Climate change

Short description: Current rise in Earth's average temperature and its effects

Error: no inner hatnotes detected (help).

Surface air temperature change over the past 50 years.[1] Earth's average surface air temperature has increased almost 1.5 °C (about 2.5 °F) since the Industrial Revolution. Natural forces cause some variability, but the 20-year average shows the progressive influence of human activity.[2]

In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global average temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by humans burning fossil fuels.[3][4] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices add to greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane.[5] Greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases trap more heat in Earth's lower atmosphere, causing global warming.

Climate change has an increasing impact on the environment. Deserts are expanding, while heat waves and wildfires are becoming more common.[6] Amplified warming in the Arctic has contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss.[7][8] Higher temperatures are also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes.[9] Rapid environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to relocate or become extinct.[10] Even if efforts to minimise future warming are successful, some effects will continue for centuries. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level rise.[11]

Climate change threatens people with increased flooding, extreme heat, increased food and water scarcity, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result.[12] The World Health Organization (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century.[13] Societies and ecosystems will experience more severe risks without action to limit warming.[14] Adapting to climate change through efforts like flood control measures or drought-resistant crops partially reduces climate change risks, although some limits to adaptation have already been reached.[15] Poorer communities are responsible for a small share of global emissions, yet have the least ability to adapt and are most vulnerable to climate change.[16][17]

Some effects of climate change: Wildfire intensified by heat and drought, bleaching of coral caused by marine heatwaves, and worsening droughts compromising water supplies.

Many climate change impacts have been felt in recent years, with 2023 the warmest on record at +1.48 °C (2.66 °F).[19] Additional warming will increase these impacts and can trigger tipping points, such as the melting of the Greenland ice sheet.[20] Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively agreed to keep warming "well under 2 °C". However, with pledges made under the Agreement, global warming would still reach about 2.7 °C (4.9 °F) by the end of the century.[21] Limiting warming to 1.5 °C will require halving emissions by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050.[22]

Strategies to phase out fossil fuels involve conserving energy, generating electricity cleanly, and using electricity to power transportation, heat buildings, and operate industrial facilities. The electricity supply can be made cleaner and more plentiful by vastly increasing deployment of wind, and solar power, alongside other forms of renewable energy and nuclear power.[23][24] Carbon can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and farming with methods that capture carbon in soil.[25]

## Contents

* 1 Terminology
* 2 Global temperature rise
* 2.1 Temperature records prior to global warming
* 2.2 Warming since the Industrial Revolution
* 2.2.1 Differences by region
* 2.3 Future global temperatures
* 3 Causes of recent global temperature rise
* 3.1 Greenhouse gases
* 3.2 Aerosols and clouds
* 3.3 Land surface changes
* 3.4 Solar and volcanic activity
* 3.5 Climate change feedback
* 4 Modelling
* 5 Impacts
* 5.1 Environmental effects
* 5.2 Tipping points and long-term impacts
* 5.3 Nature and wildlife
* 5.4 Humans
* 5.4.1 Food and health
* 5.4.2 Inequality
* 5.4.3 Climate migration
* 6 Reducing and recapturing emissions
* 6.1 Clean energy
* 6.2 Energy conservation
* 6.3 Agriculture and industry
* 6.4 Carbon sequestration
* 7 Adaptation
* 8 Policies and politics
* 8.1 Policy options
* 8.1.1 Climate justice
* 8.2 International climate agreements
* 8.3 National responses
* 9 Society
* 9.1 Denial and misinformation
* 9.2 Public awareness and opinion
* 9.2.1 Climate movement
* 10 History
* 10.1 Early discoveries
* 10.2 Development of a scientific consensus
* 11 See also
* 12 References
* 12.1 Sources
* 12.1.1 IPCC reports
* 12.1.2 Other peer-reviewed sources
* 12.1.3 Books, reports and legal documents
* 12.1.4 Non-technical sources
* 13 External links

## Terminology

Before the 1980s, when it was unclear whether the warming effect of increased greenhouse gases was stronger than the cooling effect of airborne particulates in air pollution, scientists used the term inadvertent climate modification to refer to human impacts on the climate.[26]

In the 1980s, the terms global warming and climate change became more common. Though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably,[27] scientifically, global warming refers only to increased surface warming, while climate change describes the totality of changes to Earth's climate system.[26] Global warming—used as early as 1975[28]—became the more popular term after NASA climate scientist James Hansen used it in his 1988 testimony in the U.S. Senate.[29] Since the 2000s, climate change has increased in usage.[30] Climate change can also refer more broadly to both human-caused changes or natural changes throughout Earth's history.[31]

Various scientists, politicians and media now use the terms climate crisis or climate emergency to talk about climate change, and global heating instead of global warming.[32]

## Global temperature rise

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the last 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[33] Directly observed data is in red.[34]

### Temperature records prior to global warming

Prior to human evolution the record includes hotter temperatures and occasional abrupt changes, such as the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum 55.5 million years ago.[35]

Over the last few million years Human beings evolved in a climate that cycled through ice ages, with global average temperature ranging between current levels and 5–6 °C colder than today.[36][37] Historical patterns of warming and cooling, like the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age, did not occur at the same time across different regions. Temperatures may have reached as high as those of the late 20th century in a limited set of regions.[38] Climate information for that period comes from climate proxies, such as trees and ice cores.[39]

### Warming since the Industrial Revolution

Main article: Earth:Instrumental temperature record

The mean temperature of any given year can be up to 0.2 °C warmer or colder than the 20 year average due to internal climate variability,[40][41] and year 2023 was a prominent example. Daily global air surface temperatures can vary even more. In November 2023 two days exceeded 2 °C warming for the first time in recorded history.[42] There has been an increase in ocean heat content during recent decades as the oceans absorb over 90% of the heat from global warming.[43]

Around 1850 thermometer records began to provide global coverage.[44] Between the 18th century and 1970 there was little net warming, as aerosols offset the warming impact of greenhouse gas emissions. Then, increasing accumulation of greenhouse gases coupled with aerosol pollution controls caused temperatures to begin markedly increasing.[45]

Surface temperatures increase worldwide,[46] at a rate of around 0.2 °C per decade.[47] The 2013-2022 decade warmed to an average 1.15 °C [1.00–1.25 °C] compared to the pre-industrial baseline (1850–1900).[48] Not every single year was warmer than the last: internal climate variability processes can make any year 0.2 °C warmer or colder than the average.[41] From 1998 to 2013, negative phases of two such processes, Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)[49] and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO).[50] caused a so-called "global warming hiatus".[51] After the hiatus, the opposite occurred, with years like 2023 exhibiting temperatures well above even the recent average.[42] This is why the temperature change is defined in terms of a 20-year average, which minimizes the noise of hot and cold years and decadal climate patterns, and detects the long-term signal.[40]: 5 [52]

A wide range of other observations reinforce the evidence of warming.[53][54] The upper atmosphere is cooling, because greenhouse gases are trapping heat near the Earth's surface, and so less heat is radiating into space.[55] Warming reduces average snow cover and forces the retreat of glaciers. At the same time, warming also causes greater evaporation from the oceans, leading to more atmospheric humidity, more and heavier precipitation.[56] Plants flower earlier in spring.[57]

#### Differences by region

In recent decades, new high temperature records have substantially outpaced new low temperature records on a growing portion of Earth's surface.[58]

Different regions of the world warm at different rates. The pattern is independent of where greenhouse gases are emitted, because the gases persist long enough to diffuse across the planet. Since the pre-industrial period, the average surface temperature over land regions has increased almost twice as fast as the global-average surface temperature.[59] This is because of the larger heat capacity of oceans, and because oceans lose more heat by evaporation.[60] The thermal energy in the global climate system has grown with only brief pauses since at least 1970, and over 90% of this extra energy has been stored in the ocean.[61][62] The rest has heated the atmosphere, melted ice, and warmed the continents.[63]

The Northern Hemisphere and the North Pole have warmed much faster than the South Pole and Southern Hemisphere. The Northern Hemisphere not only has much more land, but also more seasonal snow cover and sea ice. As these surfaces flip from reflecting a lot of light to being dark after the ice has melted, they start absorbing more heat.[64] Local black carbon deposits on snow and ice also contribute to Arctic warming.[65] Arctic temperatures are increasing at over twice the rate of the rest of the world.[66] Melting of glaciers and ice sheets in the Arctic disrupts ocean circulation, including a weakened Gulf Stream, further changing the climate.[67]

### Future global temperatures

Further information: Earth:Carbon budget and Earth:Earth's energy budget

Model projections of global surface temperature changes under three Representative Concentration Pathways, for years 2100, 2200 and 2500 relative to the 2000-2019 mean (1 °C above the preindustrial levels).[68] This projection excludes RCP 8.5, the most intense climate change scenario, where emissions accelerate until the CO
2 concentrations eventually exceed preindustrial levels 7-fold, and the warming reaches over 4 °C from preindustrial by 2100 and is around 8 °C by 2300.[69] That extreme scenario is currently considered unlikely,[70], while RCP 4.5, the middle scenario on the graph is believed to be the most likely.[71][72]

The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report uses a 20 year average to define global temperature changes. The report expects this 20-year average to exceed +1.5 °C in the early 2030s.[73]

The IPCC projects that global warming is very likely to reach

* 1.0 °C to 1.8 °C by the end of the 21st century under a very low GHG emissions scenario,
* 2.1 °C to 3.5 °C under an intermediate emissions scenario,
* or 3.3 °C to 5.7 °C under a very high GHG emissions scenario.[74]

In the intermediate and high emission scenarios, the warming will also continue well past 2100.[69][68]

The remaining carbon budget for staying beneath certain temperature increases is determined by modelling the carbon cycle and climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases.[75] According to the IPCC, global warming can be kept below 1.5 °C with a two-thirds chance if emissions after 2018 do not exceed 420 or 570 gigatonnes of CO
2. This corresponds to 10 to 13 years of current emissions. There are high uncertainties about the budget. For instance, it may be 100 gigatonnes of CO
2 equivalent smaller due to CO
2 and methane release from permafrost and wetlands.[76] However, it is clear that fossil fuel resources need to be proactively kept in the ground to prevent substantial warming. Otherwise, their shortages would not occur until the emissions have already locked in significant long-term impacts.[77]

The World Meteorological Organization estimates a 66% chance of global temperatures exceeding 1.5 °C warming from the preindustrial baseline for at least one year between 2023 and 2027.[78][79] A single year exceeding 1.5 °C does not break the IPCC limit.

## Causes of recent global temperature rise

Main article: Earth:Attribution of recent climate change

Drivers of climate change from 1850–1900 to 2010–2019. There was no significant contribution from internal variability or solar and volcanic drivers.

The climate system experiences various cycles on its own which can last for years, decades or even centuries. For example, El Niño events cause short-term spikes in surface temperature while La Niña events cause short term cooling.[80] Their relative frequency can affect global temperature trends on a decadal timescale.[81] Other changes are caused by an imbalance of energy from external forcings.[82] Examples of these include changes in the concentrations of greenhouse gases, solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in the Earth's orbit around the Sun.[83]

To determine the human contribution to climate change, unique "fingerprints" for all potential causes are developed and compared with both observed patterns and known internal climate variability.[84] For example, solar forcing—whose fingerprint involves warming the entire atmosphere—is ruled out because only the lower atmosphere has warmed.[85] Atmospheric aerosols produce a smaller, cooling effect. Other drivers, such as changes in albedo, are less impactful.[86]

### Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gases are transparent to sunlight, and thus allow it to pass through the atmosphere to heat the Earth's surface. The Earth radiates it as heat, and greenhouse gases absorb a portion of it. This absorption slows the rate at which heat escapes into space, trapping heat near the Earth's surface and warming it over time.[87]

While water vapour (≈50%) and clouds (≈25%) are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they primarily change as a function of temperature and are therefore mostly considered to be feedbacks that change climate sensitivity. On the other hand, concentrations of gases such as CO
2 (≈20%), tropospheric ozone,[88] CFCs and nitrous oxide are added or removed independently from temperature, and are therefore considered to be external forcings that change global temperatures.[89]

Before the Industrial Revolution, naturally-occurring amounts of greenhouse gases caused the air near the surface to be about 33 °C warmer than it would have been in their absence.[90][91] Human activity since the Industrial Revolution, mainly extracting and burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas),[92] has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in a radiative imbalance. In 2019, the concentrations of CO
2 and methane had increased by about 48% and 160%, respectively, since 1750.[93] These CO
2 levels are higher than they have been at any time during the last 2 million years. Concentrations of methane are far higher than they were over the last 800,000 years.[94]

The Global Carbon Project shows how additions to CO
2 since 1880 have been caused by different sources ramping up one after another.

Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were equivalent to 59 billion tonnes of CO
2. Of these emissions, 75% was CO
2, 18% was methane, 4% was nitrous oxide, and 2% was fluorinated gases.[95] CO
2 emissions primarily come from burning fossil fuels to provide energy for transport, manufacturing, heating, and electricity.[5] Additional CO
2 emissions come from deforestation and industrial processes, which include the CO
2 released by the chemical reactions for making cement, steel, aluminum, and fertiliser.[96] Methane emissions come from livestock, manure, rice cultivation, landfills, wastewater, and coal mining, as well as oil and gas extraction.[97] Nitrous oxide emissions largely come from the microbial decomposition of fertiliser.[98]

The Earth's surface absorbs CO
2 as part of the carbon cycle. Despite the contribution of deforestation to greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth's land surface, particularly its forests, remain a significant carbon sink for CO
2. Land-surface sink processes, such as carbon fixation in the soil and photosynthesis, remove about 29% of annual global CO
2 emissions.[99] The ocean also serves as a significant carbon sink via a two-step process. First, CO
2 dissolves in the surface water. Afterwards, the ocean's overturning circulation distributes it deep into the ocean's interior, where it accumulates over time as part of the carbon cycle. Over the last two decades, the world's oceans have absorbed 20 to 30% of emitted CO
2.[100]

### Aerosols and clouds

Air pollution, in the form of aerosols, affects the climate on a large scale.[101] Aerosols scatter and absorb solar radiation. From 1961 to 1990, a gradual reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface was observed. This phenomenon is popularly known as global dimming,[102] and is primarily attributed to sulfate aerosols produced by the combustion of fossil fuels with heavy sulfur concentrations like coal and bunker fuel.[103] Smaller contributions come from black carbon, organic carbon from combustion of fossil fuels and biofuels, and from anthropogenic dust.[104][105][106][107][108] Globally, aerosols have been declining since 1990 due to pollution controls, meaning that they no longer mask greenhouse gas warming as much.[109][103]

Aerosols also have indirect effects on the Earth's energy budget. Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets.[110] They also reduce the growth of raindrops, which makes clouds more reflective to incoming sunlight.[111] Indirect effects of aerosols are the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.[112]

While aerosols typically limit global warming by reflecting sunlight, black carbon in soot that falls on snow or ice can contribute to global warming. Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea-level rise.[113] Limiting new black carbon deposits in the Arctic could reduce global warming by 0.2 °C by 2050.[114]

### Land surface changes

The rate of global tree cover loss has approximately doubled since 2001, to an annual loss approaching an area the size of Italy.[115]

According to Food and Agriculture Organization, around 30% of Earth's land area is largely unusable for humans (glaciers, deserts, etc.), 26% is forests, 10% is shrubland and 34% is agricultural land.[116] Deforestation is the main land use change contributor to global warming,[117] as the destroyed trees release CO
2, and are not replaced by new trees, removing that carbon sink.[25] Between 2001 and 2018, 27% of deforestation was from permanent clearing to enable agricultural expansion for crops and livestock. Another 24% has been lost to temporary clearing under the shifting cultivation agriculural systems. 26% was due to logging for wood and derived products, and wildfires have accounted for the remaining 23%.[118] Some forests have not been fully cleared, but were already degraded by these impacts. Restoring these forests also recovers their potential as a carbon sink.[119]

Local vegetation cover impacts how much of the sunlight gets reflected back into space (albedo), and how much heat is lost by evaporation. For instance, the change from a dark forest to grassland makes the surface lighter, causing it to reflect more sunlight. Deforestation can also modify the release of chemical compounds that influence clouds, and by changing wind patterns.[120] In tropic and temperate areas the net effect is to produce significant warming, and forest restoration can make local temperatures cooler.[119] At latitudes closer to the poles, there is a cooling effect as forest is replaced by snow-covered (and more reflective) plains.[120] Globally, these increases in surface albedo have been the dominant direct influence on temperature from land use change. Thus, land use change to date is estimated to have a slight cooling effect.[121]

### Solar and volcanic activity

The Fourth National Climate Assessment ("NCA4", USGCRP, 2017) includes charts illustrating that neither solar nor volcanic activity can explain the observed warming.[122] [123]

As the Sun is the Earth's primary energy source, changes in incoming sunlight directly affect the climate system.[112] Solar irradiance has been measured directly by satellites,[124] and indirect measurements are available from the early 1600s onwards.[112] Since 1880, there has been no upward trend in the amount of the Sun's energy reaching the Earth, in contrast to the warming of the lower atmosphere (the troposphere).[125] The upper atmosphere (the stratosphere) would also be warming if the Sun was sending more energy to Earth, but instead, it has been cooling.[85] This is consistent with greenhouse gases preventing heat from leaving the Earth's atmosphere.[126]

Explosive volcanic eruptions can release gases, dust and ash that partially block sunlight and reduce temperatures, or they can send water vapor into the atmosphere, which adds to greenhouse gases and increases temperatures.[127] These impacts on temperature only last for several years, because both water vapor and volcanic material have low persistence in the atmosphere.[128] volcanic CO2 emissions are more persistent, but they are equivalent to less than 1% of current human-caused CO2 emissions.[129] Volcanic activity still represents the single largest natural impact (forcing) on temperature in the industrial era. Yet, like the other natural forcings, it has had negligible impacts on postindustrial global temperature trends.[130]

### Climate change feedback

The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks.[131] The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds.[132][133] The primary balancing mechanism is radiative cooling, as Earth's surface gives off more heat to space in response to rising temperature.[134] In addition to temperature feedbacks, there are feedbacks in the carbon cycle, such as the fertilizing effect of CO
2 on plant growth.[135]

Uncertainty over feedbacks, particularly cloud cover,[136] is the major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given amount of emissions.[137] As air warms, it can hold more moisture. Water vapour, as a potent greenhouse gas, holds heat in the atmosphere.[132] If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet. If clouds become higher and thinner, they act as an insulator, reflecting heat from below back downwards and warming the planet.[138]

Another major feedback is the reduction of snow cover and sea ice in the Arctic, which reduces the reflectivity of the Earth's surface.[139] More of the Sun's energy is now absorbed in these regions, contributing to amplification of Arctic temperature changes.[140] Arctic amplification is also melting permafrost, which releases methane and CO
2 into the atmosphere.[141] Climate change can also cause methane releases from wetlands, marine systems, and freshwater systems.[142] Overall, climate feedbacks are expected to become increasingly positive.[143]

Around half of human-caused CO
2 emissions have been absorbed by land plants and by the oceans.[144] Climate change increases droughts and heat waves that inhibit plant growth, which makes it uncertain whether this carbon sink will continue to grow.[145] Soils contain large quantities of carbon and may release some when they heat up.[146] As more CO
2 and heat are absorbed by the ocean, it acidifies, its circulation changes and phytoplankton takes up less carbon, decreasing the rate at which the ocean absorbs atmospheric carbon.[147] Overall, at higher CO
2 concentrations the Earth will absorb a reduced fraction of our emissions.[148]

## Modelling

Further information: Earth:Climate model and Software:Climate change scenario

Simplified model: Energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and Earth's surface, with greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorbing and emitting radiant heat, affecting Earth's energy balance. Data as of 2007.

A climate model is a representation of the physical, chemical and biological processes that affect the climate system.[149] Models include natural processes like changes in the Earth's orbit, historical changes in the Sun's activity, and volcanic forcing.[150] Models are used to estimate the degree of warming future emissions will cause when accounting for the strength of climate feedbacks,[151][152]. Models also predict the circulation of the oceans, the annual cycle of the seasons, and the flows of carbon between the land surface and the atmosphere.[153]

The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate contemporary or past climates.[154] Past models have underestimated the rate of Arctic shrinkage[155] and underestimated the rate of precipitation increase.[156] Sea level rise since 1990 was underestimated in older models, but more recent models agree well with observations.[157] The 2017 United States-published National Climate Assessment notes that "climate models may still be underestimating or missing relevant feedback processes".[158] Additionally, climate models may be unable to adequately predict short-term regional climatic shifts.[159]

A subset of climate models add societal factors to a physical climate model. These models simulate how population, economic growth, and energy use affect—and interact with—the physical climate. With this information, these models can produce scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions. This is then used as input for physical climate models and carbon cycle models to predict how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change.[160][161] Depending on the socioeconomic scenario and the mitigation scenario, models produce atmospheric CO2 concentrations that range widely between 380 and 1400 ppm.[162]

## Impacts

Main article: Biology:Effects of climate change

The sixth IPCC Assessment Report projects changes in average soil moisture that can disrupt agriculture and ecosystems. A reduction in soil moisture by one standard deviation means that average soil moisture will approximately match the ninth driest year between 1850 and 1900 at that location.

### Environmental effects

The environmental effects of climate change are broad and far-reaching, affecting oceans, ice, and weather. Changes may occur gradually or rapidly. Evidence for these effects comes from studying climate change in the past, from modelling, and from modern observations.[163] Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with increasing frequency.[164] Extremely wet or dry events within the monsoon period have increased in India and East Asia.[165] Monsoonal precipitation over the Northern Hemisphere has increased since 1980.[166] The rainfall rate and intensity of hurricanes and typhoons is likely increasing,[167] and the geographic range likely expanding poleward in response to climate warming.[168] Frequency of tropical cyclones has not increased as a result of climate change.[169]

Historical sea level reconstruction and projections up to 2100 published in 2017 by the U.S. Global Change Research Program[170]

Global sea level is rising as a consequence of glacial melt, melt of the Greenland ice sheets and Antarctica, and thermal expansion. Between 1993 and 2020, the rise increased over time, averaging 3.3 ± 0.3 mm per year.[171] Over the 21st century, the IPCC projects that in a very high emissions scenario the sea level could rise by 61–110 cm.[172] Increased ocean warmth is undermining and threatening to unplug Antarctic glacier outlets, risking a large melt of the ice sheet[173] and the possibility of a 2-meter sea level rise by 2100 under high emissions.[174]

Climate change has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice.[175] While ice-free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C degrees of warming, they are set to occur once every three to ten years at a warming level of 2 °C.[176] Higher atmospheric CO
2 concentrations have led to changes in ocean chemistry. An increase in dissolved CO
2 is causing oceans to acidify.[177] In addition, oxygen levels are decreasing as oxygen is less soluble in warmer water.[178] Dead zones in the ocean, regions with very little oxygen, are expanding too.[179]

### Tipping points and long-term impacts

There is a number of places around the globe which can pass a tipping point around a certain level of warming and eventually transition to a different state.[180][181]

Main article: Earth:Tipping points in the climate system

Greater degrees of global warming increase the risk of passing through 'tipping points'—thresholds beyond which certain impacts can no longer be avoided even if temperatures are reduced.[182][181] An example is the collapse of West Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, where a temperature rise of 1.5 to 2 °C may commit the ice sheets to melt, although the time scale of melt is uncertain and depends on future warming.[183][184] Some large-scale changes could occur over a short time period, such as a shutdown of certain ocean currents like the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC).[185] Tipping points can also include irreversible damage to ecosystems like the Amazon rainforest and coral reefs.[186]

The long-term effects of climate change on oceans include further ice melt, ocean warming, sea level rise, and ocean acidification.[187] The timescale of long term impacts are centuries to millennia due to CO
2's long atmospheric lifetime.[188] When net emissions stabilize surface air temperatures will also stabilize, but oceans and ice caps will continue to absorb excess heat from the atmosphere. The result is an estimated total sea level rise of 2.3 metres per degree Celsius (4.2 ft/°F) after 2000 years.[189] Oceanic CO
2 uptake is slow enough that ocean acidification will also continue for hundreds to thousands of years.[190]

### Nature and wildlife

Further information: Earth:Effects of climate change on oceans and Earth:Effects of climate change on ecosystems

Recent warming has driven many terrestrial and freshwater species poleward and towards higher altitudes.[191] Higher atmospheric CO
2 levels and an extended growing season have resulted in global greening. However, heatwaves and drought have reduced ecosystem productivity in some regions. The future balance of these opposing effects is unclear.[192] Climate change has contributed to the expansion of drier climate zones, such as the expansion of deserts in the subtropics.[193] The size and speed of global warming is making abrupt changes in ecosystems more likely.[194] Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species.[195]

The oceans have heated more slowly than the land, but plants and animals in the ocean have migrated towards the colder poles faster than species on land.[196] Just as on land, heat waves in the ocean occur more frequently due to climate change, harming a wide range of organisms such as corals, kelp, and seabirds.[197] Ocean acidification makes it harder for marine calcifying organisms such as mussels, barnacles and corals to produce shells and skeletons; and heatwaves have bleached coral reefs.[198] Harmful algal blooms enhanced by climate change and eutrophication lower oxygen levels, disrupt food webs and cause great loss of marine life.[199] Coastal ecosystems are under particular stress. Almost half of global wetlands have disappeared due to climate change and other human impacts.[200]

Climate change impacts on the environment

* Ecological collapse. Coral bleaching from thermal stress has damaged the Great Barrier Reef and threatens coral reefs worldwide.[201]

* Extreme weather. Drought and high temperatures worsened the 2020 bushfires in Australia.[202]

* Arctic warming. Permafrost thaws undermine infrastructure and release methane, a greenhouse gas.[141]

* Habitat destruction. Many arctic animals rely on sea ice, which has been disappearing in a warming Arctic.[203]

* Pest propagation. Mild winters allow more pine beetles to survive to kill large swaths of forest.[204]

### Humans

Main article: Biology:Effects of climate change

Extreme weather will be progressively more common as the Earth warms.[205]

The effects of climate change are impacting humans everywhere in the world.[206] Impacts can be observed on all continents and ocean regions,[207] with low-latitude, less developed areas facing the greatest risk.[208] Continued warming has potentially "severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts" for people and ecosystems.[209] The risks are unevenly distributed, but are generally greater for disadvantaged people in developing and developed countries.[210]

#### Food and health

The WHO calls climate change the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century.[211] Extreme weather leads to injury and loss of life,[212] and crop failures to malnutrition.[213] Various infectious diseases are more easily transmitted in a warmer climate, such as dengue fever and malaria.[214] Young children are the most vulnerable to food shortages. Both children and older people are vulnerable to extreme heat.[215] The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that between 2030 and 2050, climate change would cause around 250,000 additional deaths per year. They assessed deaths from heat exposure in elderly people, increases in diarrhea, malaria, dengue, coastal flooding, and childhood malnutrition.[216] Reductions in food availability and quality alone could lead up to 530,000 deaths between 2010 and 2050.[217] By 2100, 50% to 75% of the global population may face climate conditions that are life-threatening due to combined effects of extreme heat and humidity.[218]

Climate change is affecting food security. It has caused reduction in global yields of maize, wheat, and soybeans between 1981 and 2010.[219] Future warming could further reduce global yields of major crops.[220] Crop production will probably be negatively affected in low-latitude countries, while effects at northern latitudes may be positive or negative.[221] Up to an additional 183 million people worldwide, particularly those with lower incomes, are at risk of hunger as a consequence of these impacts.[222] Climate change also impacts fish populations. Globally, less will be available to be fished.[223] Regions dependent on glacier water, regions that are already dry, and small islands have a higher risk of water stress due to climate change.[224]

#### Inequality

Economic damages due to climate change may be severe and there is a chance of disastrous consequences.[225] Climate change has likely already increased global economic inequality, and this trend is projected to continue.[226] Severe impacts are expected in South-East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, where most of the local inhabitants are dependent upon natural and agricultural resources[227].[228] The World Bank estimates that climate change could drive over 120 million people into poverty by 2030.[229]

Inequalities based on wealth and social status have worsened due to climate change.[230] Major difficulties in mitigating, adapting, and recovering to climate shocks are faced by marginalized people who have less control over resources.[231][227] Indigenous people, who are subsistent on their land and ecosystems, will face endangerment to their wellness and lifestyles due to climate change.[232] An expert elicitation concluded that the role of climate change in armed conflict has been small compared to factors such as socio-economic inequality and state capabilities.[233]

While women are not inherently more at risk from climate change and shocks, limits on women's resources and discriminatory gender norms constrain their adaptive capacity and resilience.[234] For example, women's work burdens, including hours worked in agriculture, tend to decline less than men's during climate shocks such as heat stress.[234]

#### Climate migration

Low-lying islands and coastal communities are threatened by sea level rise, which makes urban flooding more common. Sometimes, land is permanently lost to the sea.[235] This could lead to statelessness for people in island nations, such as the Maldives and Tuvalu.[236] In some regions, the rise in temperature and humidity may be too severe for humans to adapt to.[237] With worst-case climate change, models project that almost one-third of humanity might live in extremely hot and uninhabitable climates.[238]

These factors can drive climate or environmental migration, within and between countries.[12] More people are expected to be displaced because of sea level rise, extreme weather and conflict from increased competition over natural resources. Climate change may also increase vulnerability, leading to "trapped populations" who are not able to move due to a lack of resources.[239]

Climate change impacts on people

* Environmental migration. Sparser rainfall leads to desertification that harms agriculture and can displace populations. Shown: Telly, Mali (2008).[240]

* Agricultural changes. Droughts, rising temperatures, and extreme weather negatively impact agriculture. Shown: Texas, US (2013).[241]

* Tidal flooding. Sea-level rise increases flooding in low-lying coastal regions. Shown: Venice, Italy (2004).[242]

* Storm intensification. Bangladesh after Cyclone Sidr (2007) is an example of catastrophic flooding from increased rainfall.[243]

* Heat wave intensification. Events like the 2022 Southern Cone heat wave are becoming more common.[244]

## Reducing and recapturing emissions

Main article: Earth:Climate change mitigation

Global greenhouse gas emission scenarios, based on policies and pledges as of November, 2021

Climate change can be mitigated by reducing the rate at which greenhouse gases are emitted into the atmosphere, and by increasing the rate at which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere.[245] In order to limit global warming to less than 1.5 °C global greenhouse gas emissions needs to be net-zero by 2050, or by 2070 with a 2 °C target.[76] This requires far-reaching, systemic changes on an unprecedented scale in energy, land, cities, transport, buildings, and industry.[246]

The United Nations Environment Programme estimates that countries need to triple their pledges under the Paris Agreement within the next decade to limit global warming to 2 °C. An even greater level of reduction is required to meet the 1.5 °C goal.[247] With pledges made under the Paris Agreement as of October 2021, global warming would still have a 66% chance of reaching about 2.7 °C (range: 2.2–3.2 °C) by the end of the century.[21] Globally, limiting warming to 2 °C may result in higher economic benefits than economic costs.[248]

Although there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2 °C,[249] most scenarios and strategies see a major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures to generate the needed greenhouse gas reductions.[250] To reduce pressures on ecosystems and enhance their carbon sequestration capabilities, changes would also be necessary in agriculture and forestry,[251] such as preventing deforestation and restoring natural ecosystems by reforestation.[252]

Other approaches to mitigating climate change have a higher level of risk. Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of carbon dioxide removal methods over the 21st century.[253] There are concerns, though, about over-reliance on these technologies, and environmental impacts.[254] Solar radiation modification (SRM) is also a possible supplement to deep reductions in emissions. However, SRM raises significant ethical and legal concerns, and the risks are imperfectly understood.[255]

### Clean energy

Main articles: Earth:Sustainable energy and Engineering:Sustainable transport

Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.[256] Wind and solar power, Germany

Renewable energy is key to limiting climate change.[257] For decades, fossil fuels have accounted for roughly 80% of the world's energy use.[258] The remaining share has been split between nuclear power and renewables (including hydropower, bioenergy, wind and solar power and geothermal energy).[259] Fossil fuel use is expected to peak in absolute terms prior to 2030 and then to decline, with coal use experiencing the sharpest reductions.[260] Renewables represented 75% of all new electricity generation installed in 2019, nearly all solar and wind.[261] Other forms of clean energy, such as nuclear and hydropower, currently have a larger share of the energy supply. However, their future growth forecasts appear limited in comparison.[262]

While solar panels and onshore wind are now among the cheapest forms of adding new power generation capacity in many locations,[263] green energy policies are needed to achieve a rapid transition from fossil fuels to renewables.[264] To achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, renewable energy would become the dominant form of electricity generation, rising to 85% or more by 2050 in some scenarios. Investment in coal would be eliminated and coal use nearly phased out by 2050.[265][266]

Electricity generated from renewable sources would also need to become the main energy source for heating and transport.[267] Transport can switch away from internal combustion engine vehicles and towards electric vehicles, public transit, and active transport (cycling and walking).[268][269] For shipping and flying, low-carbon fuels would reduce emissions.[268] Heating could be increasingly decarbonised with technologies like heat pumps.[270]

There are obstacles to the continued rapid growth of clean energy, including renewables. For wind and solar, there are environmental and land use concerns for new projects.[271] Wind and solar also produce energy intermittently and with seasonal variability. Traditionally, hydro dams with reservoirs and conventional power plants have been used when variable energy production is low. Going forward, battery storage can be expanded, energy demand and supply can be matched, and long-distance transmission can smooth variability of renewable outputs.[257] Bioenergy is often not carbon-neutral and may have negative consequences for food security.[272] The growth of nuclear power is constrained by controversy around radioactive waste, nuclear weapon proliferation, and accidents.[273][274] Hydropower growth is limited by the fact that the best sites have been developed, and new projects are confronting increased social and environmental concerns.[275]

Low-carbon energy improves human health by minimising climate change as well as reducing air pollution deaths,[276] which were estimated at 7 million annually in 2016.[277] Meeting the Paris Agreement goals that limit warming to a 2 °C increase could save about a million of those lives per year by 2050, whereas limiting global warming to 1.5 °C could save millions and simultaneously increase energy security and reduce poverty.[278] Improving air quality also has economic benefits which may be larger than mitigation costs.[279]

### Energy conservation

Main articles: Physics:Efficient energy use and Physics:Energy conservation

Reducing energy demand is another major aspect of reducing emissions.[280] If less energy is needed, there is more flexibility for clean energy development. It also makes it easier to manage the electricity grid, and minimises carbon-intensive infrastructure development.[281] Major increases in energy efficiency investment will be required to achieve climate goals, comparable to the level of investment in renewable energy.[282] Several COVID-19 related changes in energy use patterns, energy efficiency investments, and funding have made forecasts for this decade more difficult and uncertain.[283]

Strategies to reduce energy demand vary by sector. In the transport sector, passengers and freight can switch to more efficient travel modes, such as buses and trains, or use electric vehicles.[284] Industrial strategies to reduce energy demand include improving heating systems and motors, designing less energy-intensive products, and increasing product lifetimes.[285] In the building sector the focus is on better design of new buildings, and higher levels of energy efficiency in retrofitting.[286] The use of technologies like heat pumps can also increase building energy efficiency.[287]

### Agriculture and industry

Taking into account direct and indirect emissions, industry is the sector with the highest share of global emissions. Data as of 2019 from the IPCC.

Agriculture and forestry face a triple challenge of limiting greenhouse gas emissions, preventing the further conversion of forests to agricultural land, and meeting increases in world food demand.[288] A set of actions could reduce agriculture and forestry-based emissions by two thirds from 2010 levels. These include reducing growth in demand for food and other agricultural products, increasing land productivity, protecting and restoring forests, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production.[289]

On the demand side, a key component of reducing emissions is shifting people towards plant-based diets.[290] Eliminating the production of livestock for meat and dairy would eliminate about 3/4ths of all emissions from agriculture and other land use.[291] Livestock also occupy 37% of ice-free land area on Earth and consume feed from the 12% of land area used for crops, driving deforestation and land degradation.[292]

Steel and cement production are responsible for about 13% of industrial CO
2 emissions. In these industries, carbon-intensive materials such as coke and lime play an integral role in the production, so that reducing CO
2 emissions requires research into alternative chemistries.[293]

### Carbon sequestration

Main articles: Earth:Carbon dioxide removal and Earth:Carbon sequestration

Most CO
2 emissions have been absorbed by carbon sinks, including plant growth, soil uptake, and ocean uptake (2020 Global Carbon Budget).

Natural carbon sinks can be enhanced to sequester significantly larger amounts of CO
2 beyond naturally occurring levels.[294] Reforestation and afforestation (planting forests where there were none before) are among the most mature sequestration techniques, although the latter raises food security concerns.[295] Farmers can promote sequestration of carbon in soils through practices such as use of winter cover crops, reducing the intensity and frequency of tillage, and using compost and manure as soil amendments.[296] Forest and landscape restoration yields many benefits for the climate, including greenhouse gas emissions sequestration and reduction.[119] Restoration/recreation of coastal wetlands, prairie plots and seagrass meadows increases the uptake of carbon into organic matter.[297][298] When carbon is sequestered in soils and in organic matter such as trees, there is a risk of the carbon being re-released into the atmosphere later through changes in land use, fire, or other changes in ecosystems.[299]

Where energy production or CO
2-intensive heavy industries continue to produce waste CO
2, the gas can be captured and stored instead of released to the atmosphere. Although its current use is limited in scale and expensive,[300] carbon capture and storage (CCS) may be able to play a significant role in limiting CO
2 emissions by mid-century.[301] This technique, in combination with bioenergy (BECCS) can result in net negative emissions as CO
2 is drawn from the atmosphere.[302] It remains highly uncertain whether carbon dioxide removal techniques will be able to play a large role in limiting warming to 1.5 °C. Policy decisions that rely on carbon dioxide removal increase the risk of global warming rising beyond international goals.[303]

## Adaptation

Main article: Earth:Climate change adaptation

Adaptation is "the process of adjustment to current or expected changes in climate and its effects".[304]: 5 Without additional mitigation, adaptation cannot avert the risk of "severe, widespread and irreversible" impacts.[305] More severe climate change requires more transformative adaptation, which can be prohibitively expensive.[306] The capacity and potential for humans to adapt is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, and developing countries generally have less.[307] The first two decades of the 21st century saw an increase in adaptive capacity in most low- and middle-income countries with improved access to basic sanitation and electricity, but progress is slow. Many countries have implemented adaptation policies. However, there is a considerable gap between necessary and available finance.[308]

Adaptation to sea level rise consists of avoiding at-risk areas, learning to live with increased flooding, and building flood controls. If that fails, managed retreat may be needed.[309] There are economic barriers for tackling dangerous heat impact. Avoiding strenuous work or having air conditioning is not possible for everybody.[310] In agriculture, adaptation options include a switch to more sustainable diets, diversification, erosion control, and genetic improvements for increased tolerance to a changing climate.[311] Insurance allows for risk-sharing, but is often difficult to get for people on lower incomes.[312] Education, migration and early warning systems can reduce climate vulnerability.[313] Planting mangroves or encouraging other coastal vegetation can buffer storms.[314][315]

Ecosystems adapt to climate change, a process that can be supported by human intervention. By increasing connectivity between ecosystems, species can migrate to more favourable climate conditions. Species can also be introduced to areas acquiring a favorable climate. Protection and restoration of natural and semi-natural areas helps build resilience, making it easier for ecosystems to adapt. Many of the actions that promote adaptation in ecosystems, also help humans adapt via ecosystem-based adaptation. For instance, restoration of natural fire regimes makes catastrophic fires less likely, and reduces human exposure. Giving rivers more space allows for more water storage in the natural system, reducing flood risk. Restored forest acts as a carbon sink, but planting trees in unsuitable regions can exacerbate climate impacts.[316]

There are synergies but also trade-offs between adaptation and mitigation.[317] An example for synergy is increased food productivity, which has large benefits for both adaptation and mitigation.[318] An example of a trade-off is that increased use of air conditioning allows people to better cope with heat, but increases energy demand. Another trade-off example is that more compact urban development may reduce emissions from transport and construction, but may also increase the urban heat island effect, exposing people to heat-related health risks.[319]

Examples of adaptation methods

* Mangrove planting and other habitat conservation can reduce coastal flooding.

* Seawalls to protect against storm surge worsened by sea level rise

* Green roofs to provide cooling in cities

* Selective breeding for drought-resistant crops

## Policies and politics

The Climate Change Performance Index ranks countries by greenhouse gas emissions (40% of score), renewable energy (20%), energy use (20%), and climate policy (20%).

High

Medium

Low

Very low

|
|
|

Countries that are most vulnerable to climate change have typically been responsible for a small share of global emissions. This raises questions about justice and fairness.[320] Limiting global warming makes it much easier to achieve the UN's Sustainable Development Goals, such as eradicating poverty and reducing inequalities. The connection is recognised in Sustainable Development Goal 13 which is to "take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts".[321] The goals on food, clean water and ecosystem protection have synergies with climate mitigation.[322]

The geopolitics of climate change is complex. It has often been framed as a free-rider problem, in which all countries benefit from mitigation done by other countries, but individual countries would lose from switching to a low-carbon economy themselves. Sometimes mitigation also has localized benefits though. For instance, the benefits of a coal phase-out to public health and local environments exceed the costs in almost all regions.[323] Furthermore, net importers of fossil fuels win economically from switching to clean energy, causing net exporters to face stranded assets: fossil fuels they cannot sell.[324]

### Policy options

A wide range of policies, regulations, and laws are being used to reduce emissions. As of 2019, carbon pricing covers about 20% of global greenhouse gas emissions.[325] Carbon can be priced with carbon taxes and emissions trading systems.[326] Direct global fossil fuel subsidies reached $319 billion in 2017, and $5.2 trillion when indirect costs such as air pollution are priced in.[327] Ending these can cause a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a 46% reduction in air pollution deaths.[328] Money saved on fossil subsidies could be used to support the transition to clean energy instead.[329] More direct methods to reduce greenhouse gases include vehicle efficiency standards, renewable fuel standards, and air pollution regulations on heavy industry.[330] Several countries require utilities to increase the share of renewables in power production.[331]

#### Climate justice

Policy designed through the lens of climate justice tries to address human rights issues and social inequality. According to proponents of climate justice, the costs of climate adaptation should be paid by those most responsible for climate change, while the beneficiaries of payments should be those suffering impacts. One way this can be addressed in practice is to have wealthy nations pay poorer countries to adapt.[332]

Oxfam found that in 2023 the wealthiest 10% of people were responsible for 50% of global emissions, while the bottom 50% were responsible for just 8%.[333] Production is another way to look at responsibility, with a 2023 study published in One Earth estimating that the top 21 fossil fuel companies would owe cumulative climate reparations of $5.4 trillion over the period 2025–2050.[334] To achieve a just transition, people working in the fossil fuel sector would also need other jobs, and their communities would need investments.[335]

### International climate agreements

Since 2000, rising CO
2 emissions in China and the rest of world have surpassed the output of the United States and Europe.[336] Per person, the United States generates CO
2 at a far faster rate than other primary regions.[336]

Nearly all countries in the world are parties to the 1994 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[337] The goal of the UNFCCC is to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.[338] As stated in the convention, this requires that greenhouse gas concentrations are stabilised in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can be sustained.[339] The UNFCCC does not itself restrict emissions but rather provides a framework for protocols that do. Global emissions have risen since the UNFCCC was signed.[340] Its yearly conferences are the stage of global negotiations.[341]

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol extended the UNFCCC and included legally binding commitments for most developed countries to limit their emissions.[342] During the negotiations, the G77 (representing developing countries) pushed for a mandate requiring developed countries to "[take] the lead" in reducing their emissions,[343] since developed countries contributed most to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Per-capita emissions were also still relatively low in developing countries and developing countries would need to emit more to meet their development needs.[344]

The 2009 Copenhagen Accord has been widely portrayed as disappointing because of its low goals, and was rejected by poorer nations including the G77.[345] Associated parties aimed to limit the global temperature rise to below 2 °C.[346] The Accord set the goal of sending $100 billion per year to developing countries for mitigation and adaptation by 2020, and proposed the founding of the Green Climate Fund.[347] As of 2020[update], only 83.3 billion were delivered. Only in 2023 the target is expected to be achieved.[348]

In 2015 all UN countries negotiated the Paris Agreement, which aims to keep global warming well below 2.0 °C and contains an aspirational goal of keeping warming under 1.5 °C.[349] The agreement replaced the Kyoto Protocol. Unlike Kyoto, no binding emission targets were set in the Paris Agreement. Instead, a set of procedures was made binding. Countries have to regularly set ever more ambitious goals and reevaluate these goals every five years.[350] The Paris Agreement restated that developing countries must be financially supported.[351] As of October 2021[update], 194 states and the European Union have signed the treaty and 191 states and the EU have ratified or acceded to the agreement.[352]

The 1987 Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to stop emitting ozone-depleting gases, may have been more effective at curbing greenhouse gas emissions than the Kyoto Protocol specifically designed to do so.[353] The 2016 Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol aims to reduce the emissions of hydrofluorocarbons, a group of powerful greenhouse gases which served as a replacement for banned ozone-depleting gases. This made the Montreal Protocol a stronger agreement against climate change.[354]

### National responses

In 2019, the United Kingdom parliament became the first national government to declare a climate emergency.[355] Other countries and jurisdictions followed suit.[356] That same year, the European Parliament declared a "climate and environmental emergency".[357] The European Commission presented its European Green Deal with the goal of making the EU carbon-neutral by 2050.[358] In 2021, the European Commission released its "Fit for 55" legislation package, which contains guidelines for the Automotive industry ; all new cars on the European market must be zero-emission vehicles from 2035.[359]

Major countries in Asia have made similar pledges: South Korea and Japan have committed to become carbon-neutral by 2050, and China by 2060.[360] While India has strong incentives for renewables, it also plans a significant expansion of coal in the country.[361] Vietnam is among very few coal-dependent fast developing countries that pledged to phase out unabated coal power by the 2040s or as soon as possible thereafter.[362]

As of 2021, based on information from 48 national climate plans, which represent 40% of the parties to the Paris Agreement, estimated total greenhouse gas emissions will be 0.5% lower compared to 2010 levels, below the 45% or 25% reduction goals to limit global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C, respectively.[363]

## Society

### Denial and misinformation

Further information: Earth:Climate change denial and Earth:Fossil fuels lobby

Data has been cherry picked from short periods to falsely assert that global temperatures are not rising. Blue trendlines show short periods that mask longer-term warming trends (red trendlines). Blue rectangle with blue dots shows the so-called global warming hiatus.[364]

Public debate about climate change has been strongly affected by climate change denial and misinformation, which originated in the United States and has since spread to other countries, particularly Canada and Australia. Climate change denial has originated from fossil fuel companies, industry groups, conservative think tanks, and contrarian scientists.[365] Like the tobacco industry, the main strategy of these groups has been to manufacture doubt about scientific data and results.[366] People who hold unwarranted doubt about climate change are called climate change "skeptics", although "contrarians" or "deniers" are more appropriate terms.[367]

There are different variants of climate denial: some deny that warming takes place at all, some acknowledge warming but attribute it to natural influences, and some minimise the negative impacts of climate change.[368] Manufacturing uncertainty about the science later developed into a manufactured controversy: creating the belief that there is significant uncertainty about climate change within the scientific community in order to delay policy changes.[369] Strategies to promote these ideas include criticism of scientific institutions,[370] and questioning the motives of individual scientists.[368] An echo chamber of climate-denying blogs and media has further fomented misunderstanding of climate change.[371]

### Public awareness and opinion

The public substantially underestimates the degree of scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change.[372] Studies from 2019 to 2021[373][4][374] found scientific consensus to range from 98.7 to 100%.

Climate change came to international public attention in the late 1980s.[375] Due to media coverage in the early 1990s, people often confused climate change with other environmental issues like ozone depletion.[376] In popular culture, the climate fiction movie The Day After Tomorrow (2004) and the Al Gore documentary An Inconvenient Truth (2006) focused on climate change.[375]

Significant regional, gender, age and political differences exist in both public concern for, and understanding of, climate change. More highly educated people, and in some countries, women and younger people, were more likely to see climate change as a serious threat.[377] Partisan gaps also exist in many countries,[378] and countries with high CO
2 emissions tend to be less concerned.[379] Views on causes of climate change vary widely between countries.[380] Concern has increased over time,[378] to the point where in 2021 a majority of citizens in many countries express a high level of worry about climate change, or view it as a global emergency.[381] Higher levels of worry are associated with stronger public support for policies that address climate change.[382]

#### Climate movement

Climate protests demand that political leaders take action to prevent climate change. They can take the form of public demonstrations, fossil fuel divestment, lawsuits and other activities.[383] Prominent demonstrations include the School Strike for Climate. In this initiative, young people across the globe have been protesting since 2018 by skipping school on Fridays, inspired by Swedish teenager Greta Thunberg.[384] Mass civil disobedience actions by groups like Extinction Rebellion have protested by disrupting roads and public transport.[385]

Litigation is increasingly used as a tool to strengthen climate action from public institutions and companies. Activists also initiate lawsuits which target governments and demand that they take ambitious action or enforce existing laws on climate change.[386] Lawsuits against fossil-fuel companies generally seek compensation for loss and damage.[387]

## History

### Early discoveries

This 1912 article succinctly describes the greenhouse effect, how burning coal creates carbon dioxide to cause global warming and climate change.[388]

Scientists in the 19th century such as Alexander von Humboldt began to foresee the effects of climate change.[389][390][391][392] In the 1820s, Joseph Fourier proposed the greenhouse effect to explain why Earth's temperature was higher than the sun's energy alone could explain. Earth's atmosphere is transparent to sunlight, so sunlight reaches the surface where it is converted to heat. However, the atmosphere is not transparent to heat radiating from the surface, and captures some of that heat, which in turn warms the planet.[393]

In 1856 Eunice Newton Foote demonstrated that the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and that the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide (CO
2). She concluded that "An atmosphere of that gas would give to our earth a high temperature..."[394][395]

Tyndall's sensitive ratio spectrophotometer (drawing published in 1861) measured the extent to which infrared radiation was absorbed and emitted by various gases filling its central tube.

Starting in 1859,[396] John Tyndall established that nitrogen and oxygen—together totaling 99% of dry air—are transparent to radiated heat. However, water vapour and gases such as methane and carbon dioxide absorb radiated heat and re-radiate that heat into the atmosphere. Tyndall proposed that changes in the concentrations of these gases may have caused climatic changes in the past, including ice ages.[397]

Svante Arrhenius noted that water vapour in air continuously varied, but the CO
2 concentration in air was influenced by long-term geological processes. Warming from increased CO
2 levels would increase the amount of water vapour, amplifying warming in a positive feedback loop. In 1896, he published the first climate model of its kind, projecting that halving CO
2 levels could have produced a drop in temperature initiating an ice age. Arrhenius calculated the temperature increase expected from doubling CO
2 to be around 5–6 °C.[398] Other scientists were initially skeptical and believed that the greenhouse effect was saturated so that adding more CO
2 would make no difference, and that the climate would be self-regulating.[399] Beginning in 1938, Guy Stewart Callendar published evidence that climate was warming and CO
2 levels were rising,[400] but his calculations met the same objections.[399]

### Development of a scientific consensus

In the 1950s, Gilbert Plass created a detailed computer model that included different atmospheric layers and the infrared spectrum. This model predicted that increasing CO
2 levels would cause warming. Around the same time, Hans Suess found evidence that CO
2 levels had been rising, and Roger Revelle showed that the oceans would not absorb the increase. The two scientists subsequently helped Charles Keeling to begin a record of continued increase, which has been termed the "Keeling Curve".[399] Scientists alerted the public,[401] and the dangers were highlighted at James Hansen's 1988 Congressional testimony.[29] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), set up in 1988 to provide formal advice to the world's governments, spurred interdisciplinary research.[402] As part of the IPCC reports, scientists assess the scientific discussion that takes place in peer-reviewed journal articles.[403]

There is a near-complete scientific consensus that the climate is warming and that this is caused by human activities. As of 2019, agreement in recent literature reached over 99%.[404][405] No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view.[406] Consensus has further developed that some form of action should be taken to protect people against the impacts of climate change. National science academies have called on world leaders to cut global emissions.[407] The 2021 IPCC Assessment Report stated that it is "unequivocal" that climate change is caused by humans.[405]

## See also

* Anthropocene – proposed new geological time interval in which humans are having significant geological impact
* List of climate scientists

## References

1. ↑ "GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (v4)". https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/maps/index_v4.html.
2. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 2021, SPM-7
3. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch1 2018, p. 54: Since 1970 the global average temperature has been rising at a rate of 1.7°C per century, compared to a long-term decline over the past 7,000 years at a baseline rate of 0.01°C per century (NOAA, 2016; Marcott et al., 2013). These global-level rates of human-driven change far exceed the rates of change driven by geophysical or biosphere forces that have altered the Earth System trajectory in the past (e.g., Summerhayes, 2015; Foster et al., 2017); even abrupt geophysical events do not approach current rates of human-driven change.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Lynas, Mark; Houlton, Benjamin Z.; Perry, Simon (19 October 2021). "Greater than 99% consensus on human caused climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature". Environmental Research Letters 16 (11): 114005. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2966. Bibcode: 2021ERL....16k4005L.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Our World in Data, 18 September 2020
6. ↑ IPCC SRCCL 2019, p. 7: Since the pre-industrial period, the land surface air temperature has risen nearly twice as much as the global average temperature (high confidence). Climate change... contributed to desertification and land degradation in many regions (high confidence).; IPCC SRCCL 2019, p. 45: Climate change is playing an increasing role in determining wildfire regimes alongside human activity (medium confidence), with future climate variability expected to enhance the risk and severity of wildfires in many biomes such as tropical rainforests (high confidence).
7. ↑ The Guardian. Melting Antarctic ice predicted to cause rapid slowdown of deep ocean current by 2050. Retrieved on 11 Oct. 2023.
8. ↑ IPCC SROCC 2019, p. 16: Over the last decades, global warming has led to widespread shrinking of the cryosphere, with mass loss from ice sheets and glaciers (very high confidence), reductions in snow cover (high confidence) and Arctic sea ice extent and thickness (very high confidence), and increased permafrost temperature (very high confidence).
9. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Ch11 2021, p. 1517
10. ↑ EPA (19 January 2017). "Climate Impacts on Ecosystems". https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-ecosystems_.html#Extinction. "Mountain and arctic ecosystems and species are particularly sensitive to climate change... As ocean temperatures warm and the acidity of the ocean increases, bleaching and coral die-offs are likely to become more frequent."
11. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch1 2018, p. 64: Sustained net zero anthropogenic emissions of CO
2 and declining net anthropogenic non-CO
2 radiative forcing over a multi-decade period would halt anthropogenic global warming over that period, although it would not halt sea level rise or many other aspects of climate system adjustment.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Cattaneo et al. 2019; IPCC AR6 WG2 2022, pp. 15, 53
13. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR 2014, pp. 13–16 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014 (help); WHO, Nov 2015: "Climate change is the greatest threat to global health in the 21st century. Health professionals have a duty of care to current and future generations. You are on the front line in protecting people from climate impacts – from more heat-waves and other extreme weather events; from outbreaks of infectious diseases such as malaria, dengue and cholera; from the effects of malnutrition; as well as treating people who are affected by cancer, respiratory, cardiovascular and other non-communicable diseases caused by environmental pollution."
14. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 2022, p. 19
15. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG2 2022, pp. 21–26, 2504;IPCC AR6 SYR SPM 2023, pp. 8–9: "Effectiveness15 of adaptation in reducing climate risks16 is documented for specific contexts, sectors and regions (high confidence)...Soft limits to adaptation are currently being experienced by small-scale farmers and households along some low-lying coastal areas (medium confidence) resulting from financial, governance, institutional and policy constraints (high confidence). Some tropical, coastal, polar and mountain ecosystems have reached hard adaptation limits (high confidence). Adaptation does not prevent all losses and damages, even with effective adaptation and before reaching soft and hard limits (high confidence)."
16. ↑ Tietjen, Bethany (2 November 2022). "Loss and damage: Who is responsible when climate change harms the world's poorest countries?". https://theconversation.com/loss-and-damage-who-is-responsible-when-climate-change-harms-the-worlds-poorest-countries-192070.
17. ↑ "Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability". IPCC. 27 February 2022. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/.
18. ↑ Ivanova, Irina (June 2, 2022). "California is rationing water amid its worst drought in 1,200 years". CBS News. https://www.cbsnews.com/amp/news/water-cutbacks-california-6-million-people-drought/.
19. ↑ Poyntin, Mark; Rivault, Erwan (10 January 2024). "2023 confirmed as world's hottest year on record". BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-67861954.
20. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. 71
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 United Nations Environment Programme 2021, p. 36: "A continuation of the effort implied by the latest unconditional NDCs and announced pledges is at present estimated to result in warming of about 2.7 °C (range: 2.2–3.2 °C) with a 66 per cent chance."
22. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch2 2018, pp. 95–96: In model pathways with no or limited overshoot of 1.5 °C, global net anthropogenic CO
2 emissions decline by about 45% from 2010 levels by 2030 (40–60% interquartile range), reaching net zero around 2050 (2045–2055 interquartile range); IPCC SR15 2018, p. 17, SPM C.3:All pathways that limit global warming to 1.5 °C with limited or no overshoot project the use of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) on the order of 100–1000 GtCO2 over the 21st century. CDR would be used to compensate for residual emissions and, in most cases, achieve net negative emissions to return global warming to 1.5 °C following a peak (high confidence). CDR deployment of several hundreds of GtCO2 is subject to multiple feasibility and sustainability constraints (high confidence).; Rogelj et al. 2015; Hilaire et al. 2019
23. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme 2019, p. xxiii, Table ES.3; Teske, ed. 2019, p. xxvii, Fig.5.
24. ↑ United Nations Environment Programme 2019, Table ES.3 & p. 49; NREL 2017, pp. vi, 12
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 IPCC SRCCL Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 18
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 NASA, 5 December 2008.
27. ↑ NASA, 7 July 2020; Shaftel 2016: " 'Climate change' and 'global warming' are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. ... Global warming refers to the upward temperature trend across the entire Earth since the early 20th century ... Climate change refers to a broad range of global phenomena ...[which] include the increased temperature trends described by global warming."; Associated Press, 22 September 2015: "The terms global warming and climate change can be used interchangeably. Climate change is more accurate scientifically to describe the various effects of greenhouse gases on the world because it includes extreme weather, storms and changes in rainfall patterns, ocean acidification and sea level.".
28. ↑ Broeker, Wallace S. (8 August 1975). "Climatic Change: Are We on the Brink of a Pronounced Global Warming?". Science 189 (4201): 460–463. doi:10.1126/science.189.4201.460. PMID 17781884. Bibcode: 1975Sci...189..460B. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1740491.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Weart "The Public and Climate Change: The Summer of 1988", "News reporters gave only a little attention ...".
30. ↑ Joo et al. 2015.
31. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR Glossary 2014, p. 120: "Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use."
32. ↑ Hodder & Martin 2009; BBC Science Focus Magazine, 3 February 2020
33. ↑ Neukom et al. 2019b.
34. ↑ "Global Annual Mean Surface Air Temperature Change". NASA. https://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/graphs_v4/.
35. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch5 2013, pp. 389, 399–400: "The PETM [around 55.5–55.3 million years ago] was marked by ... global warming of 4 °C to 7 °C ... Deglacial global warming occurred in two main steps from 17.5 to 14.5 ka [thousand years ago] and 13.0 to 10.0 ka."
36. ↑ Michon, Scott. "What's the hottest the Earth's ever been?". SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-hottest-earths-ever-been.
37. ↑ Michon, Scott. "What's the coldest the Earth's ever been?". SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/climate-qa/whats-coldest-earths-ever-been.
38. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch5 2013, p. 386; Neukom et al. 2019a
39. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch1 2018, p. 57: This report adopts the 51-year reference period, 1850–1900 inclusive, assessed as an approximation of pre-industrial levels in AR5 ... Temperatures rose by 0.0 °C–0.2 °C from 1720–1800 to 1850–1900; Hawkins et al. 2017, p. 1844
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 IPCC, 2021: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M. I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J. B. R. Matthews, T. K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, New York, US, pp. 3−32, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.001.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Samset, B. H.; Fuglestvedt, J. S.; Lund, M. T. (7 July 2020). "Delayed emergence of a global temperature response after emission mitigation". Nature Communications 11. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17001-1. "At the time of writing, that translated into 2035–2045, where the delay was mostly due to the impacts of the around 0.2 °C of natural, interannual variability of global mean surface air temperature".
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Global temperature exceeds 2°C above pre-industrial average on 17 November". 21 November 2023. https://climate.copernicus.eu/global-temperature-exceeds-2degc-above-pre-industrial-average-17-november. "While exceeding the 2°C threshold for a number of days does not mean that we have breached the Paris Agreement targets, the more often that we exceed this threshold, the more serious the cumulative effects of these breaches will become."
43. ↑ Top 700 meters: Lindsey, Rebecca; Dahlman, Luann (6 September 2023). "Climate Change: Ocean Heat Content". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content. ● Top 2000 meters: "Ocean Warming / Latest Measurement: December 2022 / 345 (± 2) zettajoules since 1955". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/ocean-warming/.
44. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2013, pp. 4–5: "Global-scale observations from the instrumental era began in the mid-19th century for temperature and other variables ... the period 1880 to 2012 ... multiple independently produced datasets exist."
45. ↑ Mooney, Chris; Osaka, Shannon (2023-12-26). "Is climate change speeding up? Here’s what the science says.". https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/12/26/global-warming-accelerating-climate-change/.
46. ↑ EPA 2016: The U.S. Global Change Research Program, the National Academy of Sciences, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have each independently concluded that warming of the climate system in recent decades is "unequivocal". This conclusion is not drawn from any one source of data but is based on multiple lines of evidence, including three worldwide temperature datasets showing nearly identical warming trends as well as numerous other independent indicators of global warming (e.g. rising sea levels, shrinking Arctic sea ice).
47. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch1 2018, p. 81.
48. ↑ Earth System Science Data 2023, p. 2306
49. ↑ Seip, Knut L.; Grøn, ø.; Wang, H. (31 August 2023). "Global lead-lag changes between climate variability series coincide with major phase shifts in the Pacific decadal oscillation" (in en). Theoretical and Applied Climatology 154 (3–4): 1137–1149. doi:10.1007/s00704-023-04617-8. ISSN 0177-798X. Bibcode: 2023ThApC.154.1137S.
50. ↑ Yao, Shuai-Lei; Huang, Gang; Wu, Ren-Guang; Qu, Xia (January 2016). "The global warming hiatus—a natural product of interactions of a secular warming trend and a multi-decadal oscillation" (in en). Theoretical and Applied Climatology 123 (1–2): 349–360. doi:10.1007/s00704-014-1358-x. ISSN 0177-798X. Bibcode: 2016ThApC.123..349Y. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00704-014-1358-x. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
51. ↑ Xie, Shang-Ping; Kosaka, Yu (June 2017). "What Caused the Global Surface Warming Hiatus of 1998–2013?" (in en). Current Climate Change Reports 3 (2): 128–140. doi:10.1007/s40641-017-0063-0. ISSN 2198-6061. Bibcode: 2017CCCR....3..128X. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40641-017-0063-0. Retrieved 20 September 2023.
52. ↑ McGrath, Matt (17 May 2023). "Global warming set to break key 1.5C limit for first time". https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-65602293. "The researchers stress that temperatures would have to stay at or above 1.5C for 20 years to be able to say the Paris agreement threshold had been passed."
53. ↑ Kennedy et al. 2010, p. S26. Figure 2.5.
54. ↑ Loeb et al. 2021.
55. ↑ "Global Warming". NASA JPL. 3 June 2010. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/GlobalWarming. "Satellite measurements show warming in the troposphere but cooling in the stratosphere. This vertical pattern is consistent with global warming due to increasing greenhouse gases but inconsistent with warming from natural causes."
56. ↑ Kennedy et al. 2010, pp. S26, S59–S60; USGCRP Chapter 1 2017, p. 35.
57. ↑ IPCC AR4 WG2 Ch1 2007, p. 99, Sec. 1.3.5.1
58. ↑ "Mean Monthly Temperature Records Across the Globe / Timeseries of Global Land and Ocean Areas at Record Levels for September from 1951-2023". National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). September 2023. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/global/202309/supplemental/page-3. (change "202309" in URL to see years other than 2023, and months other than 09=September)
59. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 7
60. ↑ Sutton, Dong & Gregory 2007.
61. ↑ "Climate Change: Ocean Heat Content". NOAA. 2018. https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content.
62. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch3 2013, p. 257: "Ocean warming dominates the global energy change inventory. Warming of the ocean accounts for about 93% of the increase in the Earth's energy inventory between 1971 and 2010 (high confidence), with warming of the upper (0 to 700 m) ocean accounting for about 64% of the total.
63. ↑ von Schuckman, K.; Cheng, L.; Palmer, M. D.; Hansen, J. et al. (7 September 2020). "Heat stored in the Earth system: where does the energy go?". Earth System Science Data 12 (3): 2013–2041. doi:10.5194/essd-12-2013-2020. Bibcode: 2020ESSD...12.2013V. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/12/2013/2020/.
64. ↑ NOAA, 10 July 2011.
65. ↑ United States Environmental Protection Agency 2016, p. 5: "Black carbon that is deposited on snow and ice darkens those surfaces and decreases their reflectivity (albedo). This is known as the snow/ice albedo effect. This effect results in the increased absorption of radiation that accelerates melting."
66. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch12 2013, p. 1062; IPCC SROCC Ch3 2019, p. 212.
67. ↑ NASA, 12 September 2018.
68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Lyon, Christopher; Saupe, Erin E.; Smith, Christopher J.; Hill, Daniel J.; Beckerman, Andrew P.; Stringer, Lindsay C.; Marchant, Robert; McKay, James et al. (2021). "Climate change research and action must look beyond 2100" (in en). Global Change Biology 28 (2): 349–361. doi:10.1111/gcb.15871. ISSN 1365-2486. PMID 34558764.
69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Meinshausen, Malte; Smith, S. J.; Calvin, K.; Daniel, J. S.; Kainuma, M. L. T.; Lamarque, J-F.; Matsumoto, K.; Montzka, S. A. et al. (2011). "The RCP greenhouse gas concentrations and their extensions from 1765 to 2300" (in en). Climatic Change 109 (1–2): 213–241. doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0156-z. ISSN 0165-0009. Bibcode: 2011ClCh..109..213M.
70. ↑ Hausfather, Zeke; Peters, Glen (29 January 2020). "Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading". Nature 577 (7792): 618–20. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3. PMID 31996825. Bibcode: 2020Natur.577..618H.
71. ↑ Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam et al. (2022). "Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic". Annual Review of Environment and Resources 47: 343–371. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847. ""Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..."".
72. ↑ Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022). "Explainer: IPCC Scenarios". https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/. ""The IPCC doesn’t make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. The Australian Academy of Science, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. Climate Action Tracker predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C."
73. ↑ https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf#page=955
74. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2021, p. SPM-17
75. ↑ Rogelj et al. 2019
76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 IPCC SR15 Summary for Policymakers 2018, p. 12
77. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG3 Ch5 2014, pp. 379–380.
78. ↑ McGrath, Matt (17 May 2023). "Global warming set to break key 1.5C limit for first time". BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-65602293.
79. ↑ Harvey, Fiona (17 May 2023). "World likely to breach 1.5C climate threshold by 2027, scientists warn". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/may/17/global-heating-climate-crisis-record-temperatures-wmo-research.
80. ↑ Brown, Patrick T.; Li, Wenhong; Xie, Shang-Ping (27 January 2015). "Regions of significant influence on unforced global mean surface air temperature variability in climate models: Origin of global temperature variability". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 120 (2): 480–494. doi:10.1002/2014JD022576.
81. ↑ Trenberth, Kevin E.; Fasullo, John T. (December 2013). "An apparent hiatus in global warming?". Earth's Future 1 (1): 19–32. doi:10.1002/2013EF000165. Bibcode: 2013EaFut...1...19T.
82. ↑ National Research Council 2012, p. 9
83. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch10 2013, p. 916.
84. ↑ Knutson 2017, p. 443; IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch10 2013, pp. 875–876
85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 USGCRP 2009, p. 20.
86. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Summary for Policymakers 2021, p. 7
87. ↑ NASA. "The Causes of Climate Change". https://climate.nasa.gov/causes.
88. ↑ Ozone acts as a greenhouse gas in the lowest layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere (as opposed to the stratospheric ozone layer). Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
89. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
90. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "To emit 240 W m−2, a surface would have to have a temperature of around −19 °C. This is much colder than the conditions that actually exist at the Earth's surface (the global mean surface temperature is about 14 °C).
91. ↑ ACS. "What Is the Greenhouse Effect?". https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/climatescience/climatesciencenarratives/what-is-the-greenhouse-effect.html.
92. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
93. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
94. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG1 Technical Summary 2021, p. TS-35.
95. ↑ IPCC AR6 WG3 Summary for Policymakers 2022, Figure SPM.1.
96. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; "Redox, extraction of iron and transition metals". https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zv7f3k7/revision/2. "Hot air (oxygen) reacts with the coke (carbon) to produce carbon dioxide and heat energy to heat up the furnace. Removing impurities: The calcium carbonate in the limestone thermally decomposes to form calcium oxide. calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide" ; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
97. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
98. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
99. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
100. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
101. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
102. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 Quaas, Johannes; Jia, Hailing; Smith, Chris; Albright, Anna Lea; Aas, Wenche; Bellouin, Nicolas; Boucher, Olivier; Doutriaux-Boucher, Marie et al. (21 September 2022). "Robust evidence for reversal of the trend in aerosol effective climate forcing" (in en). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 22 (18): 12221–12239. doi:10.5194/acp-22-12221-2022. Bibcode: 2022ACP....2212221Q. https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/22/12221/2022/.
104. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
105. ↑ "Global 'Sunscreen' Has Likely Thinned, Report NASA Scientists". NASA. 15 March 2007. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2007/aerosol_dimming.html.
106. ↑ "Aerosol pollution has caused decades of global dimming". 18 February 2021. https://news.agu.org/press-release/aerosol-pollution-caused-decades-of-global-dimming/.
107. ↑ Xia, Wenwen; Wang, Yong; Chen, Siyu; Huang, Jianping; Wang, Bin; Zhang, Guang J.; Zhang, Yue; Liu, Xiaohong et al. (2022). "Double Trouble of Air Pollution by Anthropogenic Dust". Environmental Science & Technology 56 (2): 761–769. doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c04779. PMID 34941248. Bibcode: 2022EnST...56..761X. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.1c04779.
108. ↑ "Global Dimming Dilemma". 4 June 2020. https://www.scientistswarning.org/2020/06/04/dimming-dilemma/.
109. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
110. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
111. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
112. ↑ 112.0 112.1 112.2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
113. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
114. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
115. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
116. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
117. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
118. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 119.2 Garrett, L.; Lévite, H.; Besacier, C.; Alekseeva, N.; Duchelle, M. (2022). The key role of forest and landscape restoration in climate action. Rome: FAO. doi:10.4060/cc2510en. ISBN 978-92-5-137044-5. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2510en.
120. ↑ 120.0 120.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
121. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
122. ↑ Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I - Chapter 3: Detection and Attribution of Climate Change. U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP). 2017. pp. 1–470. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/3/. Adapted directly from Fig. 3.3.
123. ↑ Wuebbles, D.J.; Fahey, D.W.; Hibbard, K.A.; Deangelo, B.; Doherty, S.; Hayhoe, K.; Horton, R.; Kossin, J.P. et al. (23 November 2018). Climate Science Special Report / Fourth National Climate Assessment (NCA4), Volume I /Executive Summary / Highlights of the Findings of the U.S. Global Change Research Program Climate Science Special Report. U.S. Global Change Research Program. pp. 1–470. doi:10.7930/J0DJ5CTG. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/executive-summary/.
124. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
125. ↑ "Is the Sun causing global warming?". https://climate.nasa.gov/faq/14/is-the-sun-causing-global-warming.
126. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
127. ↑ Greicius, Tony (2022-08-02). "Tonga eruption blasted unprecedented amount of water into stratosphere". https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3204/tonga-eruption-blasted-unprecedented-amount-of-water-into-stratosphere/. "Massive volcanic eruptions like Krakatoa and Mount Pinatubo typically cool Earth’s surface by ejecting gases, dust, and ash that reflect sunlight back into space. In contrast, the Tonga volcano didn’t inject large amounts of aerosols into the stratosphere, and the huge amounts of water vapor from the eruption may have a small, temporary warming effect, since water vapor traps heat. The effect would dissipate when the extra water vapor cycles out of the stratosphere and would not be enough to noticeably exacerbate climate change effects."
128. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
129. ↑ Fischer & Aiuppa 2020.
130. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
131. ↑ "The study of Earth as an integrated system". Earth Science Communications Team at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory / California Institute of Technology. 2013. https://climate.nasa.gov/nasa_science/science/.
132. ↑ 132.0 132.1 USGCRP Chapter 2 2017, pp. 89–91.
133. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
134. ↑ USGCRP Chapter 2 2017, pp. 89–90.
135. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
136. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
137. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
138. ↑ Williams, Ceppi & Katavouta 2020.
139. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
140. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
141. ↑ 141.0 141.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
142. ↑ Dean et al. 2018.
143. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
144. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
145. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
146. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: Our first-order estimate of a warming-induced loss of 190 Pg of soil carbon over the 21st century is equivalent to the past two decades of carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning.
147. ↑ USGCRP Chapter 2 2017, pp. 93–95.
148. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
149. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
150. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
151. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
152. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
153. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
154. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., FAQ 8.1.
155. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
156. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
157. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
158. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
159. ↑ Hébert, R.; Herzschuh, U.; Laepple, T. (31 October 2022). "Millennial-scale climate variability over land overprinted by ocean temperature fluctuations". Nature Geoscience 15 (1): 899–905. doi:10.1038/s41561-022-01056-4. PMID 36817575. Bibcode: 2022NatGe..15..899H.
160. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
161. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
162. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
163. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
164. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
165. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
166. ↑ Liu, Fei; Wang, Bin; Ouyang, Yu; Wang, Hui; Qiao, Shaobo; Chen, Guosen; Dong, Wenjie (19 April 2022). "Intraseasonal variability of global land monsoon precipitation and its recent trend" (in en). npj Climate and Atmospheric Science 5 (1): 30. doi:10.1038/s41612-022-00253-7. ISSN 2397-3722. Bibcode: 2022npjCA...5...30L. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-022-00253-7. Retrieved 28 December 2023.
167. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
168. ↑ Studholme, Joshua; Fedorov, Alexey V.; Gulev, Sergey K.; Emanuel, Kerry; Hodges, Kevin (29 December 2021). "Poleward expansion of tropical cyclone latitudes in warming climates". Nature Geoscience 15: 14–28. doi:10.1038/s41561-021-00859-1. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-021-00859-1.
169. ↑ "Hurricanes and Climate Change". 10 July 2020. https://www.c2es.org/content/hurricanes-and-climate-change/.
170. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
171. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
172. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: GMSL (global mean sea level, red) will rise between 0.43 m (0.29–0.59 m, likely range) (RCP2.6) and 0.84 m (0.61–1.10 m, likely range) (RCP8.5) by 2100 (medium confidence) relative to 1986–2005.
173. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
174. ↑ Bamber et al. 2019.
175. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
176. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
177. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
178. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
179. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; "Climate Change and Harmful Algal Blooms". EPA. 5 September 2013. https://www.epa.gov/nutrientpollution/climate-change-and-harmful-algal-blooms.
180. ↑ "Tipping Elements – big risks in the Earth System". Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/output/infodesk/tipping-elements.
181. ↑ 181.0 181.1 Armstrong McKay, David I.; Staal, Arie; Abrams, Jesse F.; Winkelmann, Ricarda; Sakschewski, Boris; Loriani, Sina; Fetzer, Ingo; Cornell, Sarah E. et al. (9 September 2022). "Exceeding 1.5°C global warming could trigger multiple climate tipping points" (in en). Science 377 (6611): eabn7950. doi:10.1126/science.abn7950. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 36074831. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn7950.
182. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
183. ↑ "Tipping points in Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets". 12 November 2018. https://www.nessc.nl/tipping-points-ice-sheets/.
184. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
185. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
186. ↑ Pearce, Rosamund; Prater, Tom (10 February 2020). "Nine Tipping Points That Could Be Triggered by Climate Change". CarbonBrief. https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-nine-tipping-points-that-could-be-triggered-by-climate-change/.
187. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
188. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
189. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
190. ↑ IPCC AR5 WG1 Ch12 2013, p. 1112.
191. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
192. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch2 2019, p. 133.
193. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
194. ↑ Turner et al. 2020, p. 1.
195. ↑ Urban 2015.
196. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
197. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
198. ↑ IPCC SROCC Summary for Policymakers 2019, p. 13.
199. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
200. ↑ IPCC SROCC Ch5 2019, p. 451.
201. ↑ "Coral Reef Risk Outlook". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2 January 2012. https://sos.noaa.gov/datasets/coral-reef-risk-outlook/. "At present, local human activities, coupled with past thermal stress, threaten an estimated 75 percent of the world's reefs. By 2030, estimates predict more than 90% of the world's reefs will be threatened by local human activities, warming, and acidification, with nearly 60% facing high, very high, or critical threat levels."
202. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
203. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
204. ↑ "What a changing climate means for Rocky Mountain National Park". National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/romo/learn/nature/climatechange.htm.
205. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
206. ↑ Lenton, Timothy M.; Xu, Chi; Abrams, Jesse F.; Ghadiali, Ashish; Loriani, Sina; Sakschewski, Boris; Zimm, Caroline; Ebi, Kristie L. et al. (2023). "Quantifying the human cost of global warming". Nature Sustainability 6 (10): 1237–1247. doi:10.1038/s41893-023-01132-6. Bibcode: 2023NatSu...6.1237L.
207. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
208. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
209. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
210. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
211. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
212. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
213. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
214. ↑ Watts et al. 2019, pp. 1836, 1848.
215. ↑ Watts et al. 2019, pp. 1841, 1847.
216. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
217. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
218. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
219. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
220. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
221. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
222. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
223. ↑ IPCC SROCC Ch5 2019, p. 503.
224. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
225. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
226. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
227. ↑ 227.0 227.1 Women's leadership and gender equality in climate action and disaster risk reduction in Africa − A call for action. Accra: FAO & The African Risk Capacity (ARC) Group. 2021. doi:10.4060/cb7431en. ISBN 978-92-5-135234-2. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb7431en.
228. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
229. ↑ Hallegatte et al. 2016, p. 12.
230. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
231. ↑ Grabe, Grose and Dutt, 2014; FAO, 2011; FAO, 2021a; Fisher and Carr, 2015; IPCC, 2014; Resurrección et al., 2019; UNDRR, 2019; Yeboah et al., 2019.
232. ↑ "Climate Change | United Nations For Indigenous Peoples". https://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/climate-change.html.
233. ↑ Mach et al. 2019.
234. ↑ 234.0 234.1 (in EN) The status of women in agrifood systems - Overview. Rome: FAO. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc5060en. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc5060en.
235. ↑ IPCC SROCC Ch4 2019, p. 328.
236. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
237. ↑ Matthews 2018, p. 399.
238. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
239. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
240. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
241. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
242. ↑ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is nuisance flooding?". http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/nuisance-flooding.html.
243. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
244. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
245. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
246. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
247. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
248. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
249. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
250. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
251. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
252. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
253. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
254. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
255. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
256. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
257. ↑ 257.0 257.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Sepulveda, Nestor A.; Jenkins, Jesse D.; De Sisternes, Fernando J.; Lester, Richard K. (2018). "The Role of Firm Low-Carbon Electricity Resources in Deep Decarbonization of Power Generation". Joule 2 (11): 2403–2420. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2018.08.006.
258. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
259. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
260. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
261. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
262. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
263. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
264. ↑ "IPCC Working Group III report: Mitigation of Climate Change". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 4 April 2022. https://www.ipcc.ch/2022/04/04/ipcc-ar6-wgiii-pressrelease/.
265. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
266. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
267. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
268. ↑ 268.0 268.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
269. ↑ "Transport emissions". European Commission. 2016. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/transport-emissions_en.
270. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
271. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
272. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
273. ↑ Template:Citec
274. ↑ Horvath, Akos; Rachlew, Elisabeth (January 2016). "Nuclear power in the 21st century: Challenges and possibilities". Ambio 45 (Suppl 1): S38–49. doi:10.1007/s13280-015-0732-y. ISSN 1654-7209. PMID 26667059. Bibcode: 2016Ambio..45S..38H.
275. ↑ "Hydropower". International Energy Agency. https://www.iea.org/reports/hydropower. "Hydropower generation is estimated to have increased by over 2% in 2019 owing to continued recovery from drought in Latin America as well as strong capacity expansion and good water availability in China (...) capacity expansion has been losing speed. This downward trend is expected to continue, due mainly to less large-project development in China and Brazil, where concerns over social and environmental impacts have restricted projects."
276. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
277. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
278. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: "Limiting warming to 1.5 °C can be achieved synergistically with poverty alleviation and improved energy security and can provide large public health benefits through improved air quality, preventing millions of premature deaths. However, specific mitigation measures, such as bioenergy, may result in trade-offs that require consideration."
279. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
280. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
281. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
282. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
283. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
284. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
285. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
286. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
287. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
288. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
289. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
290. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
291. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Humans on a vegan exclusive diet would save about 7.9 GtCO
2 equivalent per year by 2050 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24". Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use used an average of 12 GtCO
2 per year between 2007 and 2016 (23% of total anthropogenic emissions).
292. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
293. ↑ "Low and zero emissions in the steel and cement industries". pp. 11, 19–22. https://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/GGSD2019_IssuePaper_CementSteel.pdf.
294. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".: Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
295. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
296. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
297. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
298. ↑ Nelson, J. D. J.; Schoenau, J. J.; Malhi, S. S. (1 October 2008). "Soil organic carbon changes and distribution in cultivated and restored grassland soils in Saskatchewan" (in en). Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 82 (2): 137–148. doi:10.1007/s10705-008-9175-1. ISSN 1573-0867. Bibcode: 2008NCyAg..82..137N. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-008-9175-1.
299. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
300. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
301. ↑ Bui et al. 2018, p. 1068. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBuiAdjimanBardowAnthony2018 (help)
302. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
303. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
304. ↑ IPCC, 2022: Summary for Policymakers [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.
305. ↑ IPCC AR5 SYR 2014, p. 17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFIPCC_AR5_SYR2014 (help)
306. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch4 2018, pp. 396–397.
307. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
308. ↑ UNEP 2018, pp. xii–xiii.
309. ↑ Stephens, Scott A.; Bell, Robert G.; Lawrence, Judy (2018). "Developing signals to trigger adaptation to sea-level rise". Environmental Research Letters 13 (10): 104004. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aadf96. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2018ERL....13j4004S.
310. ↑ Matthews 2018, p. 402.
311. ↑ IPCC SRCCL Ch5 2019, p. 439.
312. ↑ Surminski, Swenja; Bouwer, Laurens M.; Linnerooth-Bayer, Joanne (2016). "How insurance can support climate resilience". Nature Climate Change 6 (4): 333–334. doi:10.1038/nclimate2979. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2016NatCC...6..333S. https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2979.
313. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch4 2018, pp. 336–337.
314. ↑ "Mangroves against the storm" (in en). https://social.shorthand.com/IUCN_forests/nCec1jyqvn/mangroves-against-the-storm.html.
315. ↑ "How marsh grass could help protect us from climate change" (in en). 24 October 2021. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/10/how-marsh-grass-protects-shorelines/.
316. ↑ Morecroft, Michael D.; Duffield, Simon; Harley, Mike; Pearce-Higgins, James W. et al. (2019). "Measuring the success of climate change adaptation and mitigation in terrestrial ecosystems". Science 366 (6471): eaaw9256. doi:10.1126/science.aaw9256. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31831643.
317. ↑ Berry, Pam M.; Brown, Sally; Chen, Minpeng; Kontogianni, Areti et al. (2015). "Cross-sectoral interactions of adaptation and mitigation measures". Climate Change 128 (3): 381–393. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1214-0. ISSN 1573-1480. Bibcode: 2015ClCh..128..381B. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1214-0.
318. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
319. ↑ Sharifi, Ayyoob (2020). "Trade-offs and conflicts between urban climate change mitigation and adaptation measures: A literature review". Journal of Cleaner Production 276: 122813. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122813. ISSN 0959-6526. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959652620328584.
320. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
321. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313)
322. ↑ IPCC SR15 Ch5 2018, p. 477.
323. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
324. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
325. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
326. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
327. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
328. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
329. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
330. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
331. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
332. ↑ Gabbatiss, Josh; Tandon, Ayesha (4 October 2021). "In-depth Q&A: What is 'climate justice'?" (in en). https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-what-is-climate-justice.
333. ↑ Khalfan, Ashfaq; Lewis, Astrid Nilsson; Aguilar, Carlos; Persson, Jacqueline; Lawson, Max; Dab, Nafkote; Jayoussi, Safa; Acharya, Sunil (November 2023). Climate Equality: A planet for the 99%. Oxfam GB. doi:10.21201/2023.000001. https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/621551/cr-climate-equality-201123-en-summ.pdf. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
334. ↑ Grasso, Marco; Heede, Richard (19 May 2023). "Time to pay the piper: Fossil fuel companies' reparations for climate damages". One Earth 6 (5): 459–463. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2023.04.012. Bibcode: 2023OEart...6..459G.
335. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
336. ↑ 336.0 336.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"., Table 7.
337. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
338. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
339. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
340. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
341. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
342. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
343. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
344. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
345. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
346. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
347. ↑ "Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change". Copenhagen. 7–18 December 2009. un document= FCCC/CP/2009/L.7. http://unfccc.int/meetings/cop_15/items/5257.php. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
348. ↑ Bennett, Paige (2 May 2023). "High-Income Nations Are on Track Now to Meet $100 Billion Climate Pledges, but They're Late". Ecowatch. https://www.ecowatch.com/wealthy-countries-climate-change-reparations.html.
349. ↑ Paris Agreement 2015.
350. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
351. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
352. ↑ "Status of Treaties, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change". https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-7-d&chapter=27&clang=_en. ; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
353. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
354. ↑ Yeo, Sophie (10 October 2016). "Explainer: Why a UN climate deal on HFCs matters". https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-why-a-un-climate-deal-on-hfcs-matters.
355. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
356. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
357. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
358. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
359. ↑ "European Green Deal: Commission proposes transformation of EU economy and society to meet climate ambitions". European Commission. 14 July 2021. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_3541.
360. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
361. ↑ "India". 15 September 2021. https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/india/.
362. ↑ Do, Thang Nam; Burke, Paul J. (2023). "Phasing out coal power in a developing country context: Insights from Vietnam". Energy Policy 176 (May 2023 113512): 113512. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2023.113512.
363. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; UNFCCC Press Office (26 February 2021). "Greater Climate Ambition Urged as Initial NDC Synthesis Report Is Published". https://unfccc.int/news/greater-climate-ambition-urged-as-initial-ndc-synthesis-report-is-published.
364. ↑ Stover 2014.
365. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
366. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
367. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
368. ↑ 368.0 368.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
369. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
370. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
371. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
372. ↑ "Public perceptions on climate change". June 2022. p. 4. https://peritia-trust.eu/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/4-Climate-change_EU.pdf.
373. ↑ Powell, James (20 November 2019). "Scientists Reach 100% Consensus on Anthropogenic Global Warming". Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 37 (4): 183–184. doi:10.1177/0270467619886266. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0270467619886266?journalCode=bsta.
374. ↑ Myers, Krista F.; Doran, Peter T.; Cook, John; Kotcher, John E.; Myers, Teresa A. (20 October 2021). "Consensus revisited: quantifying scientific agreement on climate change and climate expertise among Earth scientists 10 years later". Environmental Research Letters 16 (10): 104030. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2774. Bibcode: 2021ERL....16j4030M.
375. ↑ 375.0 375.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
376. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
377. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
378. ↑ 378.0 378.1 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
379. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
380. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
381. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
382. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
383. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
384. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
385. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
386. ↑ Connolly, Kate (29 April 2021). "'Historic' German ruling says climate goals not tough enough". The Guardian. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/29/historic-german-ruling-says-climate-goals-not-tough-enough.
387. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
388. ↑ "Coal Consumption Affecting Climate". Rodney and Otamatea Times, Waitemata and Kaipara Gazette (Warkworth, New Zealand): p. 7. 14 August 1912. https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/ROTWKG19120814.2.56.5. Text was earlier published in Popular Mechanics, March 1912, p. 341.
389. ↑ Nord, D.C. (2020). Nordic Perspectives on the Responsible Development of the Arctic: Pathways to Action. Springer Polar Sciences. Springer International Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 978-3-030-52324-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=KmMGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
390. ↑ Mukherjee, A.; Scanlon, B.R.; Aureli, A.; Langan, S.; Guo, H.; McKenzie, A.A. (2020). Global Groundwater: Source, Scarcity, Sustainability, Security, and Solutions. Elsevier Science. p. 331. ISBN 978-0-12-818173-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=17vbDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA331. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
391. ↑ von Humboldt, A.; Wulf, A. (2018). Selected Writings of Alexander von Humboldt: Edited and Introduced by Andrea Wulf. Everyman's Library Classics Series. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-101-90807-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=xal2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR10. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
392. ↑ Erdkamp, P.; Manning, J.G.; Verboven, K. (2021). Climate Change and Ancient Societies in Europe and the Near East: Diversity in Collapse and Resilience. Palgrave Studies in Ancient Economies. Springer International Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-3-030-81103-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbdMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR6. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
393. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
394. ↑ Foote, Eunice (November 1856). "Circumstances affecting the Heat of the Sun's Rays". The American Journal of Science and Arts 22: 382–383. https://books.google.com/books?id=6xhFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA382. Retrieved 31 January 2016.
395. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
396. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
397. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
398. ↑ Lapenis 1998.
399. ↑ 399.0 399.1 399.2 Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
400. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
401. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
402. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
403. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..
404. ↑ Powell, James (20 November 2019). "Scientists Reach 100% Consensus on Anthropogenic Global Warming". Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 37 (4): 183–184. doi:10.1177/0270467619886266. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0270467619886266?journalCode=bsta. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
405. ↑ 405.0 405.1 Lynas, Mark; Houlton, Benjamin Z; Perry, Simon (2021). "Greater than 99% consensus on human caused climate change in the peer-reviewed scientific literature". Environmental Research Letters 16 (11): 114005. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac2966. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2021ERL....16k4005L.
406. ↑ Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".; Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".
407. ↑ Joint statement of the (G8+5 Academies 2009); Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24"..

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

### Sources

This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 License statement: The status of women in agrifood systems – Overview, FAO, FAO. To learn how to add open license text to HandWiki articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from HandWiki, please see the terms of use.

#### IPCC reports

Fourth Assessment Report

* Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-88009-1. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/contents.html.
* Le Treut, H.; Somerville, R.; Cubasch, U.; Ding, Y. et al. (2007). "Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Climate Change Science". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 93–127. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter1.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Le+Treut&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Le+Treut, H.&rft.au=Somerville, R.&rft.au=Cubasch, U.&rft.au=Ding, Y.&rft.au=Mauritzen, C.&rft.au=Mokssit, A.&rft.au=Peterson, T.&rft.au=Prather, M.&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=pp. 93–127&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Randall, D. A.; Wood, R. A.; Bony, S.; Colman, R. et al. (2007). "Chapter 8: Climate Models and their Evaluation". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 589–662. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter8.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Randall&rft.aufirst=D.+A.&rft.au=Randall, D.+A.&rft.au=Wood, R.+A.&rft.au=Bony, S.&rft.au=Colman, R.&rft.au=Fichefet, T.&rft.au=Fyfe, J.&rft.au=Kattsov, V.&rft.au=Pitman, A.&rft.au=Shukla, J.&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=pp. 589–662&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Hegerl, G. C.; Zwiers, F. W. (2007). "Chapter 9: Understanding and Attributing Climate Change". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 663–745. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-chapter9.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Hegerl&rft.aufirst=G.+C.&rft.au=Hegerl, G.+C.&rft.au=Zwiers, F.+W.&rft.au=Gillett, N.+P.&rft.au=Luo, Y.&rft.au=Marengo+Orsini, J.+A.&rft.au=Nicholls, N.&rft.au=Penner, J.+E.&rft.au=Stott, P.+A.&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=pp. 663–745&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

* Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html.
* Rosenzweig, C.; Casassa, G.; Karoly, D. J.; Imeson, A. et al. (2007). "Chapter 1: Assessment of observed changes and responses in natural and managed systems". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 79–131. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter1.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Rosenzweig&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Rosenzweig, C.&rft.au=Casassa, G.&rft.au=Karoly, D.+J.&rft.au=Imeson, A.&rft.au=Liu, C.&rft.au=Menzel, A.&rft.au=Rawlins, S.&rft.au=Root, T.+L.&rft.au=Seguin, B.&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=pp. 79–131&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Schneider, S. H.; Semenov, S.; Patwardhan, A.; Burton, I. et al. (2007). "Chapter 19: Assessing key vulnerabilities and the risk from climate change". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 779–810. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter19.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Schneider&rft.aufirst=S.+H.&rft.au=Schneider, S.+H.&rft.au=Semenov, S.&rft.au=Patwardhan, A.&rft.au=Burton, I.&rft.au=Magadza, C.+H.+D.&rft.au=Oppenheimer, M.&rft.au=Pittock, A.+B.&rft.au=Rahman, A.&rft.au=Smith, J.+B.&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=pp. 779–810&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

* Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-521-88011-4. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/contents.html.
* Rogner, H.-H.; Zhou, D.; Bradley, R.; Crabbé, P. et al. (2007). "Chapter 1: Introduction". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 95–116. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter1.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Rogner&rft.aufirst=H.-H.&rft.au=Rogner, H.-H.&rft.au=Zhou, D.&rft.au=Bradley, R.&rft.au=Crabbé, P.&rft.au=Edenhofer, O.&rft.au=Hare, B.&rft.au=Kuijpers, L.&rft.au=Yamaguchi, M.&rft.date=2007&rft.pages=pp. 95–116&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

Fifth Assessment report

* Stocker, T. F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K. et al., eds (2013). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05799-9. http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_ALL_FINAL.pdf. . AR5 Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis – IPCC
* "Summary for Policymakers". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2013. https://ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2013&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Hartmann, D. L.; Klein Tank, A. M. G.; Rusticucci, M.; Alexander, L. V. et al. (2013). "Chapter 2: Observations: Atmosphere and Surface". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 159–254. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2017/09/WG1AR5_Chapter02_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Hartmann&rft.aufirst=D.+L.&rft.au=Hartmann, D.+L.&rft.au=Klein+Tank, A.+M.+G.&rft.au=Rusticucci, M.&rft.au=Alexander, L.+V.&rft.au=Brönnimann, S.&rft.au=Charabi, Y.&rft.au=Dentener, F.+J.&rft.au=Dlugokencky, E.+J.&rft.au=Easterling, D.+R.&rft.date=2013&rft.pages=pp. 159–254&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Rhein, M.; Rintoul, S. R.; Aoki, S.; Campos, E. et al. (2013). "Chapter 3: Observations: Ocean". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 255–315. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WG1AR5_Chapter03_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Rhein&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Rhein, M.&rft.au=Rintoul, S.+R.&rft.au=Aoki, S.&rft.au=Campos, E.&rft.au=Chambers, D.&rft.au=Feely, R.+A.&rft.au=Gulev, S.&rft.au=Johnson, G.+C.&rft.au=Josey, S.+A.&rft.date=2013&rft.pages=pp. 255–315&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Masson-Delmotte, V.; Schulz, M.; Abe-Ouchi, A.; Beer, J. et al. (2013). "Chapter 5: Information from Paleoclimate Archives". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 383–464. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WG1AR5_Chapter05_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Masson-Delmotte&rft.aufirst=V.&rft.au=Masson-Delmotte, V.&rft.au=Schulz, M.&rft.au=Abe-Ouchi, A.&rft.au=Beer, J.&rft.au=Ganopolski, A.&rft.au=González+Rouco, J.+F.&rft.au=Jansen, E.&rft.au=Lambeck, K.&rft.au=Luterbacher, J.&rft.date=2013&rft.pages=pp. 383–464&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Bindoff, N. L.; Stott, P. A.; AchutaRao, K. M.; Allen, M. R. et al. (2013). "Chapter 10: Detection and Attribution of Climate Change: from Global to Regional". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 867–952. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WG1AR5_Chapter10_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Bindoff&rft.aufirst=N.+L.&rft.au=Bindoff, N.+L.&rft.au=Stott, P.+A.&rft.au=AchutaRao, K.+M.&rft.au=Allen, M.+R.&rft.au=Gillett, N.&rft.au=Gutzler, D.&rft.au=Hansingo, K.&rft.au=Hegerl, G.&rft.au=Hu, Y.&rft.date=2013&rft.pages=pp. 867–952&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Collins, M.; Knutti, R.; Arblaster, J. M.; Dufresne, J.-L. et al. (2013). "Chapter 12: Long-term Climate Change: Projections, Commitments and Irreversibility". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 1029–1136. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_Chapter12_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Collins, M.&rft.au=Knutti, R.&rft.au=Arblaster, J.+M.&rft.au=Dufresne, J.-L.&rft.au=Fichefet, T.&rft.au=Friedlingstein, P.&rft.au=Gao, X.&rft.au=Gutowski, W.+J.&rft.au=Johns, T.&rft.date=2013&rft.pages=pp. 1029–1136&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".

* Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-107-05807-1. . Chapters 1–20, SPM, and Technical Summary.
* Jiménez Cisneros, B. E.; Oki, T.; Arnell, N. W.; Benito, G. et al. (2014). "Chapter 3: Freshwater Resources". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 229–269. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap3_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Jiménez+Cisneros&rft.aufirst=B.+E.&rft.au=Jiménez+Cisneros, B.+E.&rft.au=Oki, T.&rft.au=Arnell, N.+W.&rft.au=Benito, G.&rft.au=Cogley, J.+G.&rft.au=Döll, P.&rft.au=Jiang, T.&rft.au=Mwakalila, S.+S.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp. 229–269&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Porter, J. R.; Xie, L.; Challinor, A. J.; Cochrane, K. et al. (2014). "Chapter 7: Food Security and Food Production Systems". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 485–533. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap7_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Porter&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rft.au=Porter, J.+R.&rft.au=Xie, L.&rft.au=Challinor, A.+J.&rft.au=Cochrane, K.&rft.au=Howden, S.+M.&rft.au=Iqbal, M.+M.&rft.au=Lobell, D.+B.&rft.au=Travasso, M.+I.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp. 485–533&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Smith, K. R.; Woodward, A.; Campbell-Lendrum, D.; Chadee, D. D. et al. (2014). "Chapter 11: Human Health: Impacts, Adaptation, and Co-Benefits". In Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 709–754. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-Chap11_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=K.+R.&rft.au=Smith, K.+R.&rft.au=Woodward, A.&rft.au=Campbell-Lendrum, D.&rft.au=Chadee, D.+D.&rft.au=Honda, Y.&rft.au=Lui, Q.&rft.au=Olwoch, J.+M.&rft.au=Revich, B.&rft.au=Sauerborn, R.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp. 709–754&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Olsson, L.; Opondo, M.; Tschakert, P.; Agrawal, A. et al. (2014). "Chapter 13: Livelihoods and Poverty". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 793–832. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap13_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Olsson&rft.aufirst=L.&rft.au=Olsson, L.&rft.au=Opondo, M.&rft.au=Tschakert, P.&rft.au=Agrawal, A.&rft.au=Eriksen, S.+H.&rft.au=Ma, S.&rft.au=Perch, L.+N.&rft.au=Zakieldeen, S.+A.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp. 793–832&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Cramer, W.; Yohe, G. W.; Auffhammer, M.; Huggel, C. et al. (2014). "Chapter 18: Detection and Attribution of Observed Impacts". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 979–1037. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap18_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Cramer&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Cramer, W.&rft.au=Yohe, G.+W.&rft.au=Auffhammer, M.&rft.au=Huggel, C.&rft.au=Molau, U.&rft.au=da+Silva+Dias, M.+A.+F.&rft.au=Solow, A.&rft.au=Stone, D.+A.&rft.au=Tibig, L.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp. 979–1037&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Oppenheimer, M.; Campos, M.; Warren, R.; Birkmann, J. et al. (2014). "Chapter 19: Emergent Risks and Key Vulnerabilities". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 1039–1099. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap19_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Oppenheimer&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Oppenheimer, M.&rft.au=Campos, M.&rft.au=Warren, R.&rft.au=Birkmann, J.&rft.au=Luber, G.&rft.au=O'Neill, B.&rft.au=Takahashi, K.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp. 1039–1099&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-107-05816-3. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/WGIIAR5-PartB_FINAL.pdf. . Chapters 21–30, Annexes, and Index.
* Larsen, J. N.; Anisimov, O. A.; Constable, A.; Hollowed, A. B. et al. (2014). "Chapter 28: Polar Regions". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 1567–1612. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg2/WGIIAR5-Chap28_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Larsen&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rft.au=Larsen, J.+N.&rft.au=Anisimov, O.+A.&rft.au=Constable, A.&rft.au=Hollowed, A.+B.&rft.au=Maynard, N.&rft.au=Prestrud, P.&rft.au=Prowse, T.+D.&rft.au=Stone, J.+M.+R.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp. 1567–1612&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

* Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-107-05821-7.
* Blanco, G.; Gerlagh, R.; Suh, S.; Barrett, J. et al. (2014). "Chapter 5: Drivers, Trends and Mitigation". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 351–411. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ipcc_wg3_ar5_full.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Blanco&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Blanco, G.&rft.au=Gerlagh, R.&rft.au=Suh, S.&rft.au=Barrett, J.&rft.au=de+Coninck, H.+C.&rft.au=Diaz+Morejon, C.+F.&rft.au=Mathur, R.&rft.au=Nakicenovic, N.&rft.au=Ofosu+Ahenkora, A.&rft.date=2014&rft.pages=pp. 351–411&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Lucon, O.; Ürge-Vorsatz, D.; Ahmed, A.; Akbari, H. et al. (2014). "Chapter 9: Buildings". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg3/ipcc_wg3_ar5_chapter9.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Lucon&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Lucon, O.&rft.au=Ürge-Vorsatz, D.&rft.au=Ahmed, A.&rft.au=Akbari, H.&rft.au=Bertoldi, P.&rft.au=Cabeza, L.&rft.au=Eyre, N.&rft.au=Gadgil, A.&rft.au=Harvey, L.+D.&rft.date=2014&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. 2014. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/.
* "Summary for Policymakers". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2014. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2014&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* "Annex II: Glossary". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2014. https://archive.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_Annexes.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2014&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

Special Report: Global Warming of 1.5 °C

* Global Warming of 1.5°C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2018. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf. Global Warming of 1.5 °C –.
* "Summary for Policymakers". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2018. pp. 3–24. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_SPM_version_report_HR.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2018&rft.pages=pp. 3–24&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Allen, M. R.; Dube, O. P.; Solecki, W.; Aragón-Durand, F. et al. (2018). "Chapter 1: Framing and Context". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 49–91. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter1_High_Res.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=M.+R.&rft.au=Allen, M.+R.&rft.au=Dube, O.+P.&rft.au=Solecki, W.&rft.au=Aragón-Durand, F.&rft.au=Cramer, W.&rft.au=Humphreys, S.&rft.au=Kainuma, M.&rft.au=Kala, J.&rft.au=Mahowald, N.&rft.date=2018&rft.pages=pp. 49–91&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* "Chapter 2: Mitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5°C in the Context of Sustainable Development". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2018. pp. 93–174. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter2_High_Res.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.au=Shindell, D.&rft.au=Jiang, K.&rft.au=Fifta, S.&rft.au=Forster, P.&rft.au=Ginzburg, V.&rft.au=Handa, C.&rft.au=Kheshgi, H.&rft.au=Kobayashi, S.&rft.date=2018&rft.pages=pp. 93–174&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Hoegh-Guldberg, O.; Jacob, D.; Taylor, M.; Bindi, M. et al. (2018). "Chapter 3: Impacts of 1.5°C Global Warming on Natural and Human Systems". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 175–311. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter3_High_Res.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Hoegh-Guldberg&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Hoegh-Guldberg, O.&rft.au=Jacob, D.&rft.au=Taylor, M.&rft.au=Bindi, M.&rft.au=Brown, S.&rft.au=Camilloni, I.&rft.au=Diedhiou, A.&rft.au=Djalante, R.&rft.au=Ebi, K.+L.&rft.date=2018&rft.pages=pp. 175–311&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* de Coninck, H.; Revi, A.; Babiker, M.; Bertoldi, P. et al. (2018). "Chapter 4: Strengthening and Implementing the Global Response". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 313–443. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter4_High_Res.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=de+Coninck&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=de+Coninck, H.&rft.au=Revi, A.&rft.au=Babiker, M.&rft.au=Bertoldi, P.&rft.au=Buckeridge, M.&rft.au=Cartwright, A.&rft.au=Dong, W.&rft.au=Ford, J.&rft.au=Fuss, S.&rft.date=2018&rft.pages=pp. 313–443&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Roy, J.; Tschakert, P.; Waisman, H.; Abdul Halim, S. et al. (2018). "Chapter 5: Sustainable Development, Poverty Eradication and Reducing Inequalities". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 445–538. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_Chapter5_High_Res.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Roy, J.&rft.au=Tschakert, P.&rft.au=Waisman, H.&rft.au=Abdul+Halim, S.&rft.au=Antwi-Agyei, P.&rft.au=Dasgupta, P.&rft.au=Hayward, B.&rft.au=Kanninen, M.&rft.au=Liverman, D.&rft.date=2018&rft.pages=pp. 445–538&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

Special Report: Climate change and Land

* IPCC Special Report on Climate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food Security, and Greenhouse gas fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystems. In press. 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/SRCCL-Full-Report-Compiled-191128.pdf.
* "Summary for Policymakers". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2019. pp. 3–34. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/4/2019/12/02_Summary-for-Policymakers_SPM.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2019&rft.pages=pp. 3–34&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Jia, G.; Shevliakova, E.; Artaxo, P. E.; De Noblet-Ducoudré, N. et al. (2019). "Chapter 2: Land-Climate Interactions". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 131–247. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/05_Chapter-2.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Jia&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Jia, G.&rft.au=Shevliakova, E.&rft.au=Artaxo, P.+E.&rft.au=De+Noblet-Ducoudré, N.&rft.au=Houghton, R.&rft.au=House, J.&rft.au=Kitajima, K.&rft.au=Lennard, C.&rft.au=Popp, A.&rft.date=2019&rft.pages=pp. 131–247&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Mbow, C.; Rosenzweig, C.; Barioni, L. G.; Benton, T. et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Food Security". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 437–550. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2019/11/08_Chapter-5.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Mbow&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Mbow, C.&rft.au=Rosenzweig, C.&rft.au=Barioni, L.+G.&rft.au=Benton, T.&rft.au=Herrero, M.&rft.au=Krishnapillai, M.+V.&rft.au=Liwenga, E.&rft.au=Pradhan, P.&rft.au=Rivera-Ferre, M.+G.&rft.date=2019&rft.pages=pp. 437–550&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

Special Report: The Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate

* IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. In press. 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/12/SROCC_FullReport_FINAL.pdf.
* "Summary for Policymakers". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2019. pp. 3–35. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/03_SROCC_SPM_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2019&rft.pages=pp. 3–35&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Meredith, M.; Sommerkorn, M.; Cassotta, S.; Derksen, C. et al. (2019). "Chapter 3: Polar Regions". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 203–320. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/07_SROCC_Ch03_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Meredith&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Meredith, M.&rft.au=Sommerkorn, M.&rft.au=Cassotta, S.&rft.au=Derksen, C.&rft.au=Ekaykin, A.&rft.au=Hollowed, A.&rft.au=Kofinas, G.&rft.au=Mackintosh, A.&rft.au=Melbourne-Thomas, J.&rft.date=2019&rft.pages=pp. 203–320&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Oppenheimer, M.; Glavovic, B.; Hinkel, J.; van de Wal, R. et al. (2019). "Chapter 4: Sea Level Rise and Implications for Low Lying Islands, Coasts and Communities". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 321–445. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/08_SROCC_Ch04_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Oppenheimer&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Oppenheimer, M.&rft.au=Glavovic, B.&rft.au=Hinkel, J.&rft.au=van+de+Wal, R.&rft.au=Magnan, A.+K.&rft.au=Abd-Elgawad, A.&rft.au=Cai, R.&rft.au=Cifuentes-Jara, M.&rft.au=Deconto, R.+M.&rft.date=2019&rft.pages=pp. 321–445&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Bindoff, N. L.; Cheung, W. W. L.; Kairo, J. G.; Arístegui, J. et al. (2019). "Chapter 5: Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 447–587. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/3/2019/11/09_SROCC_Ch05_FINAL.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Bindoff&rft.aufirst=N.+L.&rft.au=Bindoff, N.+L.&rft.au=Cheung, W.+W.+L.&rft.au=Kairo, J.+G.&rft.au=Arístegui, J.&rft.au=Guinder, V.+A.&rft.au=Hallberg, R.&rft.au=Hilmi, N.+J.+M.&rft.au=Jiao, N.&rft.au=Karim, Md+S.&rft.date=2019&rft.pages=pp. 447–587&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

Sixth Assessment Report

* Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A. et al., eds (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press (In Press). https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Full_Report.pdf.
* "Summary for Policymakers". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2021. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2021&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Arias, Paola A.; Bellouin, Nicolas; Coppola, Erika; Jones, Richard G. et al. (2021). "Technical Summary". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_TS.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Arias&rft.aufirst=Paola+A.&rft.au=Arias, Paola+A.&rft.au=Bellouin, Nicolas&rft.au=Coppola, Erika&rft.au=Jones, Richard+G.&rft.au=Krinner, Gerhard&rft.date=2021&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Seneviratne, Sonia I.; Zhang, Xuebin; Adnan, M.; Badi, W. et al. (2021). "Chapter 11: Weather and climate extreme events in a changing climate". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter_11.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Seneviratne&rft.aufirst=Sonia+I.&rft.au=Seneviratne, Sonia+I.&rft.au=Zhang, Xuebin&rft.au=Adnan, M.&rft.au=Badi, W.&rft.au=Dereczynski, Claudine&rft.au=Di+Luca, Alejandro&rft.au=Ghosh, S.&rft.date=2021&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* IPCC (2022). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/.
* IPCC (2022). Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg3/.
* "Summary for Policymakers". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2022. https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2022&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* IPCC (2023). IPCC, 2023: Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, H. Lee and J. Romero (Eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. doi:10.59327/IPCC/AR6-9789291691647. ISBN 978-92-9169-164-7. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_FullVolume.pdf.
* "Summary for Policymakers". Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. 2023. https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6syr/pdf/IPCC_AR6_SYR_SPM.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.date=2023&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">

#### Other peer-reviewed sources

* Albrecht, Bruce A. (1989). "Aerosols, Cloud Microphysics, and Fractional Cloudiness". Science 245 (4923): 1227–1239. doi:10.1126/science.245.4923.1227. PMID 17747885. Bibcode: 1989Sci...245.1227A.
* Balsari, S.; Dresser, C.; Leaning, J. (2020). "Climate Change, Migration, and Civil Strife.". Curr Environ Health Rep 7 (4): 404–414. doi:10.1007/s40572-020-00291-4. PMID 33048318.
* Bamber, Jonathan L.; Oppenheimer, Michael; Kopp, Robert E.; Aspinall, Willy P.; Cooke, Roger M. (2019). "Ice sheet contributions to future sea-level rise from structured expert judgment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (23): 11195–11200. doi:10.1073/pnas.1817205116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 31110015. Bibcode: 2019PNAS..11611195B.
* Bednar, Johannes; Obersteiner, Michael; Wagner, Fabian (2019). "On the financial viability of negative emissions". Nature Communications 10 (1): 1783. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09782-x. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 30992434. Bibcode: 2019NatCo..10.1783B.
* Berrill, P.; Arvesen, A.; Scholz, Y.; Gils, H. C. et al. (2016). "Environmental impacts of high penetration renewable energy scenarios for Europe". Environmental Research Letters 11 (1): 014012. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/1/014012. Bibcode: 2016ERL....11a4012B.
* Björnberg, Karin Edvardsson; Karlsson, Mikael; Gilek, Michael; Hansson, Sven Ove (2017). "Climate and environmental science denial: A review of the scientific literature published in 1990–2015". Journal of Cleaner Production 167: 229–241. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.08.066. ISSN 0959-6526.
* Boulianne, Shelley; Lalancette, Mireille; Ilkiw, David (2020). ""School Strike 4 Climate": Social Media and the International Youth Protest on Climate Change". Media and Communication 8 (2): 208–218. doi:10.17645/mac.v8i2.2768. ISSN 2183-2439. https://www.cogitatiopress.com/mediaandcommunication/article/view/2768.
* Bui, M. (2018). "Carbon capture and storage (CCS): the way forward". Energy & Environmental Science 11 (5): 1062–1176. doi:10.1039/c7ee02342a.
* Burke, Claire; Stott, Peter (2017). "Impact of Anthropogenic Climate Change on the East Asian Summer Monsoon". Journal of Climate 30 (14): 5205–5220. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0892.1. ISSN 0894-8755. Bibcode: 2017JCli...30.5205B.
* Burke, Marshall; Davis, W. Matthew; Diffenbaugh, Noah S (2018). "Large potential reduction in economic damages under UN mitigation targets". Nature 557 (7706): 549–553. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0071-9. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 29795251. Bibcode: 2018Natur.557..549B.
* Callendar, G. S. (1938). "The artificial production of carbon dioxide and its influence on temperature". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 64 (275): 223–240. doi:10.1002/qj.49706427503. Bibcode: 1938QJRMS..64..223C.
* Cattaneo, Cristina; Beine, Michel; Fröhlich, Christiane J.; Kniveton, Dominic et al. (2019). "Human Migration in the Era of Climate Change". Review of Environmental Economics and Policy 13 (2): 189–206. doi:10.1093/reep/rez008. ISSN 1750-6816. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1093/reep/rez008?journalCode=reep.
* Cohen, Judah; Screen, James; Furtado, Jason C.; Barlow, Mathew et al. (2014). "Recent Arctic amplification and extreme mid-latitude weather". Nature Geoscience 7 (9): 627–637. doi:10.1038/ngeo2234. ISSN 1752-0908. Bibcode: 2014NatGe...7..627C. https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/36132/1/Cohenetal_NGeo14.pdf.
* Costello, Anthony; Abbas, Mustafa; Allen, Adriana; Ball, Sarah et al. (2009). "Managing the health effects of climate change". The Lancet 373 (9676): 1693–1733. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1. PMID 19447250. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(09)60935-1/fulltext.
* Curtis, P.; Slay, C.; Harris, N.; Tyukavina, A. et al. (2018). "Classifying drivers of global forest loss". Science 361 (6407): 1108–1111. doi:10.1126/science.aau3445. PMID 30213911. Bibcode: 2018Sci...361.1108C.
* Davidson, Eric (2009). "The contribution of manure and fertilizer nitrogen to atmospheric nitrous oxide since 1860". Nature Geoscience 2: 659–662. doi:10.1016/j.chemer.2016.04.002.
* DeConto, Robert M.; Pollard, David (2016). "Contribution of Antarctica to past and future sea-level rise". Nature 531 (7596): 591–597. doi:10.1038/nature17145. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 27029274. Bibcode: 2016Natur.531..591D.
* Dean, Joshua F.; Middelburg, Jack J.; Röckmann, Thomas; Aerts, Rien et al. (2018). "Methane Feedbacks to the Global Climate System in a Warmer World". Reviews of Geophysics 56 (1): 207–250. doi:10.1002/2017RG000559. ISSN 1944-9208. Bibcode: 2018RvGeo..56..207D.
* Deutsch, Curtis; Brix, Holger; Ito, Taka; Frenzel, Hartmut et al. (2011). "Climate-Forced Variability of Ocean Hypoxia". Science 333 (6040): 336–339. doi:10.1126/science.1202422. PMID 21659566. Bibcode: 2011Sci...333..336D. http://jetsam.ocean.washington.edu/~cdeutsch/papers/Deutsch_sci_11.pdf.
* Diffenbaugh, Noah S.; Burke, Marshall (2019). "Global warming has increased global economic inequality". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (20): 9808–9813. doi:10.1073/pnas.1816020116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 31010922. Bibcode: 2019PNAS..116.9808D.
* Doney, Scott C.; Fabry, Victoria J.; Feely, Richard A.; Kleypas, Joan A. (2009). "Ocean Acidification: The Other CO2 Problem". Annual Review of Marine Science 1 (1): 169–192. doi:10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163834. PMID 21141034. Bibcode: 2009ARMS....1..169D.
* Fahey, D. W.; Doherty, S. J.; Hibbard, K. A.; Romanou, A.; Taylor, P. C. (2017). "Chapter 2: Physical Drivers of Climate Change". In Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/downloads/CSSR_Ch2_Physical_Drivers.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Fahey&rft.aufirst=D.+W.&rft.au=Fahey, D.+W.&rft.au=Doherty, S.+J.&rft.au=Hibbard, K.+A.&rft.au=Romanou, A.&rft.au=Taylor, P.+C.&rft.date=2017&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Fischer, Tobias P.; Aiuppa, Alessandro (2020). "AGU Centennial Grand Challenge: Volcanoes and Deep Carbon Global CO2 Emissions From Subaerial Volcanism - Recent Progress and Future Challenges". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 21 (3): e08690. doi:10.1029/2019GC008690. ISSN 1525-2027. Bibcode: 2020GGG....2108690F.
* Friedlingstein, Pierre; Jones, Matthew W.; O'Sullivan, Michael; Andrew, Robbie M. et al. (2019). "Global Carbon Budget 2019". Earth System Science Data 11 (4): 1783–1838. doi:10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019. ISSN 1866-3508. Bibcode: 2019ESSD...11.1783F.
* Fyfe, John C.; Meehl, Gerald A.; England, Matthew H.; Mann, Michael E. et al. (2016). "Making sense of the early-2000s warming slowdown". Nature Climate Change 6 (3): 224–228. doi:10.1038/nclimate2938. Bibcode: 2016NatCC...6..224F. http://www.meteo.psu.edu/holocene/public_html/Mann/articles/articles/FyfeEtAlNatureClimate16.pdf.
* Goyal, Rishav; England, Matthew H; Sen Gupta, Alex; Jucker, Martin (2019). "Reduction in surface climate change achieved by the 1987 Montreal Protocol". Environmental Research Letters 14 (12): 124041. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab4874. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2019ERL....14l4041G.
* Grubb, M. (2003). "The Economics of the Kyoto Protocol". World Economics 4 (3): 144–145. http://ynccf.net/pdf/CDM/The_economic_of_Kyoto_protocol.pdf.
* Gunningham, Neil (2018). "Mobilising civil society: can the climate movement achieve transformational social change?". Interface: A Journal for and About Social Movements 10. http://www.interfacejournal.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Interface-10-1-2-Gunningham.pdf. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
* Hagmann, David; Ho, Emily H.; Loewenstein, George (2019). "Nudging out support for a carbon tax". Nature Climate Change 9 (6): 484–489. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0474-0. Bibcode: 2019NatCC...9..484H.
* Haines, A.; Ebi, K. (2019). "The Imperative for Climate Action to Protect Health". New England Journal of Medicine 380 (3): 263–273. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1807873. PMID 30650330.
* Hansen, James; Sato, Makiko; Hearty, Paul; Ruedy, Reto et al. (2016). "Ice melt, sea level rise and superstorms: evidence from paleoclimate data, climate modeling, and modern observations that 2 °C global warming could be dangerous". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 16 (6): 3761–3812. doi:10.5194/acp-16-3761-2016. ISSN 1680-7316. Bibcode: 2016ACP....16.3761H. https://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/16/3761/2016/acp-16-3761-2016.html.
* Harvey, Jeffrey A.; Van den Berg, Daphne; Ellers, Jacintha; Kampen, Remko et al. (2018). "Internet Blogs, Polar Bears, and Climate-Change Denial by Proxy". BioScience 68 (4): 281–287. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix133. ISSN 0006-3568. PMID 29662248.
* Hawkins, Ed; Ortega, Pablo; Suckling, Emma; Schurer, Andrew et al. (2017). "Estimating Changes in Global Temperature since the Preindustrial Period". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 98 (9): 1841–1856. doi:10.1175/bams-d-16-0007.1. ISSN 0003-0007. Bibcode: 2017BAMS...98.1841H.
* He, Yanyi; Wang, Kaicun; Zhou, Chunlüe; Wild, Martin (2018). "A Revisit of Global Dimming and Brightening Based on the Sunshine Duration". Geophysical Research Letters 45 (9): 4281–4289. doi:10.1029/2018GL077424. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2018GeoRL..45.4281H.
* Hilaire, Jérôme; Minx, Jan C.; Callaghan, Max W.; Edmonds, Jae; Luderer, Gunnar; Nemet, Gregory F.; Rogelj, Joeri; Zamora, Maria Mar (17 October 2019). "Negative emissions and international climate goals – learning from and about mitigation scenarios". Climatic Change 157 (2): 189–219. doi:10.1007/s10584-019-02516-4. Bibcode: 2019ClCh..157..189H.
* Hodder, Patrick; Martin, Brian (2009). "Climate Crisis? The Politics of Emergency Framing". Economic and Political Weekly 44 (36): 53–60. ISSN 0012-9976.
* Holding, S.; Allen, D. M.; Foster, S.; Hsieh, A. et al. (2016). "Groundwater vulnerability on small islands". Nature Climate Change 6 (12): 1100–1103. doi:10.1038/nclimate3128. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2016NatCC...6.1100H.
* Joo, Gea-Jae; Kim, Ji Yoon; Do, Yuno; Lineman, Maurice (2015). "Talking about Climate Change and Global Warming". PLOS ONE 10 (9): e0138996. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138996. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 26418127. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1038996L.
* Kabir, Russell; Khan, Hafiz T. A.; Ball, Emma; Caldwell, Khan (2016). "Climate Change Impact: The Experience of the Coastal Areas of Bangladesh Affected by Cyclones Sidr and Aila". Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2016: 9654753. doi:10.1155/2016/9654753. PMID 27867400.
* Kaczan, David J.; Orgill-Meyer, Jennifer (2020). "The impact of climate change on migration: a synthesis of recent empirical insights". Climatic Change 158 (3): 281–300. doi:10.1007/s10584-019-02560-0. Bibcode: 2020ClCh..158..281K. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-019-02560-0. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
* Kennedy, J. J.; Thorne, W. P.; Peterson, T. C.; Ruedy, R. A. et al. (2010). "How do we know the world has warmed?". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 91 (7): S26-S27. doi:10.1175/BAMS-91-7-StateoftheClimate.
* Kopp, R. E.; Hayhoe, K.; Easterling, D. R.; Hall, T. et al. (2017). "Chapter 15: Potential Surprises: Compound Extremes and Tipping Elements". In Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 1–470. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/15/.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Kopp&rft.aufirst=R.+E.&rft.au=Kopp, R.+E.&rft.au=Hayhoe, K.&rft.au=Easterling, D.+R.&rft.au=Hall, T.&rft.au=Horton, R.&rft.au=Kunkel, K.+E.&rft.au=LeGrande, A.+N.&rft.date=2017&rft.pages=pp. 1–470&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Kossin, J. P.; Hall, T.; Knutson, T.; Kunkel, K. E.; Trapp, R. J.; Waliser, D. E.; Wehner, M. F. (2017). "Chapter 9: Extreme Storms". In Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 1–470. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/9/.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Kossin&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft.au=Kossin, J.+P.&rft.au=Hall, T.&rft.au=Knutson, T.&rft.au=Kunkel, K.+E.&rft.au=Trapp, R.+J.&rft.au=Waliser, D.+E.&rft.au=Wehner, M.+F.&rft.date=2017&rft.pages=pp. 1–470&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Knutson, T. (2017). "Appendix C: Detection and attribution methodologies overview.". In Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. pp. 1–470. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/chapter/appendix-c/.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Knutson&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.au=Knutson, T.&rft.date=2017&rft.pages=pp. 1–470&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Kreidenweis, Ulrich; Humpenöder, Florian; Stevanović, Miodrag; Bodirsky, Benjamin Leon et al. (July 2016). "Afforestation to mitigate climate change: impacts on food prices under consideration of albedo effects". Environmental Research Letters 11 (8): 085001. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/11/8/085001. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2016ERL....11h5001K.
* Kvande, H. (2014). "The Aluminum Smelting Process". Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 56 (5 Suppl): S2–S4. doi:10.1097/JOM.0000000000000154. PMID 24806722.
* Lapenis, Andrei G. (1998). "Arrhenius and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change". Eos 79 (23): 271. doi:10.1029/98EO00206. Bibcode: 1998EOSTr..79..271L.
* Levermann, Anders; Clark, Peter U.; Marzeion, Ben; Milne, Glenn A. et al. (2013). "The multimillennial sea-level commitment of global warming". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (34): 13745–13750. doi:10.1073/pnas.1219414110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 23858443. Bibcode: 2013PNAS..11013745L.
* Lenoir, Jonathan; Bertrand, Romain; Comte, Lise; Bourgeaud, Luana et al. (2020). "Species better track climate warming in the oceans than on land". Nature Ecology & Evolution 4 (8): 1044–1059. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1198-2. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 32451428. Bibcode: 2020NatEE...4.1044L. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1198-2.
* Liepert, Beate G.; Previdi, Michael (2009). "Do Models and Observations Disagree on the Rainfall Response to Global Warming?". Journal of Climate 22 (11): 3156–3166. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2472.1. Bibcode: 2009JCli...22.3156L. https://zenodo.org/record/896855.
* Liverman, Diana M. (2009). "Conventions of climate change: constructions of danger and the dispossession of the atmosphere". Journal of Historical Geography 35 (2): 279–296. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2008.08.008.
* Loeb, Norman G.; Johnson, Gregory C.; Thorsen, Tyler J.; Lyman, John M.; Rose, Fred G.; Kato, Seiji (2021). "Satellite and Ocean Data Reveal Marked Increase in Earth's Heating Rate". Geophysical Research Letters (American Geophysical Union (AGU)) 48 (13): e2021GL093047. doi:10.1029/2021gl093047. ISSN 0094-8276. Bibcode: 2021GeoRL..4893047L.
* Mach, Katharine J.; Kraan, Caroline M.; Adger, W. Neil; Buhaug, Halvard et al. (2019). "Climate as a risk factor for armed conflict". Nature 571 (7764): 193–197. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1300-6. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31189956. Bibcode: 2019Natur.571..193M. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-019-1300-6.
* Matthews, H. Damon; Gillett, Nathan P.; Stott, Peter A.; Zickfeld, Kirsten (2009). "The proportionality of global warming to cumulative carbon emissions". Nature 459 (7248): 829–832. doi:10.1038/nature08047. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 19516338. Bibcode: 2009Natur.459..829M.
* Matthews, Tom (2018). "Humid heat and climate change". Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment 42 (3): 391–405. doi:10.1177/0309133318776490. Bibcode: 2018PrPG...42..391M. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0309133318776490.
* McNeill, V. Faye (2017). "Atmospheric Aerosols: Clouds, Chemistry, and Climate". Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering 8 (1): 427–444. doi:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-060816-101538. ISSN 1947-5438. PMID 28415861.
* Melillo, J. M.; Frey, S. D. (2017). "Long-term pattern and magnitude of soil carbon feedback to the climate system in a warming world". Science 358 (6359): 101–105. doi:10.1126/science.aan2874. PMID 28983050. Bibcode: 2017Sci...358..101M.
* Mercure, J.-F.; Pollitt, H.; Viñuales, J. E.; Edwards, N. R. et al. (2018). "Macroeconomic impact of stranded fossil fuel assets". Nature Climate Change 8 (7): 588–593. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0182-1. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2018NatCC...8..588M. http://oro.open.ac.uk/55387/1/mercure_StrandedAssets_v16_with_Methods.pdf.
* Mitchum, G. T.; Masters, D.; Hamlington, B. D.; Fasullo, J. T. et al. (2018). "Climate-change–driven accelerated sea-level rise detected in the altimeter era". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115 (9): 2022–2025. doi:10.1073/pnas.1717312115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 29440401. Bibcode: 2018PNAS..115.2022N.
* ((National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine)) (2019). ﻿Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda﻿ (Report). Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/25259. ISBN 978-0-309-48455-8. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/25259/negative-emissions-technologies-and-reliable-sequestration-a-research-agenda.
* National Research Council (2011). "Causes and Consequences of Climate Change". America's Climate Choices. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/12781. ISBN 978-0-309-14585-5. https://www.nap.edu/read/12781/chapter/4. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
* Neukom, Raphael; Steiger, Nathan; Gómez-Navarro, Juan José; Wang, Jianghao et al. (2019a). "No evidence for globally coherent warm and cold periods over the preindustrial Common Era". Nature 571 (7766): 550–554. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1401-2. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31341300. Bibcode: 2019Natur.571..550N. https://boris.unibe.ch/132301/7/333323_4_merged_1557735881.pdf.
* Neukom, Raphael; Barboza, Luis A.; Erb, Michael P.; Shi, Feng et al. (2019b). "Consistent multidecadal variability in global temperature reconstructions and simulations over the Common Era". Nature Geoscience 12 (8): 643–649. doi:10.1038/s41561-019-0400-0. ISSN 1752-0908. PMID 31372180. Bibcode: 2019NatGe..12..643P.
* O'Neill, Saffron J.; Boykoff, Max (2010). "Climate denier, skeptic, or contrarian?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (39): E151. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010507107. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 20807754. Bibcode: 2010PNAS..107E.151O.
* Poloczanska, Elvira S.; Brown, Christopher J.; Sydeman, William J.; Kiessling, Wolfgang et al. (2013). "Global imprint of climate change on marine life". Nature Climate Change 3 (10): 919–925. doi:10.1038/nclimate1958. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2013NatCC...3..919P. https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:318633/UQ318633_peer_review.pdf.
* Rahmstorf, Stefan; Cazenave, Anny; Church, John A.; Hansen, James E. et al. (2007). "Recent Climate Observations Compared to Projections". Science 316 (5825): 709. doi:10.1126/science.1136843. PMID 17272686. Bibcode: 2007Sci...316..709R. http://www.pik-potsdam.de/~stefan/Publications/Nature/rahmstorf_etal_science_2007.pdf.
* Ramanathan, V.; Carmichael, G. (2008). "Global and Regional Climate Changes due to Black Carbon". Nature Geoscience 1 (4): 221–227. doi:10.1038/ngeo156. Bibcode: 2008NatGe...1..221R. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/32034622.
* Randel, William J.; Shine, Keith P.; Austin, John; Barnett, John et al. (2009). "An update of observed stratospheric temperature trends". Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (D2): D02107. doi:10.1029/2008JD010421. Bibcode: 2009JGRD..114.2107R.
* Rauner, Sebastian; Bauer, Nico; Dirnaichner, Alois; Van Dingenen, Rita; Mutel, Chris; Luderer, Gunnar (2020). "Coal-exit health and environmental damage reductions outweigh economic impacts". Nature Climate Change 10 (4): 308–312. doi:10.1038/s41558-020-0728-x. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2020NatCC..10..308R. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-0728-x.
* Rogelj, Joeri; Forster, Piers M.; Kriegler, Elmar; Smith, Christopher J. et al. (2019). "Estimating and tracking the remaining carbon budget for stringent climate targets". Nature 571 (7765): 335–342. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1368-z. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31316194. Bibcode: 2019Natur.571..335R.
* Rogelj, Joeri; Meinshausen, Malte; Schaeffer, Michiel; Knutti, Reto; Riahi, Keywan (2015). "Impact of short-lived non-CO2 mitigation on carbon budgets for stabilizing global warming". Environmental Research Letters 10 (7): 1–10. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/10/7/075001. Bibcode: 2015ERL....10g5001R.
* Ruseva, Tatyana; Hedrick, Jamie; Marland, Gregg; Tovar, Henning et al. (2020). "Rethinking standards of permanence for terrestrial and coastal carbon: implications for governance and sustainability". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 45: 69–77. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2020.09.009. ISSN 1877-3435. Bibcode: 2020COES...45...69R. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S187734352030083X.
* Samset, B. H.; Sand, M.; Smith, C. J.; Bauer, S. E. et al. (2018). "Climate Impacts From a Removal of Anthropogenic Aerosol Emissions". Geophysical Research Letters 45 (2): 1020–1029. doi:10.1002/2017GL076079. ISSN 1944-8007. PMID 32801404. PMC 7427631. Bibcode: 2018GeoRL..45.1020S. http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/126653/7/Samset_et_al-2018-Geophysical_Research_Letters.pdf.
* Sand, M.; Berntsen, T. K.; von Salzen, K.; Flanner, M. G. et al. (2015). "Response of Arctic temperature to changes in emissions of short-lived climate forcers". Nature 6 (3): 286–289. doi:10.1038/nclimate2880.
* Schmidt, Gavin A.; Ruedy, Reto A.; Miller, Ron L.; Lacis, Andy A. (2010). "Attribution of the present-day total greenhouse effect". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 115 (D20): D20106. doi:10.1029/2010JD014287. ISSN 2156-2202. Bibcode: 2010JGRD..11520106S.
* Schmidt, Gavin A.; Shindell, Drew T.; Tsigaridis, Kostas (2014). "Reconciling warming trends". Nature Geoscience 7 (3): 158–160. doi:10.1038/ngeo2105. Bibcode: 2014NatGe...7..158S. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263025265.
* Serdeczny, Olivia; Adams, Sophie; Baarsch, Florent; Coumou, Dim et al. (2016). "Climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa: from physical changes to their social repercussions". Regional Environmental Change 17 (6): 1585–1600. doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0910-2. ISSN 1436-378X. https://climateanalytics.org/media/ssa_final_published.pdf.
* Sutton, Rowan T.; Dong, Buwen; Gregory, Jonathan M. (2007). "Land/sea warming ratio in response to climate change: IPCC AR4 model results and comparison with observations". Geophysical Research Letters 34 (2): L02701. doi:10.1029/2006GL028164. Bibcode: 2007GeoRL..34.2701S.
* Smale, Dan A.; Wernberg, Thomas; Oliver, Eric C. J.; Thomsen, Mads; Harvey, Ben P. (2019). "Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services". Nature Climate Change 9 (4): 306–312. doi:10.1038/s41558-019-0412-1. ISSN 1758-6798. Bibcode: 2019NatCC...9..306S. http://pure.aber.ac.uk/ws/files/29181264/Smale_et_al_2019_NCC_pre_print.pdf.
* Smith, Joel B.; Schneider, Stephen H.; Oppenheimer, Michael; Yohe, Gary W. et al. (2009). "Assessing dangerous climate change through an update of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 'reasons for concern'". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (11): 4133–4137. doi:10.1073/pnas.0812355106. PMID 19251662. Bibcode: 2009PNAS..106.4133S.
* Smith, N.; Leiserowitz, A. (2013). "The role of emotion in global warming policy support and opposition.". Risk Analysis 34 (5): 937–948. doi:10.1111/risa.12140. PMID 24219420. PMC 4298023. https://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC4298023&blobtype=pdf.
* Springmann, M.; Mason-D'Croz, D.; Robinson, S.; Garnett, T. et al. (2016). "Global and regional health effects of future food production under climate change: a modelling study". Lancet 387 (10031): 1937–1946. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01156-3. PMID 26947322. https://www.thelancet.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0140-6736(15)01156-3.
* Stroeve, J.; Holland, Marika M.; Meier, Walt; Scambos, Ted et al. (2007). "Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast". Geophysical Research Letters 34 (9): L09501. doi:10.1029/2007GL029703. Bibcode: 2007GeoRL..34.9501S.
* Storelvmo, T.; Phillips, P. C. B.; Lohmann, U.; Leirvik, T.; Wild, M. (2016). "Disentangling greenhouse warming and aerosol cooling to reveal Earth's climate sensitivity". Nature Geoscience 9 (4): 286–289. doi:10.1038/ngeo2670. ISSN 1752-0908. Bibcode: 2016NatGe...9..286S. https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/410581/1/ClimSens_012116_nofigs2.pdf.
* Turetsky, Merritt R.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Jones, Miriam C.; Anthony, Katey Walter et al. (2019). "Permafrost collapse is accelerating carbon release". Nature 569 (7754): 32–34. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-01313-4. PMID 31040419. Bibcode: 2019Natur.569...32T.
* Turner, Monica G.; Calder, W. John; Cumming, Graeme S.; Hughes, Terry P. et al. (2020). "Climate change, ecosystems and abrupt change: science priorities". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 375 (1794). doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0105. PMID 31983326.
* Twomey, S. (1977). "The Influence of Pollution on the Shortwave Albedo of Clouds". J. Atmos. Sci. 34 (7): 1149–1152. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0469. Bibcode: 1977JAtS...34.1149T.
* Tyndall, John (1861). "On the Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gases and Vapours, and on the Physical Connection of Radiation, Absorption, and Conduction". Philosophical Magazine. 4 22: 169–194, 273–285. http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/151/1.full.pdf+html.
* Urban, Mark C. (2015). "Accelerating extinction risk from climate change". Science 348 (6234): 571–573. doi:10.1126/science.aaa4984. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25931559. Bibcode: 2015Sci...348..571U.
* USGCRP (2009). Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14407-0. https://www.globalchange.gov/reports/global-climate-change-impacts-united-states. Retrieved 19 January 2024.
* USGCRP (2017). Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program. doi:10.7930/J0J964J6. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/.
* Vandyck, T.; Keramidas, K.; Kitous, A.; Spadaro, J. et al. (2018). "Air quality co-benefits for human health and agriculture counterbalance costs to meet Paris Agreement pledges". Nature Communications 9 (4939): 4939. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06885-9. PMID 30467311. Bibcode: 2018NatCo...9.4939V.
* Wuebbles, D. J.; Easterling, D. R.; Hayhoe, K.; Knutson, T. et al. (2017). "Chapter 1: Our Globally Changing Climate". In Lua error: Internal error: The interpreter has terminated with signal "24".. https://science2017.globalchange.gov/downloads/CSSR_Ch1_Our_Globally_Changing_Climate.pdf.Lua+error:+Internal+error:+The+interpreter+has+terminated+with+signal+"24".&rft.aulast=Wuebbles&rft.aufirst=D.+J.&rft.au=Wuebbles, D.+J.&rft.au=Easterling, D.+R.&rft.au=Hayhoe, K.&rft.au=Knutson, T.&rft.au=Kopp, R.+E.&rft.au=Kossin, J.+P.&rft.au=Kunkel, K.+E.&rft.au=LeGran-de&rft.au=A.+N.&rft.date=2017&rft_id=&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Earth:Climate_change">
* Walsh, John; Wuebbles, Donald; Hayhoe, Katherine; Kossin, Kossin et al. (2014). "Appendix 3: Climate Science Supplement". Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment. US National Climate Assessment. http://s3.amazonaws.com/nca2014/low/NCA3_Full_Report_Appendix_3_Climate_Science_Supplement_LowRes.pdf?download=1.
* Wang, Bin; Shugart, Herman H.; Lerdau, Manuel T. (2017). "Sensitivity of global greenhouse gas budgets to tropospheric ozone pollution mediated by the biosphere". Environmental Research Letters 12 (8): 084001. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa7885. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2017ERL....12h4001W.
* Watts, Nick; Adger, W Neil; Agnolucci, Paolo; Blackstock, Jason et al. (2015). "Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health". The Lancet 386 (10006): 1861–1914. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6. PMID 26111439. http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)60854-6/fulltext.
* Watts, Nick; Amann, Markus; Arnell, Nigel; Ayeb-Karlsson, Sonja et al. (2019). "The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate". The Lancet 394 (10211): 1836–1878. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32596-6. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 31733928. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(19)32596-6/abstract.
* Weart, Spencer (2013). "Rise of interdisciplinary research on climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110 (Supplement 1): 3657–3664. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107482109. PMID 22778431.
* Wild, M.; Gilgen, Hans; Roesch, Andreas; Ohmura, Atsumu et al. (2005). "From Dimming to Brightening: Decadal Changes in Solar Radiation at Earth's Surface". Science 308 (5723): 847–850. doi:10.1126/science.1103215. PMID 15879214. Bibcode: 2005Sci...308..847W.
* Williams, Richard G; Ceppi, Paulo; Katavouta, Anna (2020). "Controls of the transient climate response to emissions by physical feedbacks, heat uptake and carbon cycling". Environmental Research Letters 15 (9): 0940c1. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab97c9. Bibcode: 2020ERL....15i40c1W.
* Wolff, Eric W.; Shepherd, John G.; Shuckburgh, Emily; Watson, Andrew J. (2015). "Feedbacks on climate in the Earth system: introduction". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 373 (2054): 20140428. doi:10.1098/rsta.2014.0428. PMID 26438277. Bibcode: 2015RSPTA.37340428W.
* Zeng, Ning; Yoon, Jinho (2009). "Expansion of the world's deserts due to vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming". Geophysical Research Letters 36 (17): L17401. doi:10.1029/2009GL039699. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2009GeoRL..3617401Z.
* Zhang, Jinlun; Lindsay, Ron; Steele, Mike; Schweiger, Axel (2008). "What drove the dramatic arctic sea ice retreat during summer 2007?". Geophysical Research Letters 35 (11): 1–5. doi:10.1029/2008gl034005. Bibcode: 2008GeoRL..3511505Z.
* Zhao, C.; Liu, B. et al. (2017). "Temperature increase reduces global yields of major crops in four independent estimates". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114 (35): 9326–9331. doi:10.1073/pnas.1701762114. PMID 28811375. Bibcode: 2017PNAS..114.9326Z.

#### Books, reports and legal documents

* "G8+5 Academies' joint statement: Climate change and the transformation of energy technologies for a low carbon future". The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. May 2009. http://www.nationalacademies.org/includes/G8+5energy-climate09.pdf.
* Archer, David; Pierrehumbert, Raymond (2013). The Warming Papers: The Scientific Foundation for the Climate Change Forecast. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-68733-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=sPY9HOfnuS0C&pg=PT10.
* Bridle, Richard; Sharma, Shruti; Mostafa, Mostafa; Geddes, Anna (June 2019). ﻿Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy Subsidy Swaps﻿ (Report). https://www.iisd.org/sites/default/files/publications/fossil-fuel-clean-energy-subsidy-swap.pdf.
* Climate Focus (December 2015). "The Paris Agreement: Summary. Climate Focus Client Brief on the Paris Agreement III". https://climatefocus.com/sites/default/files/20151228 COP 21 briefing FIN.pdf.
* Clark, P. U.; Weaver, A. J.; Brook, E.; Cook, E. R. et al. (December 2008). "Executive Summary". In: Abrupt Climate Change. A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. http://www.climatescience.gov/Library/sap/sap3-4/final-report/default.htm.
* Conceição (2020). ﻿Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene﻿ (Report). United Nations Development Programme. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
* DeFries, Ruth et al. (September 2019). ﻿The missing economic risks in assessments of climate change impacts﻿ (Report). Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment, London School of Economics and Political Science. https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/The-missing-economic-risks-in-assessments-of-climate-change-impacts-2.pdf.
* Dessler, Andrew E. and Edward A. Parson, eds. The science and politics of global climate change: A guide to the debate (Cambridge University Press, 2019).
* Dessai, Suraje (2001). "The climate regime from The Hague to Marrakech: Saving or sinking the Kyoto Protocol?". Tyndall Centre Working Paper 12. Tyndall Centre. http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/sites/default/files/wp12.pdf.
* Dunlap, Riley E.; McCright, Aaron M. (2011). "Chapter 10: Organized climate change denial". The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society. Oxford University Press. pp. 144–160. ISBN 978-0-19-956660-0.
* Dunlap, Riley E.; McCright, Aaron M. (2015). "Chapter 10: Challenging Climate Change: The Denial Countermovement". Climate Change and Society: Sociological Perspectives. Oxford University Press. pp. 300–332. ISBN 978-0199356119.
* European Commission (28 November 2018). ﻿In-depth analysis accompanying the Commission Communication COM(2018) 773: A Clean Planet for all – A European strategic long-term vision for a prosperous, modern, competitive and climate neutral economy﻿ (Report). Brussels. p. 188. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/docs/pages/com_2018_733_analysis_in_support_en_0.pdf.
* Flavell, Alex (2014). ﻿IOM outlook on migration, environment and climate change﻿ (Report). Geneva, Switzerland: International Organization for Migration (IOM). ISBN 978-92-9068-703-0. OCLC 913058074. https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mecc_outlook.pdf.
* Fleming, James Rodger (2007). The Callendar Effect: the life and work of Guy Stewart Callendar (1898–1964). Boston: American Meteorological Society. ISBN 978-1-878220-76-9.
* Flynn, C.; Yamasumi, E.; Fisher, S.; Snow, D. et al. (January 2021). ﻿Peoples' Climate Vote﻿ (Report). UNDP and University of Oxford. https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/publications/UNDP-Oxford-Peoples-Climate-Vote-Results.pdf. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
* Forster, P. M.; Smith, C. J.; Walsh, T.; Lamb, W.F. et al. (June 2023). "Indicators of Global Climate Change 2022: annual update of large-scale indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence". Earth System Science Data 15 (6): 2295–2327. doi:10.5194/essd-15-2295-2023. Bibcode: 2023ESSD...15.2295F. https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/15/2295/2023/essd-15-2295-2023.pdf. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
* Global Methane Initiative (2020). ﻿Global Methane Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities﻿ (Report). Global Methane Initiative. https://www.globalmethane.org/documents/gmi-mitigation-factsheet.pdf.
* Hallegatte, Stephane; Bangalore, Mook; Bonzanigo, Laura; Fay, Marianne et al. (2016). Shock Waves : Managing the Impacts of Climate Change on Poverty. Climate Change and Development. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0673-5. ISBN 978-1-4648-0674-2. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/22787/9781464806735.pdf?sequence=13&isAllowed=y.
* Haywood, Jim (2016). "Chapter 27 – Atmospheric Aerosols and Their Role in Climate Change". in Letcher, Trevor M.. Climate Change: Observed Impacts on Planet Earth. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-63524-2.
* IEA (December 2020). ﻿Energy Efficiency 2020﻿ (Report). Paris, France.
* IEA (October 2021). ﻿Net Zero By 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector﻿ (Report). Paris, France. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/deebef5d-0c34-4539-9d0c-10b13d840027/NetZeroby2050-ARoadmapfortheGlobalEnergySector_CORR.pdf. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
* IEA (October 2023). ﻿World Energy Outlook 2023﻿ (Report). Paris, France. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/26ca51d0-4a42-4649-a7c0-552d75ddf9b2/WorldEnergyOutlook2023.pdf. Retrieved 25 October 2021.
* Krogstrup, Signe; Oman, William (4 September 2019). Macroeconomic and Financial Policies for Climate Change Mitigation: A Review of the Literature. IMF working papers. 19. doi:10.5089/9781513511955.001. ISBN 978-1-5135-1195-5. https://www.elibrary.imf.org/doc/IMF001/28337-9781513511955/28337-9781513511955/Other_formats/Source_PDF/28337-9781513512938.pdf.
* Leiserowitz, A.; Carman, J.; Buttermore, N.; Wang, X. et al. (2021). ﻿International Public Opinion on Climate Change﻿ (Report). New Haven, CT: Yale Program on Climate Change Communication and Facebook Data for Good. https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/international-climate-opinion-february-2021d.pdf. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
* Letcher, Trevor M., ed (2020). Future Energy: Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet (Third ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-102886-5.
* Meinshausen, Malte (2019). "Implications of the Developed Scenarios for Climate Change". in Teske, Sven. Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C. Springer International Publishing. pp. 459–469. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2_12. ISBN 978-3-030-05843-2. https://apo.org.au/node/235336.
* Miller, J.; Du, L.; Kodjak, D. (2017). ﻿Impacts of World-Class Vehicle Efficiency and Emissions Regulations in Select G20 Countries﻿ (Report). Washington, D.C.: The International Council on Clean Transportation. https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_G20-briefing-paper_Jan2017_vF.pdf.
* Müller, Benito (February 2010). Copenhagen 2009: Failure or final wake-up call for our leaders? EV 49. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. p. i. ISBN 978-1-907555-04-6. https://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/EV49-Copenhagen2009Failureorfinalwake-upcallforourleaders-BenitoMuller-2010.pdf. Retrieved 18 May 2010.
* National Academies (2008). ﻿Understanding and responding to climate change: Highlights of National Academies Reports, 2008 edition﻿ (Report). National Academy of Sciences. http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/booklets/climate_change_2008_final.pdf. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
* National Research Council (2012). ﻿Climate Change: Evidence, Impacts, and Choices﻿ (Report). Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/download/14673. Retrieved 21 November 2023.
* Newell, Peter (14 December 2006). Climate for Change: Non-State Actors and the Global Politics of the Greenhouse. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02123-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=ing21MGmh5UC. Retrieved 30 July 2018.
* NOAA. "January 2017 analysis from NOAA: Global and Regional Sea Level Rise Scenarios for the United States". https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/publications/techrpt83_Global_and_Regional_SLR_Scenarios_for_the_US_final.pdf.
* Olivier, J. G. J.; Peters, J. A. H. W. (2019). Trends in global CO2 and total greenhouse gas emissions. The Hague: PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. https://www.pbl.nl/sites/default/files/downloads/pbl-2020-trends-in-global-co2-and-total-greenhouse-gas-emissions-2019-report_4068.pdf.
* Oreskes, Naomi (2007). "The scientific consensus on climate change: How do we know we're not wrong?". Climate Change: What It Means for Us, Our Children, and Our Grandchildren. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54193-0.
* Oreskes, Naomi; Conway, Erik (2010). Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (first ed.). Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-1-59691-610-4.
* Pew Research Center (November 2015). ﻿Global Concern about Climate Change, Broad Support for Limiting Emissions﻿ (Report). https://www.pewresearch.org/global/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2015/11/Pew-Research-Center-Climate-Change-Report-FINAL-November-5-2015.pdf. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
* REN21 (2020). Renewables 2020 Global Status Report. Paris: REN21 Secretariat. ISBN 978-3-948393-00-7. https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/gsr_2020_full_report_en.pdf.
* Royal Society (13 April 2005). Economic Affairs – Written Evidence. The Economics of Climate Change, the Second Report of the 2005–2006 session, produced by the UK Parliament House of Lords Economics Affairs Select Committee. UK Parliament. https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldeconaf/12/12we24.htm. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
* Setzer, Joana; Byrnes, Rebecca (July 2019). Global trends in climate change litigation: 2019 snapshot. London: the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment and the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy. http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/GRI_Global-trends-in-climate-change-litigation-2019-snapshot.pdf.
* Steinberg, D.; Bielen, D. et al. (July 2017). ﻿Electrification & Decarbonization: Exploring U.S. Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Scenarios with Widespread Electrification and Power Sector Decarbonization﻿ (Report). Golden, Colorado: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/68214.pdf.
* Teske, Sven, ed (2019). "Executive Summary". Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C. Springer International Publishing. pp. xiii–xxxv. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2. ISBN 978-3-030-05843-2. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/bfm:978-3-030-05843-2/1.pdf.
* Teske, Sven; Pregger, Thomas; Naegler, Tobias; Simon, Sonja et al. (2019). "Energy Scenario Results". in Teske, Sven. Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C. Springer International Publishing. pp. 175–402. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2_8. ISBN 978-3-030-05843-2. https://apo.org.au/node/235336.
* Teske, Sven (2019). "Trajectories for a Just Transition of the Fossil Fuel Industry". in Teske, Sven. Achieving the Paris Climate Agreement Goals: Global and Regional 100% Renewable Energy Scenarios with Non-energy GHG Pathways for +1.5 °C and +2 °C. Springer International Publishing. pp. 403–411. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05843-2_9. ISBN 978-3-030-05843-2. https://apo.org.au/node/235336.
* UN FAO (2016). ﻿Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world's forests changing?﻿ (Report). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978-92-5-109283-5. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4793e.pdf#page=11. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
* Emissions Gap Report 2019. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. 2019. ISBN 978-92-807-3766-0. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30797/EGR2019.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
* Emissions Gap Report 2021. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme. 2021. ISBN 978-92-807-3890-2. https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/36991/EGR21_ESEN.pdf.
* UNEP (2018). The Adaptation Gap Report 2018. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). ISBN 978-92-807-3728-8. https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/adaptation-gap-report.
* "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change". 1992. https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conveng.pdf.
* UNFCCC (1997). "Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change". United Nations. https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.html.
* UNFCCC (30 March 2010). "Report of the Conference of the Parties on its fifteenth session, held in Copenhagen from 7 to 19 December 2009". United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. FCCC/CP/2009/11/Add.1.
* UNFCCC (2015). "Paris Agreement". United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_agreement.pdf.
* UNFCCC (26 February 2021). ﻿Nationally determined contributions under the Paris Agreement Synthesis report by the secretariat﻿ (Report). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2021_02E.pdf.
* Template:Citation/core
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite journal
* Template:Cite book
* {{cite book

|ref=none
|last=Weart
|first=Spencer
|date=February 2019
|title=The Discovery of Global Warming
|edition=online
|url=http://history.aip.org/climate/index.htm
|access-date=19 June 2020

|url-status=live

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618075616/http://history.aip.org/climate/index.htm
|archive-date=18 June 2020

*     * Template:Citation
* Template:Citation
* Template:Citation
* Template:Citation
* Template:Citation
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite report
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite book
* Template:Cite book

Template:Refend

#### Non-technical sources

Template:Refbegin

* Associated Press
* Template:Cite web
* BBC
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite web
* Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
* Template:Cite news
* Carbon Brief
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Climate.gov
* Template:Cite web
* Deutsche Welle
* Template:Cite news
* EPA
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* EUobserver
* Template:Cite web
* European Parliament
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Wipe
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web

* International Energy Agency
* Template:Cite web

* NASA
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite news
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* National Conference of State Legislators
* Template:Cite web
* National Geographic
* Template:Cite web
* National Science Digital Library
* Template:Cite web
* Natural Resources Defense Council
* Template:Cite web
* Nature
* Template:Cite journal
* Template:Wipe
* Template:Cite news
* NOAA
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Our World in Data
* Template:Cite journal
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Pew Research Center
* Template:Cite web
* Politico
* Template:Cite web

* RIVM
* Template:Cite AV media
* Salon
* Template:Cite news
* ScienceBlogs
* Template:Cite news
* Scientific American
* Template:Cite magazine
* Smithsonian
* Template:Cite web

* The Sustainability Consortium
* Template:Cite web
* UNFCCC
* Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite web
* Union of Concerned Scientists
* Template:Cite web
* Vice
* Template:Cite news
* The Verge
* Template:Cite web
* Vox
* Template:Cite web
* World Health Organization
* Template:Cite web
* World Resources Institute
* Template:Cite news ● Mongabay graphing WRI data from Template:Cite web
* Template:Cite journal
* Template:Cite journal
* Yale Climate Connections
* Template:Cite web

Template:Refend

## External links

Template:Library resources box

* Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
* UK Met Office: Climate Guide
* NOAA Climate website – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the United States

Template:Subject bar Template:Earth

Template:Sourceattribution

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Climate_change&oldid=475895"