungarian-administered)

* Central Europe as the area of the former Habsburg monarchy[95] – a concept which is popular in large parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[96]
* A concept putting the accent on links with the West, especially from the 19th century and the grand period of liberation and formation of Nation-states, an idea that is represented by the South-Eastern states, which prefer the enlarged concept of the "East Centre" expressing their links with Western culture.

Former University of Vienna professor Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe:[97]

* One criterion for defining Central Europe is the frontiers of medieval empires and kingdoms that largely correspond to the religious frontiers between Catholic Western and Central Europe and Orthodox Eastern Europe.[98] Following that criterion, the pagans of Central Europe were converted to Catholicism, but in Eastern and Southeastern Europe, they were brought into the fold of the Eastern Orthodox Church.[98]

He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamic historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, a fair share of Belarus and Right-bank Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but Template:Roundup years ago, they were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[98] Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews in the scientific community.[99][100] However, according to the Romanian researcher Maria Bucur, the very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history).[101]

### Encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries

The World Factbook[2] defines Central Europe as: Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. The Columbia Encyclopedia includes: Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland. While it does not have a single article defining Central Europe, Encyclopædia Britannica includes the following countries in Central Europe in one or more of its articles: Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina,[102] Croatia,[103] the Czech Republic, Germany,[104] Hungary, Lithuania,[105] Poland, Romania,[105] Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.

The French Encyclopédie Larousse defines Central Europe as a region comprising Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland.[106]

The German Encyclopaedia Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (Meyers Big Pocket Encyclopedia), 1999, defines Central Europe as the central part of Europe with no precise borders to the East and West. The term is mostly used to denominate the territory between the Schelde to Vistula and from the Danube to the Moravian Gate.

The German Ständige Ausschuss für geographische Namen (Standing Committee on Geographical Names), which develops and recommends rules for the uniform use of geographical names, proposes two sets of boundaries. The first follows international borders of current countries. The second subdivides and includes some countries based on cultural criteria. In comparison to some other definitions, it is broader, including Luxembourg, Estonia, Latvia, and in the second sense, the Kaliningrad Oblast and parts of Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Italy, and France.[1]

According to Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon,[107] Central Europe is a part of Europe composed of Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states – Croatia and Slovenia), as well as northeastern France.

### Geographical

Travel time by car or ferry from the geographical center of Europe

There is no general agreement either on what geographic area constitutes Central Europe, nor on how to further subdivide it geographically.[108]

At times, the term "Central Europe" denotes a geographic definition as the Danube region in the heart of the continent, including the language and culture areas which are today included in the states of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine and usually also Germany.[109]

### Governmental and standards organisations

The terminology EU11 countries refers the Central, Eastern and Baltic European member states which accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.[110]

The EU-funded Interreg region "Central Europe" includes the following countries and regions:[111]

* Austria
* Croatia
* Czechia
* Germany
* Hungary
* Italy
* Poland
* Slovakia
* Slovenia

File:Central European Free Trade Agreement.svgCountries in the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA)

The Central European Free Trade Agreement includes the following countries:

* Albania
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Kosovo
* Moldova
* Montenegro
* North Macedonia
* Serbia

### Map gallery

* A view of Central Europe dating from the time before World War I (1902):[112]

Central European countries and regions: the German Empire and the Habsburg monarchy (without Bosnia and Herzegovina and Dalmatia)

Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and Southeastern/Eastern Europe: Romania

* Interwar Central Europe according to Emmanuel de Martonne (1927)

* Central Europe, according to Sourcebook of Central European Avant-Gardes 1910–1930 (L.A. County Museum of Art)[56]

* Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950)[94]

* Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961)

* Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980)

* Central Europe, as defined by Czesław Miłosz (1983)

Central Europe, as defined by Czesław Miłosz (1983)

* Central Europe, as defined by Georges Castellan (1994)

Central Europe, as defined by Georges Castellan (1994)

* Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997):

The Visegrád Group countries are referred to as Central Europe in the book.[89]

Countries for which there is no precise, uncontestable way to decide whether they are parts of Central Europe or not[90]

* Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998)

* Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998)[113]

* The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):

Countries usually considered Central European

Central European countries in the broader sense of the term

Countries occasionally considered to be Central European

* According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky (2005), a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group.[88][114]

* Central Europe, as defined in the French Encylopédie Larousse (2009)

Central Europe, as defined in the French Encylopédie Larousse (2009)

* Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009):[115]

Central European countries

Slovenia in "south central Europe"

* Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011):[116]

Countries usually considered Central European (citing the World Bank and the OECD)

Countries considered to be Central European only in the broader sense of the term

## States

European sub-regions according to EuroVoc

Central and Eastern Europe

Western Europe

Southern Europe

Northern Europe

The choice of states that make up Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy.[117] Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see section Definitions) the region includes some or all of the states listed in the sections below:

* Austria
* Croatia[118][97][119][120][121]
* Czech Republic
* Germany
* Hungary
* Liechtenstein
* Lithuania[122][123][124][125][126]
* Poland
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Switzerland

Depending on the context, Central European countries are sometimes not seen as a specific group, but sorted as either Eastern or Western European countries.[127][128][129] In this case Austria, Germany, Liechtenstein and Switzerland are often placed in Western Europe, while Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia are placed in Eastern Europe.[130][129][131][132]

Croatia is alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe.[133][134][135] Additionally, Hungary[133][135][136][137][138][139] and Slovenia[133][135][140][138][139] are sometimes included in the region.

Lithuania is alternatively placed in Northeastern Europe.[141]

Regions used for statistical processing purposes by the United Nations Statistics Division

Eastern Europe[130][129]

Northern Europe

Southern Europe

Western Europe

### Other countries and regions

Some sources also add regions of neighbouring countries for historical reasons, or based on geographical and/or cultural reasons:

* Bosnia and Herzegovina (as a former part of the Habsburg monarchy and Yugoslavia, alternatively placed in Southern or Southeast Europe)[142][143]
* Italy (South Tyrol, Trentino, Trieste and Gorizia, Friuli, Lombardy, and Veneto or all of Northern Italy)[144] * Romania (Transylvania, along with Banat, Crișana, Maramureș,[145] Bukovina.[146][147][148])
* Serbia (primarily Vojvodina and Northern Belgrade, alternatively placed in Southeast Europe)[149][150][151][152][153][154]
* Ukraine (Donechchyna, Odeshchyna, Transcarpathia,[155] Galicia and Volhynia)

## Geography

The Danube watercourse system throughout Central and Southeastern Europe

Geography defines Central Europe's natural borders with the neighbouring regions to the north across the Baltic Sea, namely Northern Europe (or Scandinavia), and to the south across the Alps, the Apennine peninsula (or Italy), and the Balkan peninsula[108] across the Soča–Krka–Sava–Danube line. The borders to Western Europe and Eastern Europe are geographically less defined, and for this reason the cultural and historical boundaries migrate more easily west–east than south–north.

Southwards, the Pannonian Plain is bounded by the rivers Sava and Danube – and their respective floodplains.[156] The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine ("peri- Pannonian states").

South of the Eastern Alps (spanning Austria, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia and Switzerland),[157] the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north–south. According to the Freie Universität Berlin, this mountain chain is classified as South Central European.[158] The city of Trieste in this area, for example, expressly sees itself as a città mitteleuropea. This is particularly because it lies at the interface between the Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Greek and Jewish culture on the one hand and the geographical area of the Mediterranean and the Alps on the other. A geographical and cultural assignment is made.

The Central European flora region stretches from Central France (the Massif Central) to the Northern Balkans, Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia.[159]

## Demography

Population density in Central European countries Population density (people per km2) by country

Central Europe is one of the continent's most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the second largest European country by population. Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe ("the core countries") number around 173 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany.[160] Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents,[161] Czech Republic at 10.5 million,[162] Hungary at 10 million,[163] Austria with 9.2 million, Switzerland with 8.5 million,[164] Slovakia at 5.4 million,[165] Croatia with 4.3 million,[166] Lithuania with 2.9 million, Slovenia with 2.1 million[167] and Liechtenstein at a bit less than 40,000.[168]

If the countries which are sometimes also included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Romania (20 million), Latvia (2 million), Estonia (1.3 million), Serbia (7.1 million)[169] – this would contribute around an additional 30.4 million, although this figure would vary depending on whether a regional or integral approach is used.[170] If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, a further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, surpassing a total of 200 million people.

## Economy

### Currencies

Currently, the members of the Eurozone include Austria, Croatia, Germany, Lithuania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland use their own currencies (koruna, forint, Polish złoty, respectively), but are obliged to adopt the Euro. Switzerland uses its own currency (Swiss franc), as does Serbia (dinar) and Romania (Romanian leu).

### Human Development Index

World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2013:

Very High

Low

|

High

Data unavailable

Medium

In 2018, Switzerland topped the HDI list among Central European countries, also ranking No. 2 in the world. Serbia rounded out the list at No. 11 (67 world).

### Globalisation

Map showing the score for the KOF Globalization Index

The index of globalization in Central European countries (2016 data):[171] Switzerland topped this list as well (#1 world).

### Prosperity Index

Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2018 data).[172] Switzerland topped the index (#4 world).

### Corruption

Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2015:  90–100 |  60–69 |  30–39 |  0–9

|
|
|

80–89 |  50–59 |  20–29 |  No information
70–79 |  40–49 |  10–19

Most countries in Central Europe tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (2018 data),[173] led by Switzerland, Germany, and Austria.

### Rail

Rail network density

Central Europe contains the continent's earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austrian, Czech, German, Hungarian and Swiss territories between 1860-1870s.[174] By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, Zurich, Pest and Prague were focal points for network lines connecting industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste).[175] By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of Austria and Hungary reached 43,280 kilometres (26,890 miles). By 1936, 70% of the Swiss Federal Railway network had undergone electrification.[176]

Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway density as of 2022, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, from highest to lowest is Switzerland (129.2), the Czech Republic (120.7), Germany (108.8), Hungary (85.0), Slovakia (74.0), Austria (66.5), Poland (61.9), Slovenia (59.6), Serbia (49.2), Croatia (46.3) and Lithuania (29.4).[177][178]

### River transport and canals

Before the first railroads appeared in the 1840s, river transport constituted the main means of communication and trade.[175] Earliest canals included Plauen Canal (1745), Finow Canal, and also Bega Canal (1710) which connected Timișoara to Novi Sad and Belgrade via the Danube.[175] The most significant achievement in this regard was the facilitation of navigability on the Danube from the Black sea to Ulm in the 19th century.

The economies of Central Europe tend to demonstrate high complexity. Industrialisation reached Central Europe relatively early beginning with Germany and the Czech lands near the end of the 18th century.[179]

The industrialization of the cities of Romania[180] and Serbia[181] started in the interwar period, and did not make significant progress until the post ww2 era.

### Agriculture

Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. Germany is the world's largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010,[182] Slovenia is one of the world's leading producers of honey.[183] Serbia is the world's 2nd largest producer of plums and 2nd largest producer of raspberries.[184][185]

### Business

Central European business has a regional organisation, Central European Business Association (CEBA), founded in 1996 in New York as a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting business opportunities within Central Europe and supporting the advancement of professionals in America with a Central European background.[186]

### Tourism

Central European countries, especially Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competitive tourism destinations.[187]

## Education

### Languages

### Education performance

Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment. In the 2012 study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied.[188]

### Higher education

Karolinum of the Charles University in Prague

#### Universities

The first university established east of France and north of the Alps was in Prague in 1348 by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. The Charles University was modeled upon the University of Paris and initially included the faculty of law, medicine, philosophy, and theology.[189]

#### Central European University

The entrance of the Central European University in Budapest

In 1991, Ernest Gellner proposed the establishment of a truly Central European institution of higher learning in Prague (1991–1995).[190] Eventually, the Central European University (CEU) project was taken on and financially supported by the philanthropist George Soros, who had provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe.[191] Over its 30-year history CEU has become one of the most internationally diverse and recognisable universities in the world. For example, as of 2019, 1217 students were enrolled in the university, of which 962 were international students, making the student body the fourth most international in the world.[192] CEU offers highly selective programs with a student to faculty ratio of 7:1.[193] In 2021, the admission rate into its programs was 13%.[194] CEU has thus become a leading global university in Europe promoting a distinctively Central European perspective while emphasizing academic rigor, applied research, and academic honesty and integrity.[195] CEU is a founding member of CIVICCA, a group of prestigious European higher education institutions in the social sciences, humanities, business management and public policy, such as Sciences Po (France), The London School of Economics and Political Science (UK), Bocconi University (Italy) and the Stockholm School of Economics (Sweden).[196]

## Culture and society

### Research

Research centres of Central European literature include Harvard University (Cambridge, MA),[197] Purdue University,[198] and Central European Studies Programme (CESP), Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.[199]

### Architecture

### Religion

Adherence to Catholicism in Europe

Adherence to Protestantism in Europe

Central European major Christian denomination is Catholicism as well as large Protestant populations. Click map to see legend.

Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia) or historically both Catholic and Protestant (the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Slovakia and Switzerland). Large Protestant groups include Lutheran, Calvinist, and the Unity of the Brethren affiliates. Significant populations of Eastern Catholicism and Old Catholicism are also prevalent throughout Central Europe. Orthodox Christianity is a minority denomination observed to varying extents across Central Europe.

Central Europe has been the center of the Protestant movement for centuries, with the majority of Protestants suppressed and annihilated during the Counterreformation.[200][201]

Historically, people in Bohemia in today's Czech Republic were some of the first Protestants in Europe. As a result of the Thirty Years' War following the Bohemian Revolt, many Czechs were either killed, executed (see for Old Town Square execution), forcibly turned into Roman Catholics, or emigrated to Scandinavia and the Low Countries. In the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War, the number of inhabitants in the Kingdom of Bohemia decreased from three million to only 800,000 from multiple factors, including devastating ongoing battles such as the significant Battle of White Mountain and the Battle of Prague (1648). However, in recent years, most Czechs report as overwhelmingly non-religious, with some describing themselves as Catholic (10.3%).

Islam has had a notable historical presence in Croatia and Hungary. Islam in Hungary dates back to the foundation of the state, from which a significant Muslim community persisted for several centuries. Islam was revived there under Ottoman rule. Islam in Croatia dates back to Ottoman rule, and today is represented mainly by ethnic Bosniak, Albanian and Turkish Muslims. Both countries have long absorbed migrations of Muslims from these populations. Additionally, Islam has had a historical presence in Poland and Lithuania, albeit limited. Communities of Tatar Muslims settled in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the 15th and 16th centuries. Tatar Muslim minorities remain in Poland and Lithuania to this day.

Before the Holocaust (1941–45), there was also a sizeable Ashkenazi Jewish community in the region, numbering approximately 16.7 million people.[202] Poland and Lithuania had the largest Jewish populations in Europe as a percentage of their total populations, with Jews constituting 9.5% of the Polish population and 7.6% of the Lithuanian population in 1933.[203]

Certain countries in Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland have sizeable atheist and non-religious populations. In 2021, 48% of the Czech population declared that they had no religion.[204] In 2022, 43.8% of the German population declared that they had no religion.[205] Meanwhile, 33.5% of the Swiss population stated that they were not affiliated with any religion.[206]

### Cuisine

Central European cuisine has evolved over centuries because of social and political change and is generally diverse. However, the national cuisines of western Central Europe share notable similarities, as do the cuisines of eastern Central Europe. Sausages, salamis and cheeses are popular in most of Central Europe, with the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kuyavia region, Poland).[207] Other popular food items in Central Europe include soups, stews, pickled and fermented vegetables. Schnitzel and variations of spätzle are popular in the region.

Another common feature among Central European cuisines, particularly Austrian, Croatian, Lithuanian, Slovenian and Swiss cuisine, is the use of wild ingredients in traditional dishes, spanning from wild herbs to mushrooms and berries. Beer consumption is also prominent in parts of Central Europe, where the Czech Republic has the highest beer consumption per capita globally, followed by Austria, with Germany coming 4th. The cuisines of Central European countries that are included in broader definitions of Eastern Europe share similarities and traditions with other Eastern European cuisines. This is particularly evident in the cuisines of Czech Republic, Lithuania, Poland and Slovakia, which feature dishes such as borscht and pierogi. The cuisines of Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia feature a number of culinary traditions common within the Balkans, including dishes such as stuffed peppers, stuffed cabbage and ajvar.

### Human rights

Generally, the countries in the region have been progressive on the issue of human rights: death penalty is illegal in all of them, corporal punishment is outlawed in most of them and people of both genders can vote in elections. However, Central European countries are divided on the subject of same-sex marriage and abortion. Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland also have a history of participation in the CIA's extraordinary rendition and detention program, according to the Open Society Foundations.[208][209]

### Literature

Regional writing tradition revolves around the turbulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity.[210][211] Its existence is sometimes challenged.[212] Specific courses on Central European literature are taught at Stanford University,[213] Harvard University[214] and Jagiellonian University[215] as well as cultural magazines dedicated to regional literature.[216] Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or £30,000) for writers originating from the region.[217] Likewise, the Vilenica International Literary Prize is awarded to a Central European author for "outstanding achievements in the field of literature and essay writing".[218]

### Media

### Sport

There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues. They include:

* Central European Tour Miskolc GP (Hungary)*
* Central European Tour Budapest GP (Hungary)
* 2008 Central Europe Rally (Romania and Hungary)*
* 2023 Central Europe Rally (Germany, Austria and Czech Republic)
* Central European Football League (Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey)
* Central European International Cup (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia; 1927–1960)
* Central Europe Throwdown*[219]

Football is one of the most popular sports. Countries of Central Europe hosted several major competitions. Germany hosted two FIFA World Cups (1974 and 2006) and two UEFA European Championships (1988 and 2024). Yugoslavia hosted the UEFA Euro 1976 before the competition expanded to 8 teams. Recently, the 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships were held in Austria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively.

## Politics

### Organisations

Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations:

* Central European Defence Cooperation
* Central European Free Trade Agreement
* Central European Initiative
* Centrope
* Middleeuropean Initiative
* Three Seas Initiative
* Visegrád Group

* Central European Defence Cooperation

* CEFTA founding states

* CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU

* Current CEFTA members

Current CEFTA members

* Central European Initiative

* Three Seas Initiative

* Visegrád Group

### Democracy Index

The Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy index map for 2022, with greener colours representing more democratic countries

Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarianism, particularly Fascism and Nazism. Germany and Italy occupied all Central European countries, except Switzerland. In all occupied countries, the Axis powers suspended democracy and installed puppet regimes loyal to the occupation forces. Also, they forced conquered countries to apply racial laws and formed military forces for helping German and Italian struggle against Communists. After World War II, almost the whole of Central Europe (the Eastern and Middle part) had been transformed into communist states, most of which had been occupied and later allied with the Soviet Union, often against their will through forged referendum (such as the Polish people's referendum in 1946) or force (northeast Germany, Poland, Hungary et alia). Nevertheless, those experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index.[220]

### Global Peace Index

Global Peace Index Scores

In spite of its turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%.[221]

## Central European Time

Central European Time zone (dark red)

The time zone is a standard time, which is one hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. Countries using CET include:

* Albania
* Andorra
* Austria
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Croatia
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* France
* Germany
* Hungary
* Italy
* Luxembourg
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* Poland
* San Marino
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Serbia
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Vatican City

## In popular culture

Central Europe is mentioned in the 35th episode of Lovejoy, entitled "The Prague Sun", filmed in 1992. While walking over the well-regarded and renowned Charles Bridge in Prague, the main character, Lovejoy, says: "I've never been to Prague before. Well, it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe. Notice: I said: 'Central', not 'Eastern'! The Czechs are a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans as turnip heads."[222]

Wes Anderson's Oscar-winning film The Grand Budapest Hotel depicts a fictional grand hotel located somewhere in Central Europe, which is in actuality modelled on the Grandhotel Pupp in Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic. The film is a celebration of 1920s and 1930s Central Europe with its artistic splendor and societal sensibilities.[223][224]

## See also

* Central and Eastern Europe
* Central European Defence Cooperation
* East-Central Europe
* Geographical midpoint of Europe
* Life zones of central Europe
* Międzymorze (Intermarium)
* Mitteleuropa
* Three Seas Initiative
* Visegrád Group

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Jordan, Peter (2005). "Großgliederung Europas nach kulturräumlichen Kriterien". Europa Regional (Leipzig: Leibniz-Institut für Länderkunde (IfL)) 13 (4): 162–173. http://www.stagn.de/DE/1_Der_StAGN/Publikationen/StAGN_GGEuropa/grosseu_node.html. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "The World Factbook: Field listing – Location". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2144.html.
3. ↑ Lecture 14: The Origins of the Cold War. Historyguide.org. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
4. ↑ "Central Europe –The future of the Visegrad group". The Economist. 14 April 2005. https://www.economist.com/europe/2005/04/14/from-visegrad-to-mitteleuropa.
5. ↑ Rac, Katalin (2023). "Diversity and Belonging in Modern Central Europe". https://history.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/113/2023/01/EUH-3931-Diversity-and-Belonging-in-Modern-Central-Europe-Rac.pdf.
6. ↑ Kolman, Ludek; Noorderhaven, Niels G.; Hofstede, Geert; Dienes, Elisabeth (February 2003). "Cross-cultural differences in Central Europe". Journal of Managerial Psychology 18 (1): 76–88. doi:10.1108/02683940310459600. ISSN 0268-3946. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/02683940310459600/full/html.
7. ↑ "Central European Identity in Politics – Jiří Pehe" (in cs). Conference on Central European Identity, Central European Foundation, Bratislava. 2002. http://www.pehe.cz/prednasky/2002/central-european-identity-in-politics.
8. ↑ Zepetnek, Steven Tötösy de (2002). Comparative Central European Culture. Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-240-4.
9. ↑ Moačanin, Nenad (2019), "The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia", The Battle for Central Europe (Brill): pp. 277–286, doi:10.1163/9789004396234_014, ISBN 978-90-04-39623-4, https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml, retrieved 2023-12-16
10. ↑ Szabó, János (2019), "The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results", The Battle for Central Europe (Brill): pp. 263–275, doi:10.1163/9789004396234_013, ISBN 978-90-04-39623-4, https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000013.xml, retrieved 2023-12-16
11. ↑ Ingrao, Charles, ed (2011-08-12). The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718. Purdue University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12. ISBN 978-1-61249-179-0. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw.
12. ↑ "The Ottoman History of Slovakia". 2010. https://spectator.sme.sk/c/20035850/the-ottoman-history-of-slovakia.html.
13. ↑ Ágoston, Gábor (1998). "HABSBURGS AND OTTOMANS: Defense, Military Change and Shifts in Power". Turkish Studies Association Bulletin 22 (1): 126–141. ISSN 0275-6048. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43385414.
14. ↑ Pirický, Gabriel (2023-03-03), "The Legacy of the Ottoman (Turkish) Age in Slovakia in the 21st Century" (in en), Europe’s Islamic Legacy: 1900 to the Present (Brill): pp. 29–47, ISBN 978-90-04-51072-2, https://brill.com/display/book/9789004510722/BP000010.xml, retrieved 2025-09-10
15. ↑ Benabdeljalil, Ilyas (2022-02-15). "The Habsburgs: A Millennia-Old Dynasty (Part II)". https://www.thecollector.com/the-habsburgs-dynasty/.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "Samogitian | people". https://www.britannica.com/topic/Samogitian.
17. ↑ "Standard country or area codes for statistical use (M49)". Methodology. United Nation Statistics Division. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/.
18. ↑ Berglee, Royal (2016). "2.3 Regions of Western Europe". World Regional Geography (University of Minnesota): 2.16 Traditional Regions of Europe. https://open.lib.umn.edu/worldgeography/chapter/2-3-regions-of-western-europe/. Retrieved 23 August 2023.
19. ↑ Shvili, Jason (2021-05-10). "Regions Of Europe". https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-european-regions-as-defined-by-the-united-nations-geoscheme-for-europe.html.
20. ↑ "Iron Curtain Trail – EuroVelo 13". https://www.coe.int/en/web/cultural-routes/iron-curtain-trail.
21. ↑ "The Berlin Wall | Berlin Wall Foundation". https://www.stiftung-berliner-mauer.de/en/topics/berlin-wall.
22. ↑ "Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe, 1989". https://history.state.gov/milestones/1989-1992/fall-of-communism.
23. ↑ "Western European Union – Archive of European Integration". http://aei.pitt.edu/westerneuropeanunion.html.
24. ↑ "Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI)". https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/old_new_tir/seci/documents/GEReport0307-final.pdf.
25. ↑ Krastev, Ivan (2022). "Reimagining the East-West Divide in Europe". https://www.iwm.at/publication/iwmpost-article/reimagining-the-east-west-divide-in-europe.
26. ↑ "The Mice that Roared: Central Europe Is Reshaping Global Politics". Der Spiegel. 26 February 2006. http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/the-mice-that-roared-central-europe-is-reshaping-global-politics-a-610019.html.
27. ↑ "The Tragedy of Central Europe". 1984. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/100books/en/detail/49/the-tragedy-of-central-europe.
28. ↑ "Central Europe (including Germany), 500–1000 A.D. | Chronology | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/06/euwc.html#:~:text=Overview,Roman and Byzantine imperial power..
29. ↑ Saag, Lehti; Staniuk, Robert (2022). "Historical human migrations: From the steppe to the basin". p. 3. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10153156/9/Staniuk_2022_Saag&Staniuk_finaldraft.pdf.
30. ↑ "1,400 years old mystery of origins of Avars elucidated with ancient DNA". 2022. https://www.elte.hu/en/content/1-400-years-old-mystery-of-origins-of-avars-elucidated-with-ancient-dna.t.2211.
31. ↑ Štih, P. (2010-01-01), "VII. The Carantanians – An Early Medieval Slavic Gens Between East And West", The Middle Ages between the Eastern Alps and the Northern Adriatic (Brill): pp. 108–122, ISBN 978-90-04-18770-2, https://brill.com/display/book/9789004187702/Bej.9789004185913.i-463_009.xml, retrieved 2023-12-15
32. ↑ "Merovingian dynasty | Frankish Kings & Legacy". https://www.britannica.com/topic/Merovingian-dynasty.
33. ↑ Griffith, Michael (19 May 2021). "Carolingian Dynasty". https://www.worldhistory.org/Carolingian_Dynasty/.
34. ↑ Kazanski, Michel (2020). "Archaeology of the Slavic Migrations". https://hal.science/hal-02902087/file/Kazanski_Archaeology-Slavic Migrations_2020.pdf.
35. ↑ "Holy Roman Empire - Charlemagne, Coronation, Empire". https://www.britannica.com/place/Holy-Roman-Empire/Coronation-of-Charlemagne-as-emperor.
36. ↑ Fóthi, Erzsébet; Gonzalez, Angéla; Fehér, Tibor; Gugora, Ariana; Fóthi, Ábel; Biró, Orsolya; Keyser, Christine (January 2020). "Genetic analysis of male Hungarian Conquerors: European and Asian paternal lineages of the conquering Hungarian tribes" (in en). Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 12 (1): 31. doi:10.1007/s12520-019-00996-0. ISSN 1866-9557. Bibcode: 2020ArAnS..12...31F.
37. ↑ Orsolya, Kuli (2024-04-02). "Egy fideszes képviselő megmondta: évszázadok óta tartó rejtély után kiderült, a magyarok tényleg leszármazottai-e a hunoknak" (in hu). https://index.hu/tudomany/2024/04/02/kutatas-tanulmany-hunok-magyarsag/.
38. ↑ Cloet, Pierre-Robert; Legue, Benedicte; Martel, Kerstin (2018). "Hungary". https://institutdelors.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/flag-anthem-hungary.pdf.
39. ↑ Magocsi 2002, chapter 11.
40. ↑ Kasper von Greyerz (2007). Religion and Culture in Early Modern Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-0-19-804384-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=SmEpMnfYZ-oC&q="all+of+central+Europe".
41. ↑ Jean W Sedlar (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. University of Washington Press. pp. 161–. ISBN 0-295-97291-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=3o5lrvuwOVwC&q="estrangement+to+be+permanent".
42. ↑ Dumitran, Adriana (2010). "Uspořádání Evropy – duch kulturní jednoty na prahu vzniku novověké Evropy" (in cs). Czech Republic: Bibliography of the History of the Czech Lands, The Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. http://biblio.hiu.cas.cz/documents/161327.
43. ↑ László Zsinka. "Similarities and Differences in Polish and Hungarian History". http://unipub.lib.uni-corvinus.hu/1162/1/Zsinka_2013b.pdf.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Halman, Loek; Wilhelmus Antonius Arts (2004). European values at the turn of the millennium. Brill Publishers. p. 120. ISBN 978-90-04-13981-7. https://archive.org/details/europeanvaluesat00arts.
45. ↑ Frost, Robert (2015). "5". The Oxford History of Poland-Lithuania. Volume 1: The Making of the Polish-Lithuanian Union, 1385-1569 (First published in paperback ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 47–57. ISBN 978-0-19-880020-0.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Krekić, Bariša (1972). Dubrovnik in the 14th and 15th centuries: a city between East and West. Centers of civilization series. Norman: Univ. of Oklahama Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-0999-2.
47. ↑ "Dubrovnik". https://www.adrijo.eu/en/port/dubrovnik.
48. ↑ Source: Geographisches Handbuch zu Andrees Handatlas, vierte Auflage, Bielefeld und Leipzig, Velhagen und Klasing, 1902.
49. ↑ Jackson J. Spielvogel: Western Civilization: Alternate Volume: Since 1300. p. 618.
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 ""Mitteleuropa" is a multi-faceted concept and difficult to handle". http://www.essex.ac.uk/ecpr/events/graduateconference/barcelona/papers/681.pdf.
51. ↑ Vensky, Hellmuth (13 March 2013). "Eisenbahner erfanden Europas Zeit". https://www.zeit.de/wissen/geschichte/2013-03/geschichte-mitteleuropaeische-zeit/komplettansicht. Retrieved 2023-10-28.
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210. ↑ "In praise of writers' bloc: How the tedium of life under Communism gave rise to a literature alive with surrealism and comedy". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/in-praise-of-writers-bloc-how-the-tedium-of-life-under-communism-gave-rise-to-a-literature-alive-1964099.html.
211. ↑ "Comparative Central European Culture". Thepress.purdue.edu. http://www.thepress.purdue.edu/titles/format/9781557532404.
212. ↑ "Czech mates". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/books/2010/05/central-european-cioran-czech.
213. ↑ [8]
214. ↑ "Secondary Fields". Slavic.fas.harvard.edu. http://slavic.fas.harvard.edu/pages/secondary-fields.
215. ↑ "Literatura Środkowoeuropejska w poszukiwaniu tożsamości". Usosweb.uj.edu.pl. https://www.usosweb.uj.edu.pl/kontroler.php?_action=actionx:katalog2/przedmioty/pokazPrzedmiot(kod:WSM.IE-S33D).
216. ↑ "literalab". http://literalab.com/.
217. ↑ "Regulations". Angelus.com.pl. http://angelus.com.pl/english/regulations/.
218. ↑ "About Vilenica". Vilenica Literary Festival. http://vilenica.si/en/about-vilenica/.
219. ↑ "Central Europe Throwdown 2015". http://centraleuropethrowdown.com/#?aboutUs.
220. ↑ "Democracy index 2012: Democracy at a standstill: A report from The Economist Intelligence Unit" (PDF). The Economist. 2013. https://portoncv.gov.cv/dhub/porton.por_global.open_file?p_doc_id=1034.
221. ↑ "Global Peace Index". http://www.visionofhumanity.org/#page/indexes/global-peace-index/2015.
222. ↑ "Lovejoy – Season 3, Episode 13: The Prague Sun". http://www.tv.com/shows/lovejoy/the-prague-sun-78515/.
223. ↑ Richard Brody (7 March 2014). "'The Grand Budapest Hotel': Wes Anderson's Artistic Manifesto". The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/the-grand-budapest-hotel-wes-andersons-artistic-manifesto. Retrieved 24 September 2015.
224. ↑ "Oscars 2015 live updates: J.K. Simmons, 'Grand Budapest Hotel' win first awards". Los Angeles Times. 22 February 2015. https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/movies/moviesnow/la-et-env-live-blog-oscars-20150222-htmlstory.html.

## General and cited references

* Bláha, Jan D.; Nováček, Aleš (2016). "How Central Europe is Perceived and Delimited". Mitteilungen der Österreichischen Geographischen Gesellschat 158: 193–214. doi:10.1553/moegg158s193. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312192215_How_Central_Europe_is_Perceived_and_Delimited. Retrieved 6 January 2026.
* Ádám, Magda (2003). The Versailles System and Central Europe Variorum Collected Studies. Ashgate. ISBN 0-86078-905-5.
* Ádám, Magda (1993). The Little Entente and Europe(1920–1929). Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 963-05-6420-3.
* Ágh, Attila (1998). The politics of Central Europe. Sage. ISBN 0-7619-5032-X.
* Aleksov, Bojan; Piahanau, Aliaksandr (2020). Wars and Betweenness: Big Powers and Middle Europe, 1918-1945. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-386-336-7.
* Hayes, Bascom Barry (1994). Bismarck and Mitteleuropa. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3512-4.
* Evans, Robert J. W. (2006). "Central Europe: The History of An Idea". Austria, Hungary, and the Habsburgs: Central Europe c. 1683-1867. Oxford. pp. 293–304. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541621.003.0016. ISBN 9780199281442. OCLC 70258980. https://books.google.com/books?id=Hf3EJYZcpqYC.c. 1683-1867&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.+W.&rft.au=Evans, Robert+J.+W.&rft.date=2006&rft.pages=pp. 293–304&rft.pub=Oxford&rft_id=info:doi/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541621.003.0016&rft_id=info:oclcnum/70258980&rft.isbn=9780199281442&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hf3EJYZcpqYC&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Place:Central_Europe">
* Johnson, Lonnie R. (1996). Central Europe: enemies, neighbors, friends. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510071-6. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195100716.
* Kamusella, Tomasz. (2021). Words in Space and Time: A Historical Atlas of Language Politics in Modern Central Europe. Budapest and New York: Central European University Press.
* Kamusella, Tomasz. (2023). "Central Europe’s Limits in the North and the South" (pp. 83-112). Acta Slavica Iaponica. Vol. 44.
* Katzenstein, Peter J. (1997). Mitteleuropa: Between Europe and Germany. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-57181-124-0.
* Magocsi, Paul Robert (2002). Historical Atlas of Central Europe (Rev. and expanded ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8486-6. OCLC 150672781. https://books.google.com/books?id=XoxHdcNYhiMC&pg=PP20.
* O. Benson, Forgacs (2002). Between Worlds. A Sourcebook of Central European Avant-Gardes, 1910–1930. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02530-0.
* Tiersky, Ronald (2004). Europe today. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-2805-5.
* Tötösy de Zepetnek, Steven; Vasvári, Louise Olga (2011). Comparative Hungarian Cultural Studies. Comparative cultural studies. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-593-1. OCLC 1088215162. https://books.google.com/books?id=pFCzty0P4UcC&pg=PA24. Retrieved 24 November 2014.
* Shared Pasts in Central and Southeast Europe, 17th–21st Centuries. Eds. G. Demeter, P. Peykovska. 2015

## Further reading

* Ágh, Attila. Declining Democracy in East-Central Europe: The Divide in the EU and Emerging Hard Populism (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019).
* Baldersheim, Harald, ed. Local democracy and the processes of transformation in East-Central Europe (Routledge, 2019).
* Brophy, James M (September 2017). "Bookshops, Forbidden Print and Urban Political Culture in Central Europe, 1800–1850*". German History 35 (3): 403–430. doi:10.1093/gerhis/ghx062.
* Case, Holly (December 2013). "The Strange Politics of Federative Ideas in East-Central Europe". The Journal of Modern History 85 (4): 833–866. doi:10.1086/672531.
* Centre of Central European Studies, Agrarianism in Central and Eastern Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries (2013) online review.
* Donert, Celia; Greble, Emily; Wardhaugh, Jessica (August 2017). "New Scholarship on Central and Eastern Europe". Contemporary European History 26 (3): 507. doi:10.1017/S0960777317000224.
* Gardner, Hall, ed. Central and South-central Europe in Transition (Praeger, 2000)
* Halecki, Oscar. "BORDERLANDS OF WESTERN CIVILIZATION A History of East Central Europe". Oscar Halecki. http://hungarian-history.hu/lib/halecki/halecki.pdf.
* Kenney, Padraic (March 1999). "What is the History of 1989? New Scholarship from East-central Europe". East European Politics and Societies: And Cultures 13 (2): 419–431. doi:10.1177/0888325499013002021.
* Lederer, David. Early Modern Central European History (2011) online review by Linnéa Rowlatt
* Margreiter, Klaus (September 2019). "The Notion of Nobility and the Impact of Ennoblement on Early Modern Central Europe". Central European History 52 (3): 382–401. doi:10.1017/S0008938919000736. ProQuest 2338493814.
* Tieanu, Alexandra (2013). "Shared Culture, Peace and Bridging: Western Influences on the Dissident Idea of Central Europe in the Communist States during the 1980s". Valahian Journal of Historical Studies (20): 215–232. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=53202.
* Vachudova, Milada Anna (October 2019). "From Competition to Polarization in Central Europe: How Populists Change Party Systems and the European Union". Polity 51 (4): 689–706. doi:10.1086/705704.
* Anna Vachudova, Milada (2 July 2020). "Ethnopopulism and democratic backsliding in Central Europe". East European Politics 36 (3): 318–340. doi:10.1080/21599165.2020.1787163.
* Zimmerman, Andrew (16 September 2016). "Race against Revolution in Central and Eastern Europe". East Central Europe 43 (1–2): 14–40. doi:10.1163/18763308-04302004.
* 'Mapping Central Europe' in hidden europe, 5, pp. 14–15 (November 2005)

## External links

* Journal of East Central Europe
* Central European Political Science Association's journal "Politics in Central Europe"
* CEU Political Science Journal (PSJ)
* Central European Journal of International and Security Studies
* Central European Political Studies Review
* The Centrope region
* Maps of Europe and European countries
* CENTRAL EUROPE 2020
* Central Europe Economy
* UNHCR Office for Central Europe

* v
* t
* e

Earth's primary regions

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Africa

Central Africa|

* Guinea region
* Gulf of Guinea
* Cape Lopez
* Mayombe
* Igboland
* Mbaise
* Pool Malebo
* Congo Basin
* Chad Basin
* Cameroonian Highlands forests
* Congolian rainforests
* Ouaddaï highlands
* Ennedi Plateau

East Africa|

* African Great Lakes
* Albertine Rift
* East African Rift
* Great Rift Valley
* Gregory Rift
* Rift Valley lakes
* Virunga Mountains
* Kavirondo
* Zanj
* East African montane forests
* Eastern Arc Mountains
* Serengeti
* Horn of Africa
* Afar Triangle
* Al-Habash
* Barbara
* Danakil Alps
* Danakil Desert
* Ethiopian Highlands
* Dahlak Archipelago
* Hanish Islands
* Gulf of Aden
* Gulf of Tadjoura
* Red Sea
* Indian Ocean islands
* Comoro Islands
* Lamu Archipelago
* Zanzibar Archipelago
* Swahili coast

North Africa|

* Eastern Desert
* Maghreb
* Ancient Libya
* Atlas Mountains
* Barbary Coast
* Bashmur
* Gibraltar Arc
* Ifriqiya
* Nile Valley
* Nile Delta
* Cataracts of the Nile
* Darfur
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Lower Egypt
* Lower Nubia
* Middle Egypt
* Nile Delta
* Nuba Mountains
* Nubia
* The Sudans
* Upper Egypt
* Tibesti Mountains
* Western Sahara

West Africa|

* Pepper Coast
* Gold Coast
* Slave Coast
* Ivory Coast
* Cape Palmas
* Cape Mesurado
* Guinea region
* Guinean Forests of West Africa
* Upper Guinean forests
* Lower Guinean forests
* Guinean forest-savanna mosaic
* Guinea Highlands
* Gulf of Guinea
* Niger Basin
* Dahomey Gap
* Niger Delta
* Inner Niger Delta
* Yorubaland

Southern Africa|

* Madagascar
* Central Highlands (Madagascar)
* Northern Highlands
* Rhodesia
* North
* South
* Thembuland
* Succulent Karoo
* Nama Karoo
* Bushveld
* Maputaland
* Highveld
* Fynbos
* Cape Floristic Region
* Skeleton Coast
* Kalahari Desert
* Okavango Delta
* Cape Peninsula
* False Bay
* Hydra Bay

Macro-regions|

* Aethiopia
* Afromontane
* Arab world
* Commonwealth realm
* Equatorial Africa
* Françafrique
* Greater Middle East
* Guineo-Congolian region
* Islands of Africa
* List of countries where Arabic is an official language
* Mediterranean Basin
* MENA
* MENASA
* Middle East
* Miombo woodlands
* Mittelafrika
* Negroland
* Northeast Africa
* Portuguese-speaking African countries
* Sahara
* Sahel
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* Sudan (region)
* Sudanian Savanna
* East Sudanian Savanna
* Tropical Africa
* Zambezian region

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Asia

Central|

* Greater Middle East
* Aral Sea
* Aralkum Desert
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Sea of Galilee
* Tartary
* Transoxiana
* Turan
* Greater Khorasan
* Ariana
* Arachosia
* Khwarazm
* Sistan
* Kazakhstania
* Kazakh Steppe
* Betpak-Dala
* Eurasian Steppe
* Asian Steppe
* Kazakh Steppe
* Pontic–Caspian steppe
* Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
* Wild Fields
* Yedisan
* Muravsky Trail
* Ural
* Ural Mountains
* Volga region
* Idel-Ural
* Pryazovia
* Bjarmaland
* Kuban
* Zalesye
* Ingria
* Novorossiya
* Gornaya Shoriya
* Tulgas
* Iranian Plateau
* Altai Mountains
* Pamir Mountains
* Tian Shan
* Badakhshan
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Mount Imeon
* Mongolian Plateau
* Western Regions
* Taklamakan Desert
* Karakoram
* Trans-Karakoram Tract
* Siachen Glacier

North|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Inner Asia
* Northeast
* Ural
* Ural Mountains
* Far East
* Russian Far East
* Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga
* Beringia
* Chukchi Peninsula
* Kamchatka Peninsula
* Extreme North
* Tartary
* Siberia
* Baikalia (Lake Baikal)
* Baraba steppe
* Khatanga Gulf
* Transbaikal
* West
* Amur Basin
* Yenisei Gulf
* Yenisei Basin
* Sikhote-Alin
* Kolyma
* Bering Strait
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific

East|

* Orient
* Japanese archipelago
* Northeastern Japan Arc
* Sakhalin Island Arc
* Korean Peninsula
* Gobi Desert
* Taklamakan Desert
* Greater Khingan
* Mongolian Plateau
* Inner Asia
* Inner Mongolia
* Outer Mongolia
* China proper
* Manchuria
* Outer Manchuria
* Inner Manchuria
* Northeast China Plain
* Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
* North China Plain
* Yan Mountains
* Kunlun Mountains
* Liaodong Peninsula
* High-mountain Asia
* Himalayas
* Tibetan Plateau
* Tibet
* Karakoram
* Tarim Basin
* Sichuan Basin
* Northern Silk Road
* Hexi Corridor
* Nanzhong
* Lingnan
* Liangguang
* Jiangnan
* Jianghuai
* Guanzhong
* Huizhou
* Wu
* Jiaozhou
* Zhongyuan
* Shaannan
* Ordos Loop
* Loess Plateau
* Shaanbei
* Hamgyong Mountains
* Central Mountain Range
* Japanese Alps
* Suzuka Mountains
* Leizhou Peninsula
* Gulf of Tonkin
* Yangtze River
* Yangtze River Delta
* Yellow River
* Pearl River Delta
* Yenisei Basin
* Altai Mountains
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Far East
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

West|

* Greater Middle East
* MENA
* MENASA
* Middle East
* Red Sea
* Hanish Islands
* Caspian Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Zagros Mountains
* Elam
* Persian Gulf
* Pirate Coast
* Strait of Hormuz
* Greater and Lesser Tunbs
* Al-Faw Peninsula
* Gulf of Oman
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Gulf of Aden
* Balochistan
* Arabian Peninsula
* Najd
* Al-Yamama
* Hejaz
* Tihamah
* Eastern Arabia
* South Arabia
* Hadhramaut
* Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
* Al-Sharat
* Tigris–Euphrates
* Mesopotamia
* Upper Mesopotamia
* Lower Mesopotamia
* Sawad
* Nineveh plains
* Akkad (region)
* Babylonia
* Canaan
* Aram
* Aram-Naharaim
* Eber-Nari
* Suhum
* Eastern Mediterranean
* Mashriq
* Kurdistan
* Levant
* Southern Levant
* Transjordan
* Jordan Rift Valley
* Levantine Sea
* Holy Land
* Palestine
* Land of Israel
* Golan Heights
* Hula Valley
* Galilee
* Gilead
* Judea
* Samaria
* Arabah
* Anti-Lebanon Mountains
* Sinai Peninsula
* Arabian Desert
* Syrian Desert
* Fertile Crescent
* Azerbaijan
* Syria
* Hauran
* Iranian Plateau
* Dasht-e Kavir
* Armenian Highlands
* Caucasus
* Caucasus Mountains
* Greater Caucasus
* Lesser Caucasus
* North Caucasus
* South Caucasus
* Shirvan
* Kur-Araz Lowland
* Lankaran Lowland
* Alborz
* Absheron Peninsula
* Kartli
* Anatolia
* Taurus Mountains
* Aeolis
* Paphlagonia
* Phasiane
* Isauria
* Ionia
* Bithynia
* Cilicia
* Cappadocia
* Caria
* Corduene
* Chaldia
* Doris
* Lycaonia
* Lycia
* Lydia
* Galatia
* Pisidia
* Pontus
* Mysia
* Arzawa
* Speri
* Sophene
* Biga Peninsula
* Troad
* Tuwana
* Alpide belt

South|

* Orient
* Greater India
* Indian subcontinent
* Himalayas
* Hindu Kush
* Bactria
* Carnatic region
* Tamilakam
* Western Ghats
* Eastern Ghats
* Ganges Basin
* Ganges Delta
* Guzgan
* Pashtunistan
* Punjab
* Balochistan
* Gedrosia
* Makran
* Marathwada
* Kashmir
* Kashmir Valley
* Pir Panjal Range
* Thar Desert
* Indus Valley
* Indus River Delta
* Indus Valley Desert
* Indo-Gangetic Plain
* Eastern Coastal Plains
* Kalinga
* Western Coastal Plains
* Meghalaya subtropical forests
* MENASA
* Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests
* Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows
* Doab
* Bagar tract
* Great Rann of Kutch
* Little Rann of Kutch
* Deccan Plateau
* Coromandel Coast
* Konkan
* False Divi Point
* Hindi Belt
* Ladakh
* Aksai Chin
* Gilgit-Baltistan
* Baltistan
* Shigar Valley
* High-mountain Asia
* Karakoram
* Saltoro Mountains
* Siachen Glacier
* Bengal
* Bay of Bengal
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Halar
* Gulf of Mannar
* Trans-Karakoram Tract
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Lakshadweep
* Laccadive Islands
* Amindivi Islands
* Paropamisadae
* Andaman and Nicobar Islands
* Andaman Islands
* Nicobar Islands
* Maldive Islands
* Alpide belt
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

Southeast|

* Orient
* Sundaland
* Mainland
* Indochina
* Malay Peninsula
* Northern Triangle temperate forests
* Maritime
* Peninsular Malaysia
* Sunda Islands
* Greater Sunda Islands
* Lesser Sunda Islands
* Indonesian Archipelago
* Wallacea
* Timor
* Philippine Archipelago
* Luzon
* Visayas
* Mindanao
* Leyte Gulf
* Gulf of Thailand
* East Indies
* Nanyang
* Alpide belt
* Far East
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Europe

North|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Nordic
* Northwestern
* Scandinavia
* Scandinavian Peninsula
* Fennoscandia
* Baltoscandia
* Jutland
* Gotland
* Sápmi
* Ingria
* West Nordic
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Iceland
* Faroe Islands
* British Isles

East|

* Danubian countries
* Prussia
* Galicia
* Volhynia
* Wallachia
* Transylvania
* Moldavia
* Bukovina
* Bessarabia
* Livonia
* Ruthenia
* Carpathian Ruthenia
* Donbass
* Sloboda Ukraine
* Sambia Peninsula
* Amber Coast
* Curonian Spit
* Izyum Trail
* Lithuania Minor
* Nemunas Delta
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Vyborg Bay
* Karelia
* East Karelia
* Karelian Isthmus
* Lokhaniemi
* Southeastern
* Crimea
* Epirus
* Rumelia
* Balkans
* Aegean Sea
* Aegean Islands
* Attica
* Boeotia
* Opuntian Locris
* Phocis
* Megaris
* Peloponnese
* Chalkidiki
* Aetolia
* Gulf of Chania
* North Caucasus
* Greater Caucasus
* Kabardia
* Istria
* European Russia
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Taman Peninsula
* Southern Russia
* Kola Peninsula

Central|

* North European Plain
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Alpine states
* Alpide belt
* Visegrád Group
* Rhineland
* Eastphalia
* Westphalia
* Prussia
* Lusatia
* Bohemia
* Moravia
* Silesia
* Czech Silesia
* Pomerania
* Pomerelia
* Kashubia
* Bukovina
* Istria
* Transdanubia
* Polesia
* Germania
* Germania Slavica

West|

* Benelux
* Low Countries
* Northwest
* British Isles
* English Channel
* Channel Islands
* Cotentin Peninsula
* Doggerland
* Upper Rhine Plain
* Upper Rhine
* Gaul
* Gascony
* Normandy
* Brittany
* Septimania
* Batavia
* Gulf of Lion
* Iberia
* Al-Andalus
* Baetic System
* Pyrenees
* Alpide belt

South|

* Po Valley (Padania)
* Italian Peninsula
* Tuscan Archipelago
* Insular Italy
* Aegadian Islands
* Occitania
* Iberia
* Al-Andalus
* Baetic System
* Gibraltar Arc
* Southeastern
* Mediterranean
* Alpide belt

* Germanic
* Romance
* Celtic
* Slavic countries
* European Plain
* Eurasian Steppe
* Pontic–Caspian steppe
* Wild Fields
* Pannonian Basin
* Great Hungarian Plain
* Little Hungarian Plain
* Eastern Slovak Lowland

* v
* t
* e

Regions of North America

North
(Canada)|

| Eastern|

* Central Canada
* Atlantic Canada
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* Great Lakes region

|

Western|

* Pacific Northwest
* Prairie Pothole Region

Northern|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Greenland

* Canadian Prairies
* The Maritimes
* French Canada
* English Canada
* Acadia
* Acadian Peninsula
* Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
* Peace River Country
* Cypress Hills
* Palliser's Triangle
* Canadian Shield
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Kodiak Island
* Newfoundland (island)
* Vancouver Island
* Gulf Islands
* Strait of Georgia
* Labrador Peninsula
* Gaspé Peninsula
* Avalon Peninsula
* Bay de Verde Peninsula
* Brodeur Peninsula
* Melville Peninsula
* Bruce Peninsula
* Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
* Cook Peninsula
* Gulf of Boothia
* Georgian Bay
* Hudson Bay
* James Bay

North
(United States)|

| Arctic|

* Aleutian Arc
* Aleutian Range
* Alaska Peninsula
* Aleutian Islands
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Bering Strait
* Gulf of Alaska

|

Eastern|

* East Coast
* Northeast
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* New England
* Mid-Atlantic
* Commonwealth
* Southeast

Western|

* West Coast
* Mountain states
* Intermountain West
* Great Basin
* Basin and Range Province
* Northwestern United States
* Inland Northwest
* Pacific Northwest
* Southwest
* Old Southwest
* Four Corners

Central|

* Great Lakes
* Tallgrass prairie
* Midwest
* Upper Midwest
* South Central
* Gulf Coast

Southern|

* Deep South
* Old South
* Upland South
* Santa Fe de Nuevo México

* Pacific Coast Ranges
* Oregon Trail
* Mormon Corridor
* Calumet Region
* Llano Estacado
* Third Coast
* Backcountry
* Trans-Mississippi
* Great North Woods
* Great Plains
* Interior Plains
* Great Basin
* Great Basin Desert
* Acadia
* Ozarks
* Ark-La-Tex
* Waxhaws
* Siouxland
* Twin Tiers
* Driftless Area
* Palouse
* Piedmont
* Atlantic coastal plain
* Outer Lands
* Black Dirt Region
* Blackstone Valley
* Piney Woods
* Rocky Mountains
* Mojave Desert
* The Dakotas
* The Carolinas
* Shawnee Hills
* San Fernando Valley
* Tornado Alley
* North Coast
* Lost Coast
* Emerald Triangle
* San Francisco Bay Area
* San Francisco Bay
* North Bay
* East Bay
* Silicon Valley
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Gulf of Mexico
* Lower Colorado River Valley
* Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
* Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
* Colville Delta
* Arkansas Delta
* Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
* Mississippi Delta
* Mississippi River Delta
* Columbia River Estuary
* Great Basin
* High Desert
* Monterey Peninsula
* Upper Peninsula of Michigan
* Lower Peninsula of Michigan
* Virginia Peninsula
* Keweenaw Peninsula
* Middle Peninsula
* Delmarva Peninsula
* Alaska Peninsula
* Kenai Peninsula
* Niagara Peninsula
* "Belt" regions
* Bible Belt
* Black Belt
* Corn Belt
* Cotton Belt
* Frost Belt
* Rice Belt
* Rust Belt
* Sun Belt
* Snow Belt

Middle|

| Northern|

* Basin and Range Province
* Baja California Peninsula
* Gulf of California
* Colorado River Delta
* Gulf of Mexico

|

Southern|

* Soconusco
* Tierra Caliente
* La Mixteca
* La Huasteca
* Bajío
* Valley of Mexico
* Mezquital Valley
* Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
* Yucatán Peninsula
* Gulf of Mexico

Central|

* Northern Triangle of Central America
* Western Caribbean Zone
* Isthmus of Panama
* Gulf of Panama
* Pearl Islands
* Azuero Peninsula
* Mosquito Coast

Caribbean|

* Antilles
* Greater Antilles
* Lesser Antilles
* Leeward
* Leeward Antilles
* Windward
* Lucayan Archipelago
* Southern Caribbean
* West Indies

* Aridoamerica
* Mesoamerica
* Oasisamerica
* Anglo
* Latin
* French
* Hispanic
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Oceania

Australia|

| Australian Capital Territory|

* Australian Capital Territory

|

New South Wales|

* Central Coast
* Central Tablelands
* Central Western Slopes
* Greater Western Sydney
* Hunter
* Mid North Coast
* Northern Rivers
* North West Slopes
* Northern Tablelands
* Riverina
* South Coast
* South West Slopes
* Southern Tablelands
* Western Plains

Northern Territory|

* Arnhem Land
* Barkly Tableland
* Central Australia
* Darwin
* Katherine

Queensland|

* Central West
* Central
* Darling Downs
* Far North
* Gulf Country
* North
* South East
* South West
* Wide Bay–Burnett

South Australia|

* Adelaide Hills
* Barossa Light and Lower North
* Eastern Adelaide
* Eyre Western
* Far North
* Fleurieu and Kangaroo Island
* Limestone Coast
* Murray and Mallee
* Northern Adelaide
* Southern Adelaide
* Western Adelaide
* Yorke and Mid North

Tasmania|

* Central Highlands
* East Coast
* Midlands
* North East
* North West
* Northern
* South West
* Southern
* West Coast

Victoria|

* Barwon South West
* Gippsland
* Grampians
* Greater Melbourne
* Hume
* Loddon Mallee

Western Australia|

* Gascoyne
* Goldfields-Esperance
* Great Southern
* Kimberley
* Mid West
* Peel
* Pilbara
* South West
* Wheatbelt

Melanesia|

* Islands Region
* Bismarck Archipelago
* Solomon Islands
* North Solomon Islands
* Solomon Islands
* Fiji
* New Caledonia
* New Guinea
* Bonis Peninsula
* Papuan Peninsula
* Huon Peninsula
* Huon Gulf
* Bird's Head Peninsula
* Gazelle Peninsula
* Vanuatu

Micronesia|

* Caroline Islands
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Palau
* Kiribati
* Mariana Islands
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* Wake Island

Polynesia|

* Easter Island
* Hawaiian Islands
* Cook Islands
* French Polynesia
* Austral Islands
* Gambier Islands
* Mangareva Islands
* Marquesas Islands
* Society Islands
* Tuamotus
* Kermadec Islands
* New Zealand
* South Island
* North Island
* Niue
* Pitcairn Islands
* Samoan Islands
* American Samoa
* Independent State of Samoa
* Tokelau
* Tonga
* Tuvalu

* Asia-Pacific
* Ring of Fire

* v
* t
* e

Regions of South America

East|

* Amazon basin
* Atlantic Forest
* Caatinga
* Cerrado

North|

* Caribbean South America
* West Indies
* Los Llanos
* The Guianas
* Amazon basin
* Amazon rainforest
* Gulf of Paria
* Paria Peninsula
* Paraguaná Peninsula
* Orinoco Delta

South|

* Tierra del Fuego
* Patagonia
* Pampas
* Pantanal
* Gran Chaco
* Chiquitano dry forests
* Valdes Peninsula
* Triple Frontier
* Río de la Plata
* Río de la Plata Basin

West|

* Andes
* Tropical Andes
* Wet Andes
* Dry Andes
* Pariacaca mountain range
* Altiplano
* Atacama Desert

* Latin
* Hispanic
* Bolivarian
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Polar regions of Earth

Antarctic|

* Antarctic Peninsula
* East Antarctica
* West Antarctica
* Eklund Islands
* Ecozone
* Extreme points
* Islands

Arctic|

* Arctic Alaska
* British Arctic Territories
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Finnmark
* Greenland
* Northern Canada
* Northwest Territories
* Nunavik
* Nunavut
* Russian Arctic
* Sakha
* Sápmi
* Yukon
* North American Arctic

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Borders of the oceans

Arctic Ocean|

* Amundsen Gulf
* Barents Sea
* Beaufort Sea
* Chukchi Sea
* East Siberian Sea
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Boothia
* Kara Sea
* Laptev Sea
* Lincoln Sea
* Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
* Pechora Sea
* Queen Victoria Sea
* Wandel Sea
* White Sea

Atlantic Ocean|

* Adriatic Sea
* Aegean Sea
* Alboran Sea
* Archipelago Sea
* Argentine Sea
* Baffin Bay
* Balearic Sea
* Baltic Sea
* Bay of Biscay
* Bay of Bothnia
* Bay of Campeche
* Bay of Fundy
* Black Sea
* Bothnian Sea
* Caribbean Sea
* Celtic Sea
* English Channel
* Foxe Basin
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Gulf of Lion
* Gulf of Guinea
* Gulf of Maine
* Gulf of Mexico
* Gulf of Saint Lawrence
* Gulf of Sidra
* Gulf of Venezuela
* Hudson Bay
* Ionian Sea
* Irish Sea
* Irminger Sea
* James Bay
* Labrador Sea
* Levantine Sea
* Libyan Sea
* Ligurian Sea
* Marmara Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Myrtoan Sea
* North Sea
* Norwegian Sea
* Sargasso Sea
* Sea of Åland
* Sea of Azov
* Sea of Crete
* Sea of the Hebrides
* Thracian Sea
* Tyrrhenian Sea
* Wadden Sea

Indian Ocean|

* Andaman Sea
* Arabian Sea
* Bali Sea
* Bay of Bengal
* Flores Sea
* Great Australian Bight
* Gulf of Aden
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Gulf of Oman
* Gulf of Suez
* Java Sea
* Laccadive Sea
* Mozambique Channel
* Persian Gulf
* Red Sea
* Timor Sea

Pacific Ocean|

* Arafura Sea
* Banda Sea
* Bering Sea
* Bismarck Sea
* Bohai Sea
* Bohol Sea
* Camotes Sea
* Celebes Sea
* Chilean Sea
* Coral Sea
* East China Sea
* Gulf of Alaska
* Gulf of Anadyr
* Gulf of California
* Gulf of Carpentaria
* Gulf of Fonseca
* Gulf of Panama
* Gulf of Thailand
* Gulf of Tonkin
* Halmahera Sea
* Koro Sea
* Mar de Grau
* Molucca Sea
* Moro Gulf
* Philippine Sea
* Salish Sea
* Savu Sea
* Sea of Japan
* Sea of Okhotsk
* Seram Sea
* Seto Inland Sea
* Shantar Sea
* Sibuyan Sea
* Solomon Sea
* South China Sea
* Sulu Sea
* Tasman Sea
* Visayan Sea
* Yellow Sea

Southern Ocean|

* Amundsen Sea
* Bellingshausen Sea
* Cooperation Sea
* Cosmonauts Sea
* Davis Sea
* D'Urville Sea
* King Haakon VII Sea
* Lazarev Sea
* Mawson Sea
* Riiser-Larsen Sea
* Ross Sea
* Scotia Sea
* Somov Sea
* Weddell Sea

Endorheic basins|

* Aral Sea
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Salton Sea

* Book
* Category

* v
* t
* e

European Union articles

History|

| Timeline|

* Pre-1945
* 1945-1957
* 1958-1972
* 1973-1993
* 1993-2004
* Since 2004

|

Predecessors|

* Timeline
* Founders
* European Coal and Steel Community (1951-2002)
* European Economic Community (1958-1993/2009)
* Euratom (1958-present)
* European Communities (1967-1993/2009)
* Justice and Home Affairs (1993-2009)

Geography|

* Extreme points
* Geographic centre
* Largest municipalities
* Urban areas
* Larger urban zones
* Member states
* Regions (first-level NUTS)
* Special territories

Politics|

| Institutions|

* European Council
* European Commission
* European Parliament
* Committees of the European Parliament
* Council of the European Union
* Court of Justice of the European Union
* European Central Bank
* European Court of Auditors
* (presidents)

|

Agencies|

* Banking
* Border and coast security (Frontex)
* Disease prevention and control
* Environment
* Foreign affairs (External Action Service)
* Judicial cooperation (Eurojust)
* Law enforcement cooperation (Europol)
* Maritime safety
* Reconstruction

Law|

* Acquis
* Charter of Fundamental Rights
* Competition law
* Copyright law
* Directive
* Citizens’ Rights Directive
* Enhanced cooperation
* Environmental policy
* Four freedoms
* labour mobility
* Government procurement
* Official Journal
* Mechanism for Cooperation and Verification
* Legislative procedure
* Citizens' Initiative
* Regulation
* Rural Development Policy
* Schengen Area
* Treaties
* opt-outs
* LGBT rights

Politics|

* Elections
* parliamentary constituencies
* Enlargement
* 1973
* 1981
* 1986
* 1995
* 2004
* 2007
* 2013
* Future
* European Economic Area
* Euromyths
* Political parties (National parties by affiliation)
* Euroscepticism
* Federalisation
* Integration
* Parliamentary groups
* Pro-Europeanism
* Withdrawal (Brexit)
* 2012 Nobel Peace Prize

Foreign relations|

* Economic Partnership Agreements
* European Union Association Agreement
* Common Foreign and Security Policy
* Stabilisation and Association Process
* European Neighbourhood Policy
* Eastern Partnership
* Northern Dimension
* Union for the Mediterranean

Economy|

* Budget
* Central bank
* Agricultural policy
* Fisheries policy
* Currencies
* Energy policy
* Euro (Global usage of €)
* Eurozone
* Free trade agreements
* Investment bank
* Investment fund
* Regional development
* Single market
* Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)
* Capital Markets Union
* Banking Union
* Societas Europaea
* Solidarity Fund
* Transport
* Galileo navigation system
* minimum wage
* average wage
* unemployment rate
* health expense per person
* Healthcare
* Health Insurance Card
* Driving licence
* European Common Aviation Area

Culture|

* Citizenship
* passports
* identity cards
* Cultural policies
* Demographics
* Douzelage
* Driving licence
* Education
* House of European History
* Institute of Innovation and Technology
* Laissez-passer
* Languages
* Media freedom
* Public holidays
* Religion
* Sport
* Telephone numbers
* Statistics
* Symbols

Lists|

* Concepts, acronyms, & jargon
* Agencies
* Books
* Companies
* Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants
* Largest cities by population within city limits
* Directives
* Tallest buildings
* Terrorist incidents
* Vehicle registration plates

Theory|

* Eurosphere
* Intergovernmentalism
* Multi-speed
* Neofunctionalism
* Optimum currency area
* Supranational union

Template:Europe topics (small)

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central Europe. Read more

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