Eastern Europe

Short description: Subregion of the European continent

Digital rendering of Europe focused over the continent's eastern portion

Eastern Europe is a subregion of the European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural and socio-economic connotations. Its eastern boundary is marked by the Ural Mountains, and its western boundary is defined in various ways.[1] Narrow definitions, in which Central and Southeast Europe are counted as separate regions, include Belarus, Russia and Ukraine.[2] In contrast, broader definitions include Moldova and Romania, but also some or all of the Balkans, except East Thrace and Greece, generally speaking[3][4], the Baltic states, the Caucasus, and the Visegrád group.[5][6] In Eastern Europe, Russia is the largest and most populous country.[7]

The region represents a significant part of European culture; the main socio-cultural characteristics of Eastern Europe have historically largely been defined by the traditions of the Slavs, as well as by the influence of Eastern Christianity as it developed through the Eastern Roman Empire and the Ottoman Empire.[8][9] Another definition was created by the Cold War, as Europe was ideologically divided by the Iron Curtain, with "Eastern Europe" being synonymous with communist states constituting the Eastern Bloc under the influence of the Soviet Union.[9][10][11][12][13][8][14][15][excessive citations]

The term is sometimes considered to be pejorative, through stereotypes about Eastern Europe being inferior (poorer, less developed) to Western Europe; the term Central and Eastern Europe is sometimes used for a more neutral grouping.[16][17][18][19][20][excessive citations]

## Contents

* 1 Definitions
* 1.1 Geographical
* 1.2 Religious and cultural influence
* 1.3 Cold War (1947–1991)
* 1.4 EuroVoc
* 1.5 Contemporary developments
* 1.5.1 Baltic states
* 1.5.2 Caucasus states
* 1.5.3 Post-Soviet states
* 1.5.4 Central Europe
* 1.5.5 Southeastern Europe / Balkan states
* 1.5.6 Kazakhstan
* 2 History
* 2.1 Classical antiquity and medieval origins
* 2.2 1453 to 1918
* 2.3 Serfdom
* 2.4 Lack of industrialization during the long nineteenth century
* 2.5 Interwar period (1919–1939)
* 2.6 World War II and onset of the Cold War
* 2.6.1 Eastern Bloc
* 2.7 Since 1989
* 3 Demographics
* 4 See also
* 5 References
* 6 Further reading
* 7 External links

## Definitions

Traditional cultural borders of Europe: usage recommendation by the Standing Committee on Geographical Names, Germany.[2]

Several definitions of Eastern Europe exist in the early 21st century, but they often lack precision and may be anachronistic. These definitions are debated across cultures and among experts, even political scientists,[21] as the term has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, cultural, and socioeconomic connotations. It has also been described as a "fuzzy" term, as the idea itself of Eastern Europe is in constant redefinition.[22] The solidification of the idea of an "Eastern Europe" dates back chiefly to the (French) Enlightenment.[22]

There are "almost as many definitions of Eastern Europe as there are scholars of the region".[10] A related United Nations paper adds that "every assessment of spatial identities is essentially a social and cultural construct".[23]

### Geographical

European regional grouping according to CIA World Factbook:

Eastern Europe here is mainly equivalent to the European part of the former Soviet Union.

Northern Europe

Western Europe

Central Europe

Southwest Europe

Southern Europe

Southeast Europe

While the eastern geographical boundaries of Europe are well defined, the boundary between Eastern and Western Europe is not geographical but historical, religious and cultural, and is harder to designate.

The Ural Mountains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains are the geographical land border of the eastern edge of Europe. E.g. Kazakhstan, which is mainly located in Central Asia with the most western parts of it located west of the Ural River, also shares a part of Eastern Europe.[24]

In the west, however, the historical and cultural boundaries of "Eastern Europe" are subject to some overlap and, most importantly, have undergone historical fluctuations, which makes a precise definition of the western geographic boundaries of Eastern Europe and the geographical midpoint of Europe somewhat difficult.

### Religious and cultural influence

Map of Eastern Orthodoxy, the borderline of which is one cultural boundary in Europe Expansion of Christianity[25][26]

After the East–West Schism of 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic Western and Central Europe within the framework of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet.[27][28][29][30][excessive citations]

The earliest concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by Alcuin of York during the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century, limited to the territories that practised Western Christianity at the time. "European" as a cultural term did not include many of the territories under the influence of Eastern Christianity until the early nineteenth century.[31]

A large section of Eastern Europe is formed by countries with dominant Orthodox churches, like Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Russia, Serbia, and Ukraine, for instance, as well as Armenia, which is predominantly Armenian Apostolic.[32][33] Moreover, followers of Eastern Orthodoxy form considerable portions of the populations of predominantly Muslim Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kazakhstan, and Kosovo, both historically and presently. The Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe.[34] To a lesser degree, forms of Eastern Protestantism and Eastern Catholicism have also been influential in Eastern Europe. Countries where Eastern Protestantism or Eastern Catholicism hold historical significance include Belarus, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine.[35][36][37]

The schism refers to the historical break of communion and theology between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches. Later developments meant that the divide was no longer solely between Catholic and Orthodox churches. From the 16th century, both Western and Eastern forms of Protestantism began to emerge in Europe.[38][39] Additionally, Eastern Catholic Churches began to spread in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries, following the establishment of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in 1596.[39][40][41][35][excessive citations] However, the concept of Eastern Catholicism itself predates this.[35]

Since the Great Schism of 1054, Europe has been divided between Catholic (and later additionally Protestant) churches in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Christian (often incorrectly labelled "Greek Orthodox") churches in the east. The religious cleavage causes Eastern Orthodox countries to be often associated with Eastern Europe. A cleavage of this sort is, however, often problematic; for example, Greece is overwhelmingly Orthodox but is very rarely included in "Eastern Europe" for a variety of reasons, the most prominent being that Greece's history, for the most part, was more influenced by Mediterranean cultures and dynamics.[4]

### Cold War (1947–1991)

Main articles: Organization:Warsaw Pact and Eastern Bloc

Regions used for statistical processing purposes by the United Nations Statistics Division:

Eastern Europe[8][15]

Northern Europe

Southern Europe

Western Europe

File:Time zones of the Greater Europe.svgEurope divided by time zones

The fall of the Iron Curtain brought the end of the Cold War east–west division in Europe,[42] but this geopolitical concept is sometimes still used for quick reference by the media.[43] Another definition was used during the 40 years of Cold War between 1947 and 1989, and was more or less synonymous with the terms Eastern Bloc and Warsaw Pact. A similar definition names the formerly communist European states outside the Soviet Union as Eastern Europe.[9]

Historians and social scientists generally view such definitions as outdated or relegated.[11][10][12][13][14][8][15][excessive citations]

### EuroVoc

European sub-regions according to EuroVoc:

Central and Eastern Europe

Western Europe

Southern Europe

Northern Europe

EuroVoc, a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, classifies Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia, plus the candidate countries Albania, North Macedonia and Serbia as Central and Eastern European.[44]

### Contemporary developments

In broadest definition, the countries are Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Georgia, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine and, in rare cases, Greece[45][46][4], which is more commonly classified differently[3], albeit less commonly placed in Eastern Europe, all of which can be classified into any of the 6 categories below.

#### Baltic states

Main article: Place:Baltic states

UNESCO,[47] EuroVoc, National Geographic Society, Committee for International Cooperation in National Research in Demography, and the STW Thesaurus for Economics place the Baltic states in Northern Europe, whereas the CIA World Factbook places the region in Eastern Europe with a strong assimilation to Northern Europe. Lithuania may alternatively be included in definitions of Central Europe because of its historical ties to Poland and the Catholic Church.[48][49] Occasionally, Estonia and Latvia are also included. However, these countries are members of the Nordic-Baltic Eight regional cooperation forum whereas Central European countries formed their own alliance called the Visegrád Group.[50] The Northern Future Forum, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Nordic Battlegroup, the Nordic-Baltic Eight and the New Hanseatic League are other examples of Northern European cooperation that includes the three countries collectively referred to as the Baltic states.

* Estonia
* Latvia
* Lithuania

#### Caucasus states

Main article: Earth:Caucasus

The South Caucasus nations of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia[51] are included in definitions or histories of Eastern Europe. They are located in the transition zone of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. They participate in the European Union's Eastern Partnership program, the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, and are members of the Council of Europe, which specifies that all three have political and cultural connections to Europe. In January 2002, the European Parliament noted that Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia may enter the EU in the future.[52][53] Georgia and Armenia are seeking EU membership, with Georgia also seeking NATO membership alongside.

* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Georgia

There are two de facto republics with limited recognition in the South Caucasus region that exist under the presence of Russian military. Both states participate in the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations:

* Abkhazia
* South Ossetia

Former republics with limited recognition:

* Chechen Republic of Ichkeria (1991–2000) – existed in former Soviet territory until it was driven into exile during the Second Chechen War
* Republic of Artsakh (1991–2023) – breakaway state from Azerbaijan that ceased to exist by 1 January 2024[54]

#### Post-Soviet states

Some European republics of the former Soviet Union are considered a part of Eastern Europe:

* Belarus
* Moldova (sometimes considered a part of the Balkans or Southeast Europe)[55]
* Russia
* Ukraine

Unrecognized states:

* Transnistria

#### Central Europe

Main article: Place:Central Europe

The term "Central Europe" is often used by historians to designate states formerly belonging to the Holy Roman Empire, the Habsburg Empire, and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

In some media, "Central Europe" can thus partially overlap with "Eastern Europe" of the Cold War Era. The following countries are labelled Central European by some commentators, though others still consider them to be Eastern European.[56][57][58]

* Czech Republic
* Croatia (can variously be included in Southeastern[59] or Central Europe)[60]
* Hungary (most often placed in Central Europe but sometimes in Southeastern Europe)[61]
* Lithuania (can variously be included in Northeastern or Central Europe)
* Poland
* Romania (can be included in Southeastern Europe[62] or partially in Central Europe)[63]
* Serbia (most often placed in Southeastern Europe but sometimes partially included in Central Europe)[64]
* Slovakia
* Slovenia (most often placed in Central Europe but sometimes in Southeastern Europe)[65]

#### Southeastern Europe / Balkan states

Main articles: Place:Southeast Europe and Balkans

Some countries in Southeast Europe can be considered part of Eastern Europe. Some of them can sometimes, albeit rarely, be characterized as belonging to Southern Europe,[8] and some may also be included in Central Europe.

In some media, "Southeast Europe" can thus partially overlap with "Eastern Europe" of the Cold War Era. The following countries are labelled Southeast European by some commentators, though others still consider them to be Eastern European.[66]

The following eleven countries are generally considered to be part of the Balkans by most definitions:

* Albania
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia (can variously be included in Southeastern[59] or Central Europe)[60]
* Greece (Sometimes grouped in Southern Europe with countries like Italy, Spain and Portugal)
* Montenegro
* North Macedonia
* Romania (can variously be included in Southeastern[62] or Central Europe)[63]
* Serbia (mostly placed in Southeastern but sometimes in Central Europe)[64]
* Slovenia (most often placed in Central Europe but sometimes in Southeastern Europe)[65][67]
* Turkey (East Thrace, the portion west of the Turkish Straits)

Additionally, although they have no territory on the Balkan Peninsula, the following countries are sometimes incorporated in the Balkans region, or Southeastern Europe, for cultural and historical affiliations:[68][69][70][71][72][73][74][67]

* Cyprus (geographically in West Asia, though often considered a part of Southeastern Europe)
* Hungary (most often placed in Central Europe, sometimes considered part of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans)[75][68]
* Moldova (usually grouped with the non-Baltic post-Soviet states, sometimes considered part of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans)[76][74]

Partially recognized states:

* Kosovo

#### Kazakhstan

Despite being frequently classified as a Central Asian country, about 4% of Kazakhstan's territory, situated west of the Ural River, geographically lies in Eastern Europe, thus technically making it a transcontinental country.[77][78]

## History

It has been suggested that this section be split out into another page titled History of Eastern Europe. (Discuss) (November 2023)

|

### Classical antiquity and medieval origins

Ancient kingdoms of the region included Orontid Armenia, Caucasian Albania, Colchis and Iberia (not to be confused with the Iberian Peninsula in Western Europe), of which the former two were the predecessor states of Armenia and Azerbaijan respectively, while the latter two were the predecessor states of modern-day Georgia. These peripheral kingdoms were, either from the start or later on, incorporated into various Iranian empires, including the Achaemenid Persian, Parthian, and Sassanid Persian Empires.[79] Parts of the Balkans and some more northern areas were ruled by the Achaemenid Persians as well, including Thrace, Paeonia, Macedon, and most of the Black Sea coastal regions of Romania, Ukraine, and Russia.[80][81] Owing to the rivalry between the Parthian Empire and Rome, and later between Byzantium and the Sassanid Persians, the Parthians would invade the region several times, although it was never able to hold the area, unlike the Sassanids who controlled most of the Caucasus during their entire rule.[82]

The Eastern and Western Roman Empire at the death of Theodosius I in 395. The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 while the Eastern lasted until 1453.

The earliest known distinctions between east and west in Europe originate in the history of the Roman Republic. As the Roman domain expanded, a cultural and linguistic division appeared. The mainly Greek-speaking eastern provinces had formed the highly urbanized Hellenistic civilization. In contrast, the western territories largely adopted the Latin language. The cultural and linguistic division was eventually reinforced by the later political east–west division of the Roman Empire. The division between these two spheres deepened during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages because of a number of events. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century, marking the start of the Early Middle Ages. By contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire, called the "Byzantine Empire" in the West, had a survival strategy that kept it alive for another 1,000 years.[83]

The rise of the Frankish Empire in the west and in particular the Great Schism, which formally divided Eastern and Western Christianity in 1054, heightened the cultural and religious distinctiveness between Eastern and Western Europe. Much of Eastern Europe was invaded and occupied by the Mongols.[84]

During the Ostsiedlung, towns founded under Magdeburg rights became centres of economic development and scattered German settlements were founded in parts of Eastern Europe.[85] Introduction of German town law is often seen as a second great step after introduction of Christianity at the turn of the first and the second millennia. The ensuing modernization of society and economy allowed the increased role played by the rulers of Bohemia and Poland.[86]

### 1453 to 1918

The conquest of the Byzantine Empire, the centre of the Eastern Orthodox Church, by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century and the gradual fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire (which had replaced the Frankish Empire) led to a change of the importance of Catholic/Protestant vs. Eastern Orthodox concept in Europe. Armour points out that Cyrillic-alphabet use is not a strict determinant for Eastern Europe, where from Croatia to Poland and everywhere in between, the Latin alphabet is used.[87] Greece's status as the cradle of Western civilization and an integral part of the Western world in the political, cultural and economic spheres has led to it being nearly always classified as belonging not to Eastern but Southern or Western Europe.[88] During the late-sixteenth and early-seventeenth centuries, Eastern Europe enjoyed a relatively high standard of living. This period is also called the east-central European golden age of around 1600.[89] At the beginning of the 17th century, numeracy levels in eastern Europe were relatively low although regional differences existed. During the 18th century, the region began to catch up with western Europe but did not develop as rapidly. Areas with stronger female autonomy developed more quickly in terms of numeracy.[90]

### Serfdom

Serfdom was a prevalent status of agricultural workers until the 19th century. It resembled slavery in terms of lack of freedom, with the distinction that the landowners could not buy and sell serfs separately from the specific plots of land to which they were permanently attached. The system emerged in the 14th and the 15th centuries while it was declining in Western Europe.[91] The climax came in the 17th and 18th century. The early 19th century saw its decline, marked especially by the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861. Emancipation meant that the ex-serfs paid for their freedom with annual cash payments to their former masters for decades. The system varied widely by country and was not as standardized as in Western Europe. Historians until the 20th century focused on master-serf economic and labor relations, portraying the serfs as slave-like, passive, and isolated, and 20th-century scholars downplayed the evils and emphasized the complexities.[92][93]

### Lack of industrialization during the long nineteenth century

Before 1870 and to some extent until World War I (the end of the long nineteenth century), the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants largely in serfdom.[94]

### Interwar period (1919–1939)

A major result of World War I was the breakup of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires, as well as partial losses to the German Empire. A surge of ethnic nationalism created a series of new states in Eastern Europe, validated by the Versailles Treaty of 1919. Poland was reconstituted after the partitions of the 1790s had divided it between Prussia, Austria, and Russia. New or renewed countries included Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine (which was soon absorbed by the Soviet Union), Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. Austria and Hungary had much-reduced boundaries. The new states included sizeable ethnic minorities, which were to be protected according to the League of Nations minority protection regime.[95] Throughout Eastern Europe, ethnic Germans constituted by far the largest single ethnic minority.[96] In some areas, as in the Sudetenland, regions of Poland and parts of Slovenia, German-speakers constituted the local majority, which created conflict regarding demands of self-determination.

Romania, Bulgaria and Albania likewise were independent. Many of the countries were still largely rural, with little industry and only a few urban centres. Nationalism was the dominant force, but most of the countries had ethnic or religious minorities, which felt threatened by majority elements. Nearly all became democratic in the 1920s, but all of them (except Czechoslovakia and Finland) gave up democracy during the depression years of the 1930s in favour of autocratic, strong-man or single-party states. The new states were unable to form stable military alliances and one by one were too weak to stand up against Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union, which took them over between 1938 and 1945.

### World War II and onset of the Cold War

Russia ended its participation in World War I in March 1918 and lost territory, as the Baltic countries and Poland became independent. The region was the main battlefield in the Second World War (1939–45), with the German and Soviet Armies sweeping back and forth; millions of Jews and others being killed by the Nazis in Generalplan Ost; and millions of others killed by disease, starvation, and military action, or executed after being deemed as politically dangerous.[97] During the final stages of World War II, the future of Eastern Europe was decided by the overwhelming power of the Soviet Army, which swept the Germans aside. It did not reach Yugoslavia and Albania, however. Finland was free but forced to be neutral in the upcoming Cold War.

Throughout Eastern Europe, German-speaking populations were expelled to the reduced borders of Germany (or even Austria) in one of the largest ethnic cleansing operations in history.[98] Regions where Germans had formed the local population majority were re-settled with Polish- or Czech-speakers.

The region fell to Soviet control, and communist governments were imposed. Yugoslavia, Albania and later Romania had their own communist regimes independent of Moscow. The Eastern Bloc at the onset of the Cold War in 1947 was far behind the Western European countries in economic rebuilding and economic progress. Winston Churchill, in his well-known "Sinews of Peace" address of 5 March 1946, at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, stressed the geopolitical impact of the "iron curtain":

> From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe: Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest, and Sofia.

Pre-1989 division between the "West" (grey) and "Eastern Bloc" (orange) superimposed on current borders:

Russia (the former RSFSR)

Other countries formerly part of the USSR

Members of the Warsaw Pact

Other former Communist states not aligned with Moscow

#### Eastern Bloc

Eastern Europe after 1945 usually meant all the European countries liberated from Nazi Germany and then occupied by the Soviet Army. It included the German Democratic Republic (also known as East Germany), formed by the Soviet occupation zone of Germany. All countries in Eastern Europe adopted communist modes of control by 1948. They were officially independent of the Soviet Union, but the practical extent of this independence was quite limited. Yugoslavia and Albania had Communist control that was independent of the Kremlin.

The communists had a natural reservoir of popularity in that they had destroyed the German invaders.[99] Their goal was to guarantee long-term working-class solidarity. The Soviet secret police, the NKVD, working in collaboration with local communists, created secret police forces using leadership trained in Moscow. This new secret police arrived to arrest political enemies according to prepared lists.[100] The national communists then took power in a gradualist manner and were backed by the Soviets in many, but not all, cases. For a while, co-operative non-communist parties were tolerated.[101] The communist governments nationalized private businesses, placed them under state ownership and monitored the media and the churches.[101] When dividing up government offices with coalition partners, the communists took control of the interior ministries, which controlled the local police.[102] They also took control of the mass media, especially radio,[103] as well as the education system.[104] They confiscated and redistributed farmland[105] and seized control of or replaced the organizations of civil society, such as church groups, sports, youth groups, trade unions, farmers' organizations, and civic organizations. In some countries, they engaged in large-scale ethnic cleansing by moving ethnic groups such as Germans, Poles, Ukrainians and Hungarians far away from where they had lived, often with high loss of life, and relocating them within the new post-war borders of their respective countries.[106]

Under Stalin's direct instructions, these nations rejected grants from the American Marshall Plan. Instead, they joined the Molotov Plan, which later evolved into the Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance). When NATO was created in 1949, most countries of Eastern Europe became members of the opposing Warsaw Pact, forming a geopolitical concept that became known as the Eastern Bloc. This consisted of:

* First and foremost was the Soviet Union (which included the modern-day territories of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and Moldova and the illegally occupied Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia). Other countries dominated by the Soviet Union were the German Democratic Republic, People's Republic of Poland, Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, People's Republic of Hungary, People's Republic of Bulgaria, and Socialist Republic of Romania.
* The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY; formed after World War II and before its later dismemberment) was not a member of the Warsaw Pact but was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, an organization created in an attempt to avoid being assigned to either the NATO or Warsaw Pact blocs. The movement was demonstratively independent of both the Soviet Union and the Western bloc for most of the Cold War, which allowed Yugoslavia and its other members to act as a business and political mediator between the blocs.[107]
* The Socialist People's Republic of Albania broke with the Soviet Union in the early 1960s as a result of the Sino-Soviet split and aligned itself instead with China. Albania formally left the Warsaw Pact in September 1968 after the suppression of the Prague Spring. When China established diplomatic relations with the United States in 1978, Albania also broke away from China.

Albania and especially Yugoslavia were not unanimously appended to the Eastern Bloc, as they were neutral for a large part of the Cold War.[108]

### Since 1989

2004–2013 EU enlargements

Existing members

New members in 2004

Cyprus
Czech Republic
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Malta
Poland
Slovakia
Slovenia

Existing members

New members in 2007

Bulgaria
Romania

Existing members

New members in 2013

Croatia

With the fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989, the political landscape of the Eastern Bloc, and indeed the world, changed. In the German reunification, the Federal Republic of Germany peacefully absorbed the German Democratic Republic in 1990. In 1991, COMECON, the Warsaw Pact, and the Soviet Union were dissolved. Many European nations that had been part of the Soviet Union declared or regained their independence (Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic States of Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia). Czechoslovakia peacefully separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993. Many countries of this region joined the European Union, namely Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. The term "EU11 countries" refer to the Central and Eastern European member states, including the Baltic states, that accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and the Slovak Republic; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia.

The economic changes were in harmony with the constitutional reforms: constitutional provisions on public finances can be identified and, in some countries, a separate chapter deals with public finances. Generally, they soon encountered the following problems: high inflation, high unemployment, low economic growth, and high government debt. By 2000 these economies were stabilized, and between 2004 and 2013 all of them joined the European Union. Most of the constitutions define directly or indirectly the economic system of the countries parallel to the democratic transition of the 1990s: free-market economy (sometimes complemented with the socially [and ecologically] oriented sector), economic development, or only economic rights are included as a ground for the economy.[109]

In the case of fiscal policy, the legislative, the executive and other state organs (Budget Council, Economic and Social Council) define and manage the budgeting. The average government debt in the countries is nearly 44%, but the deviation is great because the lowest figure is close to 10% but the highest is 97%. The trend shows that the sovereign debt ratio to GDP in most countries has been rising. Only three countries are affected by high government debt: Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia (over 70% of the GDP), while Slovakia and Poland fulfill the Maastricht requirement but only 10% below the threshold. The contribution to cover the finances for common needs is declared, the principle of just tax burden-sharing is supplemented sometimes with special aspects. Tax revenues expose typically 15–19 % of the GDP, and rates above 20% only rarely can be found.[109]

The state audit of the government budget and expenditures is an essential control element in public finances and an important part of the concept of checks and balances. The central banks are independent state institutions, which possess a monopoly on managing and implementing a state's or federation's monetary policy. Besides monetary policy, some of them even perform the supervision of the financial intermediary system. In the case of a price stability function, the inflation rate, in the examined area, relatively quickly dropped to below 5% by 2000. In monetary policy the differences are based on the euro-zone: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia use the common currency. The economies of this decade – similar to the previous one – show a moderate inflation. As a new phenomenon, a slight negative inflation (deflation) appeared in that decade in several countries (Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia), which demonstrates sensitivity regarding international developments. The majority of the constitutions determine the national currency, legal tender or monetary unit. The local currency exchange rate to the U.S. dollar shows that drastic interventions were not necessary. National wealth or assets are the property of the state or local governments and, as an exclusive property, the management and protection of them aim at serving the public interest.[109]

## Demographics

Population pyramid of Eastern Europe in 2023 (UN geoscheme classification)

## See also

* Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations
* Eastern European Group
* Eastern Partnership
* Enlargement of the European Union
* Eurasian Economic Union
* Euronest Parliamentary Assembly
* European Union
* European Russia
* Eurovoc
* Future enlargement of the European Union
* Geography of the Soviet Union
* Intermarium
* List of Intangible Cultural Heritage elements in Eastern Europe
* List of political parties in Eastern Europe
* Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation
* Post-Soviet states

European subregions

* Eurovoc#Eastern Europe
* East-Central Europe
* Central and Eastern Europe
* Central Europe
* Geographical midpoint of Europe
* Northern Europe
* Regions of Europe
* Southeast Europe
* Western Europe

## References

1. ↑ "Regions of Europe: Eastern Europe". 10 May 2021. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-four-european-regions-as-defined-by-the-united-nations-geoscheme-for-europe.html.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Jordan, Peter (2005). "Großgliederung Europas nach kulturräumlichen Kriterien". Europa Regional (Leipzig: Leibniz-Institut für Länderkunde (IfL)) 13 (4): 162–173. http://www.stagn.de/DE/1_Der_StAGN/Publikationen/StAGN_GGEuropa/grosseu_node.html. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Wrongly labelled". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. https://www.economist.com/europe/2010/01/07/wrongly-labelled.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Peter John, Local Governance in Western Europe, University of Manchester, 2001, ISBN 9780761956372
5. ↑ Berglee, Royal (2016). Traditional Regions of Europe. https://open.lib.umn.edu/worldgeography/chapter/2-4-eastern-europe/. Retrieved 2023-12-15.
6. ↑ "Geographic Regions". https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/.
7. ↑ "Country (or area)". https://www.sdg6data.org/en/country-or-area/Russian+Federation.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions". https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Ramet, Sabrina P. (1998). Eastern Europe: politics, culture, and society since 1939. Indiana University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0253212566. https://books.google.com/books?id=eWmDAd6vr5sC&q=eastern+europe+definition&pg=PA15. Retrieved 5 October 2011.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "The Balkans" , Global Perspectives: A Remote Sensing and World Issues Site. Wheeling Jesuit University/Center for Educational Technologies, 1999–2002.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 ""Eastern Europe" Wrongly labelled". The Economist. 7 January 2010. https://www.economist.com/europe/2010/01/07/wrongly-labelled.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "A New Journal for Central Europe". http://www.ce-review.org/99/1/hanley1.html.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Frank H. Aarebrot (14 May 2014). The handbook of political change in Eastern Europe. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-1-78195-429-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=2EmC92rp4joC&pg=PA1. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 [1] . Eurovoc.europa.eu. Retrieved on 4 March 2015.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 "Population Division, DESA, United Nations: World Population Ageing 1950-2050". http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/worldageing19502050/pdf/96annexii.pdf.
16. ↑ Mälksoo, Maria (4 May 2019). "The normative threat of subtle subversion: the return of 'Eastern Europe' as an ontological insecurity trope". Cambridge Review of International Affairs 32 (3): 365–383. doi:10.1080/09557571.2019.1590314. ISSN 0955-7571. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2019.1590314. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
17. ↑ Twardzisz, Piotr (25 April 2018) (in en). Defining 'Eastern Europe': A Semantic Inquiry into Political Terminology. Springer. pp. 18. ISBN 978-3-319-77374-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=qUVYDwAAQBAJ&dq=east+europe+pejorative&pg=PR7. Retrieved 2023-01-03.
18. ↑ Hall, Derek (July 1999). "Destination branding, niche marketing and national image projection in Central and Eastern Europe" (in en). Journal of Vacation Marketing 5 (3): 227–237. doi:10.1177/135676679900500303. ISSN 1356-7667.
19. ↑ Zarycki, Tomasz (2014). Ideologies of Eastness in Central and Eastern Europe. doi:10.4324/9781315819006. ISBN 9781317818571. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781315819006/ideologies-eastness-central-eastern-europe-tomasz-zarycki. Retrieved 2022-11-16.
20. ↑ "Eastern promise and Western pretension" (in en). https://www.dw.com/en/my-europe-eastern-promise-and-western-pretension/a-45403613.
21. ↑ Drake, Miriam A. (2005) Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, CRC Press
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Grob, Thomas (February 2015). "The concept of "Eastern Europe" in past and present". UNI NOVA. University of Basel. https://www.unibas.ch/en/Research/Uni-Nova/Uni-Nova-126/Uni-Nova-126-The-concept-of-Eastern-Europe-in-past-and-present.html.
23. ↑ "Jordan Europa Regional". 4 April 2014. http://141.74.33.52/stagn/JordanEuropaRegional/tabid/71/Default.aspx.
24. ↑ "Kazakhstan" (in en), The World Factbook (Central Intelligence Agency), https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/locator-map, retrieved 2024-08-10
25. ↑ "Atlas of the Historical Geography of the Holy Land". Rbedrosian.com. http://rbedrosian.com/Maps/ahgh66b.htm.
26. ↑ "home.comcast.net". http://home.comcast.net/~DiazStudents/MiddleAgesChurchMap1.jpg.
27. ↑ Magocsi, Paul Robert (2002). "Chapter 11". Historical Atlas of Central Europe (Rev. and expanded ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-8486-6. OCLC 150672781. https://books.google.com/books?id=XoxHdcNYhiMC&pg=PP20. Retrieved 2023-02-10.
28. ↑ Kasper von Greyerz (2007). Religion and Culture in Early Modern Europe. Oxford University Press. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-0-19-804384-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=SmEpMnfYZ-oC&q="all+of+central+Europe". Retrieved 2022-01-06.
29. ↑ Jean W Sedlar (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. University of Washington Press. p. 161. ISBN 0-295-97291-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=3o5lrvuwOVwC&q="estrangement+to+be+permanent". Retrieved 2022-01-06.
30. ↑ Dumitran, Adriana (2010). "Uspořádání Evropy – duch kulturní jednoty na prahu vzniku novověké Evropy" (in cs). Czech Republic: Bibliography of the History of the Czech Lands, The Institute of History, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic. http://biblio.hiu.cas.cz/documents/161327.
31. ↑ Sanjay Kumar (2021). A Handbook of Political Geography. K.K. Publications. pp. 125–127. https://books.google.com/books?id=iGc9EAAAQBAJ.
32. ↑ "Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe". Pew Research Center. May 10, 2017. https://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/.
33. ↑ "The History of Georgian Orthodox Church". https://www.atlantaserbs.com/learnmore/history/gruzija-church.htm.
34. ↑ Ware, Bishop Kallistos (Timothy) (29 April 1993), The Orthodox Church (new ed.), New York: Penguin Books, p. 8, ISBN 978-0-14-014656-1
35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 "Eastern rite church" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eastern-rite-church.
36. ↑ Fernández Rodríguez, José Manuel (28 November 2016). "Eastern Protestant and Reformed Churches "a historical and ecumenical look"". Theologica Xaveriana. 66 (182): 345–366. doi:10.11144/javeriana.tx66-182.ioproh.
37. ↑ Milovanović, Aleksandra Djurić; Radić, Radmila (2017-10-11). "Parts I, II, III". Orthodox Christian Renewal Movements in Eastern Europe. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-63354-1.
38. ↑ Parushev, Parush; Apollo, Toivo (2004). McGrath, Alister E.. ed. The Blackwell Companion to Protestantism. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 155–160. doi:10.1002/9780470999196. ISBN 978-0-631-23278-0. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470999196. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Nichols, Aidan (2010). Rome and the Eastern Churches: A Study in Schism (2nd ed.). Ignatius Press. pp. 13–19. ISBN 9781586172824.
40. ↑ Galadza, Peter (2007-07-04). Parry, Ken. ed (in en). The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. pp. 291–309. doi:10.1002/9780470690208. ISBN 978-0-631-23423-4. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470690208. Retrieved 2024-02-28.
41. ↑ "Union of Brest-Litovsk | Polish-Soviet, Treaty, 1918 | Britannica" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/event/Union-of-Brest-Litovsk.
42. ↑ V. Martynov, The End of East-West Division But Not the End of History, UN Chronicle, 2000 (available online)
43. ↑ "Migrant workers: What we know". BBC News. 21 August 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6957171.stm.
44. ↑ "Concept: 914 Central and Eastern Europe". EuroVoc. Publications Office of the EU. https://op.europa.eu/en/web/eu-vocabularies/concept/-/resource?uri=http://eurovoc.europa.eu/914.
45. ↑ Starr, Katayoun Kishi and Kelsey Jo (2017-11-03). "Many Central and Eastern Europeans see link between religion and national identity" (in en-US). https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2017/11/03/many-central-and-eastern-europeans-see-link-between-religion-and-national-identity/.
46. ↑ Boye, Gary. "Research Guides: World Music Guide: Eastern Europe" (in en). https://guides.library.appstate.edu/world-music/eastern-europe.
47. ↑ Division, United Nations Statistics. "UNSD — Methodology". https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/.
48. ↑ Lagassé, Paul, ed (2000). The Columbia encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-7876-5015-5.
49. ↑ "Central Europe" (in en). https://www.iir.cz/en/central-europe.
50. ↑ "About the Visegrad Group". 15 August 2006. http://www.visegradgroup.eu/about.
51. ↑ "Department for General Assembly and Conference Management". https://www.un.org/dgacm/.
52. ↑ How Armenia Could Approach the European Union, http://www.libertas-institut.com/de/PDF/Armenia ante portas.pdf, retrieved 27 February 2017
53. ↑ European Parliament on the European Union's relations with the South Caucasus, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+REPORT+A5-2002-0028+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN, retrieved 2020-07-02
54. ↑ Sauer, Pjotr (28 September 2023). "Nagorno-Karabakh's breakaway government says it will dissolve itself". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/sep/28/nagorno-karabakh-separatist-government-says-dissolve-azerbaijan-armenia.
55. ↑ Simic, Predrag (2001). "Do the Balkans Exist? Visions of the Future of Southeastern Europe: Perspectives from the Region". Medzinárodné otázky (Research Center of the Slovak Foreign Policy Association) 10 (1): 19–39.
56. ↑ Wallace, W. The Transformation of Western Europe London, Pinter, 1990
57. ↑ Huntington, Samuel The Clash of Civilizations Simon & Schuster, 1996
58. ↑ Johnson, Lonnie Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbours, Friends Oxford University Press, US, 2001
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 "Croatia". Central Intelligence Agency. 18 January 2022. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/croatia/.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Lonnie Johnson, Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends, Oxford University Press
61. ↑ "Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI)". 2003. https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/old_new_tir/seci/documents/GEReport0307-final.pdf.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 "U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". Archived from the original on February 5, 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20090205212441/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/SE_Europe/Background.html.
63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 "7 Invitees - Romania". https://www.nato.int/invitees2004/romania/glance.htm.
64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Steven Tötösy de Zepetnek; Louise Olga Vasvári (2011). Comparative Hungarian Cultural Studies. Purdue University Press. ISBN 9781557535931. https://books.google.com/books?id=pFCzty0P4UcC&q=central+europe+serbia+culture&pg=PA24. Retrieved 2020-11-10.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Armstrong, Werwick; Anderson, James (2007). "Borders in Central Europe: From Conflict to Cooperation". Geopolitics of European Union Enlargement: The Fortress Empire. Routledge. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-134-30132-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=FWA3ppuOgK4C&pg=PA165. Retrieved 2016-03-10.
66. ↑ Bideleux and Jeffries (1998) A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change
67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 "Police Cooperation Convention for Southeast Europe (PCC SEE)" . PCC SEE Secretariat. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Todorova, Maria (1997). Imagining the Balkans. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-508750-5.
69. ↑ Kolstø, Pål (2016-08-08). "'Western Balkans' as the New Balkans: Regional Names as Tools for Stigmatisation and Exclusion" (in en). Europe-Asia Studies 68 (7): 1245–1263. doi:10.1080/09668136.2016.1219979. ISSN 0966-8136. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668136.2016.1219979.
70. ↑ "BUB0028 - Evidence on Beyond Brexit: the UK and the Balkans". https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/81047/html/.
71. ↑ Djurdjevic, Maria. "The Balkans: Past and Present of Cultural Pluralism". https://www.iemed.org/publication/the-balkans-past-and-present-of-cultural-pluralism/.
72. ↑ Detrez, Raymond (2001). "Colonialism in the Balkans". pp. 1–2. https://www.kakanien-revisited.at/beitr/theorie/RDetrez1.pdf.
73. ↑ Juhász, József (2015). "Hungary and the Balkans in the 20th Century — From the Hungarian Perspective". Prague Papers on the History of International Relations (1): 114–119. http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-4acf4d74-0230-4935-89ff-5cd70c155701. "After 1918, with the massive reduction of Hungary’s territory and influence, many Western observers held Hungary to be one of the nations of the Balkans.".
74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 "Balkans" (in en). 2024-08-11. https://www.britannica.com/place/Balkans. "Moldova—although located north of the Danube River, which is frequently cited as the region’s northeastern geographic dividing line—is included in the Balkans under some definitions by virtue of its long-standing historical and cultural connections with Romania."
75. ↑ Hötte, Hans; Mihalik, Béla (2016). Atlas of Southeast Europe. Boston: Brill.
76. ↑ "A List of Countries That Make up the Balkan Peninsula". https://www.thoughtco.com/where-are-the-balkan-states-4070249.
77. ↑ Porter, Malcolm; Lye, Keith (2008). Asia. Cherrytree Books. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-84234-461-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=nXn6qEGYv0QC&q=area+of+kazakhstan+in+europe+sq+km&pg=PA14. Retrieved 11 October 2021.
78. ↑ World Factbook. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency. 29 September 2021. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kazakhstan/. Retrieved 23 January 2021. Kazakhstan: Geography
79. ↑ Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts, pp. 292-294. Peeters Bvba ISBN 90-429-1318-5.
80. ↑ The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth,ISBN 0-19-860641-9, "page 1515, "The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516"
81. ↑ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (7 July 2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444351637. https://books.google.com/books?id=QsJ183uUDkMC&q=Achaemenid+Persians+ruled+balkans&pg=PA345. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
82. ↑ Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Lee Brigance; Pappas, Nicholas Charles; Pappas, Nicholas C. J. (1994). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9780313274978. https://books.google.com/books?id=CquTz6ps5YgC&q=sassanids+rule+most+of+the+caucasus&pg=PA27. Retrieved 22 April 2015.
83. ↑ Edward Luttwak, The grand strategy of the Byzantine Empire (Harvard UP, 2009).
84. ↑ Denis Sinor, "The Mongols in the West." Journal of Asian History 33.1 (1999): 1-44 online .
85. ↑ Martyn Rady, "The German Settlement in Central and Eastern Europe during the High Middle Ages." in The German Lands and Eastern Europe (Palgrave Macmillan, 1999) pp. 11-47.
86. ↑ Jan M. Pisorski (2008). "Medieval Colonization in East Central Europe". in Ingrao; Szabo. The Germans and the East. Purdue University Press. pp. 31.
87. ↑ Armour, Ian D. 2013. A History of Eastern Europe 1740–1918: Empires, Nations and Modernisation. London: Bloomsbury Academic. p. 23. ISBN 978-1849664882
88. ↑ See, inter alia, Norman Davies, Europe: a History, 2010, Eve Johansson, Official Publications of Western Europe, Volume 1, 1984, Thomas Greer and Gavin Lewis, A Brief History of the Western World, 2004
89. ↑ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9781107507180.
90. ↑ Baten, Joerg; Szołtysek, Mikołaj (2017). ""Girl Power" in Eastern Europe? The human capital development of Central-Eastern and Eastern Europe in the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries and its determinants". European Review of Economic History 21 (1): 29–63.
91. ↑ Jerome Blum, "The Rise of Serfdom in Eastern Europe" American Historical Review 62#4 (1957), pp. 807-836 Online
92. ↑ Boris B. Gorshkov, "Serfdom: Eastern Europe" in Peter Stearns, ed., Encyclopedia of European Social History (2001) 2:379-88; Online .
93. ↑ David Moon, "Reassessing Russian Serfdom." European History Quarterly 26 (1996): 483–526.
94. ↑ Jackson J. Spielvogel: Western Civilization: Alternate Volume: Since 1300. p. 618.
95. ↑ P. de Azcarate, League of Nations and National Minorities (1945) online
96. ↑ R. M. Douglas. Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press. pp. 331.
97. ↑ Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (2011) excerpt and text search
98. ↑ Gregor Thum. Uprooted: How Breslau Became Wroclaw during the Century of Expulsions. Princeton University Press.
99. ↑ Applebaum, pp. 312–33.
100. ↑ Anne Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956 (2012) p. xxix.
101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 Applebaum, p. xxx
102. ↑ Applebaum, p. 71.
103. ↑ Applebaum, pp. 174–191.
104. ↑ Applebaum, pp. 172–173.
105. ↑ Applebaum, pp. 223–228.
106. ↑ Applebaum, pp. 1162–147.
107. ↑ Jeronim Perović, "The Tito-Stalin split: a reassessment in light of new evidence." Journal of Cold War Studies 9.2 (2007): 32-63 online .
108. ↑ Stavro Skendi, "Albania and the Sino-Soviet Conflict." Foreign affairs 40.3 (1962): 471-478.
109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 Vértesy, László (2018). "Macroeconomic Legal Trends in the EU11 Countries". Public Governance, Administration and Finances Law Review 3\. No. 1. 2018. https://www.dialogcampus.hu/users/default/dialogcampus/uploads/elektronikus_konyvek/pga2018_01_09_vertesy.pdf. Retrieved 12 August 2019.

## Further reading

* Applebaum, Anne. Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–1956 (2012)
* Berend, Iván T. Decades of Crisis: Central and Eastern Europe Before World War II (2001)
* Connelly, John (2020) (in en). From Peoples Into Nations: A History of Eastern Europe. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16712-1.
* Day, Alan J. et al. A Political and Economic Dictionary of Eastern Europe (2nd ed.; 2007) abstract
* Donert, Celia, Emily Greble, and Jessica Wardhaugh (August 2017). "New Scholarship on Central and Eastern Europe." Contemporary European History 26.3: 507-507. doi:10.1017/S0960777317000224. .
* Frankel, Benjamin. The Cold War 1945-1991. Vol. 2: Leaders and Other Important Figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World (1992), 379pp of biographies.
* Frucht, Richard, ed. Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism (2000)
* Fuchs-Schündeln, Nicola, and Matthias Schündeln. "The Long-Term Effects of Communism in Eastern Europe". Journal of Economic Perspectives 34.2 (2020): 172–91. online
* Gal, Susan and Gail Kligman, The Politics of Gender After Socialism (Princeton University Press, 2000).
* Gorshkov, Boris B. "Serfdom: Eastern Europe." in Encyclopedia of European Social History, edited by Peter N. Stearns, (vol. 2: 2001), pp. 379–388. Online
* Ghodsee, Kristen R. Lost in Transition: Ethnographies of Everyday Life After Communism (Duke University Press, 2011).
* Held, Joseph, ed. The Columbia History of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century (1993)
* Jeffries, Ian, and Robert Bideleux. The Balkans: A Post-Communist History (2007).
* Jelavich, Barbara (1983a). History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521274586. https://books.google.com/books?id=qR4EeOrTm-0C. Retrieved 2021-07-05.
* Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans, Vol. 1: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries (1983)
* Jelavich, Barbara (1983b). History of the Balkans: Twentieth Century. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521274593. https://books.google.com/books?id=Hd-or3qtqrsC.
* Kacandes, Irene; Komska, Yuliya, eds (2020). Eastern Europe Unmapped: Beyond Borders and Peripheries (1st ed.). Berghahn Books. doi:10.2307/j.ctvw049zd. ISBN 978-1-78533-685-0.
* Mazower, Mark (2007). The Balkans: A Short History. Random House Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-43196-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=iWgfMZhi-x0C.
* Myant, Martin; Drahokoupil, Jan (2010). Transition Economies: Political Economy in Russia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-470-59619-7.
* Nachtigal, Reinhard. "Current Historiography on Eastern Europe during the First World War: A Review." War & Society 41.4 (2022): 323–339. doi.org/10.1080/07292473.2022.2117908
* Ramet, Sabrina P. Eastern Europe: Politics, Culture, and Society Since 1939 (1999)
* Roskin, Michael G. The Rebirth of East Europe (4th ed. 2001); 204pp
* Schenk, Frithjof Benjamin, Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of Research of European History , EGO - European History Online , Mainz: Institute of European History , 2013, retrieved: March 4, 2020 (pdf ).
* Schevill, Ferdinand. The History of the Balkan Peninsula; From the Earliest Times to the Present Day (1966)
* Seton-Watson, Hugh. Eastern Europe Between the Wars 1918-1941 (1945) online
* Simons, Thomas W. Eastern Europe in the Postwar World (1991)
* Snyder, Timothy. Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (2011)
* Stanković, Vlada, ed (2016). The Balkans and the Byzantine World before and after the Captures of Constantinople, 1204 and 1453. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-4985-1326-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=avTADAAAQBAJ. Retrieved 2021-07-05.
* Stavrianos, L. S.  The Balkans Since 1453 (1958), major scholarly history; online free to borrow
* Swain, Geoffrey and Nigel Swain, Eastern Europe Since 1945 (3rd ed. 2003)
* Verdery, Katherine. What Was Socialism and What Comes Next? Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
* Wachtel, Andrew Baruch (2008). The Balkans in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-988273-1. https://archive.org/details/balkansinworldhi00wach.
* Walters, E. Garrison. The Other Europe: Eastern Europe to 1945 (1988) 430pp; country-by-country coverage
* Wolchik, Sharon L. and Jane L. Curry, eds. Central and East European Politics: From Communism to Democracy (2nd ed. 2010), 432pp
* Wolff, Larry: Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8047-2702-3

## External links

* Interview with historian Larry Wolff on Inventing Eastern Europe
* Eastern Europe Economic Data
* Emerging Europe - A new narrative for the region;

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* Lower Egypt
* Lower Nubia
* Middle Egypt
* Nile Delta
* Nuba Mountains
* Nubia
* The Sudans
* Upper Egypt
* Tibesti Mountains
* Western Sahara

West Africa|

* Pepper Coast
* Gold Coast
* Slave Coast
* Ivory Coast
* Cape Palmas
* Cape Mesurado
* Guinea region
* Guinean Forests of West Africa
* Upper Guinean forests
* Lower Guinean forests
* Guinean forest-savanna mosaic
* Guinea Highlands
* Gulf of Guinea
* Niger Basin
* Dahomey Gap
* Niger Delta
* Inner Niger Delta
* Yorubaland

Southern Africa|

* Madagascar
* Central Highlands (Madagascar)
* Northern Highlands
* Rhodesia
* North
* South
* Thembuland
* Succulent Karoo
* Nama Karoo
* Bushveld
* Maputaland
* Highveld
* Fynbos
* Cape Floristic Region
* Skeleton Coast
* Kalahari Desert
* Okavango Delta
* Cape Peninsula
* False Bay
* Hydra Bay

Macro-regions|

* Aethiopia
* Afromontane
* Arab world
* Commonwealth realm
* Equatorial Africa
* Françafrique
* Greater Middle East
* Guineo-Congolian region
* Islands of Africa
* List of countries where Arabic is an official language
* Mediterranean Basin
* MENA
* MENASA
* Middle East
* Miombo woodlands
* Mittelafrika
* Negroland
* Northeast Africa
* Portuguese-speaking African countries
* Sahara
* Sahel
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* Sudan (region)
* Sudanian Savanna
* East Sudanian Savanna
* Tropical Africa
* Zambezian region

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Asia

Central|

* Greater Middle East
* Aral Sea
* Aralkum Desert
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Sea of Galilee
* Tartary
* Transoxiana
* Turan
* Greater Khorasan
* Ariana
* Arachosia
* Khwarazm
* Sistan
* Kazakhstania
* Kazakh Steppe
* Betpak-Dala
* Eurasian Steppe
* Asian Steppe
* Kazakh Steppe
* Pontic–Caspian steppe
* Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
* Wild Fields
* Yedisan
* Muravsky Trail
* Ural
* Ural Mountains
* Volga region
* Idel-Ural
* Pryazovia
* Bjarmaland
* Kuban
* Zalesye
* Ingria
* Novorossiya
* Gornaya Shoriya
* Tulgas
* Iranian Plateau
* Altai Mountains
* Pamir Mountains
* Tian Shan
* Badakhshan
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Mount Imeon
* Mongolian Plateau
* Western Regions
* Taklamakan Desert
* Karakoram
* Trans-Karakoram Tract
* Siachen Glacier

North|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Inner Asia
* Northeast
* Ural
* Ural Mountains
* Far East
* Russian Far East
* Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga
* Beringia
* Chukchi Peninsula
* Kamchatka Peninsula
* Extreme North
* Tartary
* Siberia
* Baikalia (Lake Baikal)
* Baraba steppe
* Khatanga Gulf
* Transbaikal
* West
* Amur Basin
* Yenisei Gulf
* Yenisei Basin
* Sikhote-Alin
* Kolyma
* Bering Strait
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific

East|

* Orient
* Japanese archipelago
* Northeastern Japan Arc
* Sakhalin Island Arc
* Korean Peninsula
* Gobi Desert
* Taklamakan Desert
* Greater Khingan
* Mongolian Plateau
* Inner Asia
* Inner Mongolia
* Outer Mongolia
* China proper
* Manchuria
* Outer Manchuria
* Inner Manchuria
* Northeast China Plain
* Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
* North China Plain
* Yan Mountains
* Kunlun Mountains
* Liaodong Peninsula
* High-mountain Asia
* Himalayas
* Tibetan Plateau
* Tibet
* Karakoram
* Tarim Basin
* Sichuan Basin
* Northern Silk Road
* Hexi Corridor
* Nanzhong
* Lingnan
* Liangguang
* Jiangnan
* Jianghuai
* Guanzhong
* Huizhou
* Wu
* Jiaozhou
* Zhongyuan
* Shaannan
* Ordos Loop
* Loess Plateau
* Shaanbei
* Hamgyong Mountains
* Central Mountain Range
* Japanese Alps
* Suzuka Mountains
* Leizhou Peninsula
* Gulf of Tonkin
* Yangtze River
* Yangtze River Delta
* Yellow River
* Pearl River Delta
* Yenisei Basin
* Altai Mountains
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Far East
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

West|

* Greater Middle East
* MENA
* MENASA
* Middle East
* Red Sea
* Hanish Islands
* Caspian Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Zagros Mountains
* Elam
* Persian Gulf
* Pirate Coast
* Strait of Hormuz
* Greater and Lesser Tunbs
* Al-Faw Peninsula
* Gulf of Oman
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Gulf of Aden
* Balochistan
* Arabian Peninsula
* Najd
* Al-Yamama
* Hejaz
* Tihamah
* Eastern Arabia
* South Arabia
* Hadhramaut
* Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
* Al-Sharat
* Tigris–Euphrates
* Mesopotamia
* Upper Mesopotamia
* Lower Mesopotamia
* Sawad
* Nineveh plains
* Akkad (region)
* Babylonia
* Canaan
* Aram
* Aram-Naharaim
* Eber-Nari
* Suhum
* Eastern Mediterranean
* Mashriq
* Kurdistan
* Levant
* Southern Levant
* Transjordan
* Jordan Rift Valley
* Levantine Sea
* Holy Land
* Palestine
* Land of Israel
* Golan Heights
* Hula Valley
* Galilee
* Gilead
* Judea
* Samaria
* Arabah
* Anti-Lebanon Mountains
* Sinai Peninsula
* Arabian Desert
* Syrian Desert
* Fertile Crescent
* Azerbaijan
* Syria
* Hauran
* Iranian Plateau
* Dasht-e Kavir
* Armenian Highlands
* Caucasus
* Caucasus Mountains
* Greater Caucasus
* Lesser Caucasus
* North Caucasus
* South Caucasus
* Shirvan
* Kur-Araz Lowland
* Lankaran Lowland
* Alborz
* Absheron Peninsula
* Kartli
* Anatolia
* Taurus Mountains
* Aeolis
* Paphlagonia
* Phasiane
* Isauria
* Ionia
* Bithynia
* Cilicia
* Cappadocia
* Caria
* Corduene
* Chaldia
* Doris
* Lycaonia
* Lycia
* Lydia
* Galatia
* Pisidia
* Pontus
* Mysia
* Arzawa
* Speri
* Sophene
* Biga Peninsula
* Troad
* Tuwana
* Alpide belt

South|

* Orient
* Greater India
* Indian subcontinent
* Himalayas
* Hindu Kush
* Bactria
* Carnatic region
* Tamilakam
* Western Ghats
* Eastern Ghats
* Ganges Basin
* Ganges Delta
* Guzgan
* Pashtunistan
* Punjab
* Balochistan
* Gedrosia
* Makran
* Marathwada
* Kashmir
* Kashmir Valley
* Pir Panjal Range
* Thar Desert
* Indus Valley
* Indus River Delta
* Indus Valley Desert
* Indo-Gangetic Plain
* Eastern Coastal Plains
* Kalinga
* Western Coastal Plains
* Meghalaya subtropical forests
* MENASA
* Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests
* Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows
* Doab
* Bagar tract
* Great Rann of Kutch
* Little Rann of Kutch
* Deccan Plateau
* Coromandel Coast
* Konkan
* False Divi Point
* Hindi Belt
* Ladakh
* Aksai Chin
* Gilgit-Baltistan
* Baltistan
* Shigar Valley
* High-mountain Asia
* Karakoram
* Saltoro Mountains
* Siachen Glacier
* Bengal
* Bay of Bengal
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Halar
* Gulf of Mannar
* Trans-Karakoram Tract
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Lakshadweep
* Laccadive Islands
* Amindivi Islands
* Paropamisadae
* Andaman and Nicobar Islands
* Andaman Islands
* Nicobar Islands
* Maldive Islands
* Alpide belt
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

Southeast|

* Orient
* Sundaland
* Mainland
* Indochina
* Malay Peninsula
* Northern Triangle temperate forests
* Maritime
* Peninsular Malaysia
* Sunda Islands
* Greater Sunda Islands
* Lesser Sunda Islands
* Indonesian Archipelago
* Wallacea
* Timor
* Philippine Archipelago
* Luzon
* Visayas
* Mindanao
* Leyte Gulf
* Gulf of Thailand
* East Indies
* Nanyang
* Alpide belt
* Far East
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Europe

North|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Nordic
* Northwestern
* Scandinavia
* Scandinavian Peninsula
* Fennoscandia
* Baltoscandia
* Jutland
* Gotland
* Sápmi
* Ingria
* West Nordic
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Iceland
* Faroe Islands
* British Isles

East|

* Danubian countries
* Prussia
* Galicia
* Volhynia
* Wallachia
* Transylvania
* Moldavia
* Bukovina
* Bessarabia
* Livonia
* Ruthenia
* Carpathian Ruthenia
* Donbass
* Sloboda Ukraine
* Sambia Peninsula
* Amber Coast
* Curonian Spit
* Izyum Trail
* Lithuania Minor
* Nemunas Delta
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Vyborg Bay
* Karelia
* East Karelia
* Karelian Isthmus
* Lokhaniemi
* Southeastern
* Crimea
* Epirus
* Rumelia
* Balkans
* Aegean Sea
* Aegean Islands
* Attica
* Boeotia
* Opuntian Locris
* Phocis
* Megaris
* Peloponnese
* Chalkidiki
* Aetolia
* Gulf of Chania
* North Caucasus
* Greater Caucasus
* Kabardia
* Istria
* European Russia
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Taman Peninsula
* Southern Russia
* Kola Peninsula

Central|

* North European Plain
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Alpine states
* Alpide belt
* Visegrád Group
* Rhineland
* Eastphalia
* Westphalia
* Prussia
* Lusatia
* Bohemia
* Moravia
* Silesia
* Czech Silesia
* Pomerania
* Pomerelia
* Kashubia
* Bukovina
* Istria
* Transdanubia
* Polesia
* Germania
* Germania Slavica

West|

* Benelux
* Low Countries
* Northwest
* British Isles
* English Channel
* Channel Islands
* Cotentin Peninsula
* Doggerland
* Upper Rhine Plain
* Upper Rhine
* Gaul
* Gascony
* Normandy
* Brittany
* Septimania
* Batavia
* Gulf of Lion
* Iberia
* Al-Andalus
* Baetic System
* Pyrenees
* Alpide belt

South|

* Po Valley (Padania)
* Italian Peninsula
* Tuscan Archipelago
* Insular Italy
* Aegadian Islands
* Occitania
* Iberia
* Al-Andalus
* Baetic System
* Gibraltar Arc
* Southeastern
* Mediterranean
* Alpide belt

* Germanic
* Romance
* Celtic
* Slavic countries
* European Plain
* Eurasian Steppe
* Pontic–Caspian steppe
* Wild Fields
* Pannonian Basin
* Great Hungarian Plain
* Little Hungarian Plain
* Eastern Slovak Lowland

* v
* t
* e

Regions of North America

North
(Canada)|

| Eastern|

* Central Canada
* Atlantic Canada
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* Great Lakes region

|

Western|

* Pacific Northwest
* Prairie Pothole Region

Northern|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Greenland

* Canadian Prairies
* The Maritimes
* French Canada
* English Canada
* Acadia
* Acadian Peninsula
* Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
* Peace River Country
* Cypress Hills
* Palliser's Triangle
* Canadian Shield
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Kodiak Island
* Newfoundland (island)
* Vancouver Island
* Gulf Islands
* Strait of Georgia
* Labrador Peninsula
* Gaspé Peninsula
* Avalon Peninsula
* Bay de Verde Peninsula
* Brodeur Peninsula
* Melville Peninsula
* Bruce Peninsula
* Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
* Cook Peninsula
* Gulf of Boothia
* Georgian Bay
* Hudson Bay
* James Bay

North
(United States)|

| Arctic|

* Aleutian Arc
* Aleutian Range
* Alaska Peninsula
* Aleutian Islands
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Bering Strait
* Gulf of Alaska

|

Eastern|

* East Coast
* Northeast
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* New England
* Mid-Atlantic
* Commonwealth
* Southeast

Western|

* West Coast
* Mountain states
* Intermountain West
* Great Basin
* Basin and Range Province
* Northwestern United States
* Inland Northwest
* Pacific Northwest
* Southwest
* Old Southwest
* Four Corners

Central|

* Great Lakes
* Tallgrass prairie
* Midwest
* Upper Midwest
* South Central
* Gulf Coast

Southern|

* Deep South
* Old South
* Upland South
* Santa Fe de Nuevo México

* Pacific Coast Ranges
* Oregon Trail
* Mormon Corridor
* Calumet Region
* Llano Estacado
* Third Coast
* Backcountry
* Trans-Mississippi
* Great North Woods
* Great Plains
* Interior Plains
* Great Basin
* Great Basin Desert
* Acadia
* Ozarks
* Ark-La-Tex
* Waxhaws
* Siouxland
* Twin Tiers
* Driftless Area
* Palouse
* Piedmont
* Atlantic coastal plain
* Outer Lands
* Black Dirt Region
* Blackstone Valley
* Piney Woods
* Rocky Mountains
* Mojave Desert
* The Dakotas
* The Carolinas
* Shawnee Hills
* San Fernando Valley
* Tornado Alley
* North Coast
* Lost Coast
* Emerald Triangle
* San Francisco Bay Area
* San Francisco Bay
* North Bay
* East Bay
* Silicon Valley
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Gulf of Mexico
* Lower Colorado River Valley
* Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
* Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
* Colville Delta
* Arkansas Delta
* Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
* Mississippi Delta
* Mississippi River Delta
* Columbia River Estuary
* Great Basin
* High Desert
* Monterey Peninsula
* Upper Peninsula of Michigan
* Lower Peninsula of Michigan
* Virginia Peninsula
* Keweenaw Peninsula
* Middle Peninsula
* Delmarva Peninsula
* Alaska Peninsula
* Kenai Peninsula
* Niagara Peninsula
* "Belt" regions
* Bible Belt
* Black Belt
* Corn Belt
* Cotton Belt
* Frost Belt
* Rice Belt
* Rust Belt
* Sun Belt
* Snow Belt

Middle|

| Northern|

* Basin and Range Province
* Baja California Peninsula
* Gulf of California
* Colorado River Delta
* Gulf of Mexico

|

Southern|

* Soconusco
* Tierra Caliente
* La Mixteca
* La Huasteca
* Bajío
* Valley of Mexico
* Mezquital Valley
* Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
* Yucatán Peninsula
* Gulf of Mexico

Central|

* Northern Triangle of Central America
* Western Caribbean Zone
* Isthmus of Panama
* Gulf of Panama
* Pearl Islands
* Azuero Peninsula
* Mosquito Coast

Caribbean|

* Antilles
* Greater Antilles
* Lesser Antilles
* Leeward
* Leeward Antilles
* Windward
* Lucayan Archipelago
* Southern Caribbean
* West Indies

* Aridoamerica
* Mesoamerica
* Oasisamerica
* Anglo
* Latin
* French
* Hispanic
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Oceania

Australia|

| Australian Capital Territory|

* Australian Capital Territory

|

New South Wales|

* Central Coast
* Central Tablelands
* Central Western Slopes
* Greater Western Sydney
* Hunter
* Mid North Coast
* Northern Rivers
* North West Slopes
* Northern Tablelands
* Riverina
* South Coast
* South West Slopes
* Southern Tablelands
* Western Plains

Northern Territory|

* Arnhem Land
* Barkly Tableland
* Central Australia
* Darwin
* Katherine

Queensland|

* Central West
* Central
* Darling Downs
* Far North
* Gulf Country
* North
* South East
* South West
* Wide Bay–Burnett

South Australia|

* Adelaide Hills
* Barossa Light and Lower North
* Eastern Adelaide
* Eyre Western
* Far North
* Fleurieu and Kangaroo Island
* Limestone Coast
* Murray and Mallee
* Northern Adelaide
* Southern Adelaide
* Western Adelaide
* Yorke and Mid North

Tasmania|

* Central Highlands
* East Coast
* Midlands
* North East
* North West
* Northern
* South West
* Southern
* West Coast

Victoria|

* Barwon South West
* Gippsland
* Grampians
* Greater Melbourne
* Hume
* Loddon Mallee

Western Australia|

* Gascoyne
* Goldfields-Esperance
* Great Southern
* Kimberley
* Mid West
* Peel
* Pilbara
* South West
* Wheatbelt

Melanesia|

* Islands Region
* Bismarck Archipelago
* Solomon Islands
* North Solomon Islands
* Solomon Islands
* Fiji
* New Caledonia
* New Guinea
* Bonis Peninsula
* Papuan Peninsula
* Huon Peninsula
* Huon Gulf
* Bird's Head Peninsula
* Gazelle Peninsula
* Vanuatu

Micronesia|

* Caroline Islands
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Palau
* Kiribati
* Mariana Islands
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* Wake Island

Polynesia|

* Easter Island
* Hawaiian Islands
* Cook Islands
* French Polynesia
* Austral Islands
* Gambier Islands
* Mangareva Islands
* Marquesas Islands
* Society Islands
* Tuamotus
* Kermadec Islands
* New Zealand
* South Island
* North Island
* Niue
* Pitcairn Islands
* Samoan Islands
* American Samoa
* Independent State of Samoa
* Tokelau
* Tonga
* Tuvalu

* Asia-Pacific
* Ring of Fire

* v
* t
* e

Regions of South America

East|

* Amazon basin
* Atlantic Forest
* Caatinga
* Cerrado

North|

* Caribbean South America
* West Indies
* Los Llanos
* The Guianas
* Amazon basin
* Amazon rainforest
* Gulf of Paria
* Paria Peninsula
* Paraguaná Peninsula
* Orinoco Delta

South|

* Tierra del Fuego
* Patagonia
* Pampas
* Pantanal
* Gran Chaco
* Chiquitano dry forests
* Valdes Peninsula
* Triple Frontier
* Río de la Plata
* Río de la Plata Basin

West|

* Andes
* Tropical Andes
* Wet Andes
* Dry Andes
* Pariacaca mountain range
* Altiplano
* Atacama Desert

* Latin
* Hispanic
* Bolivarian
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Polar regions of Earth

Antarctic|

* Antarctic Peninsula
* East Antarctica
* West Antarctica
* Eklund Islands
* Ecozone
* Extreme points
* Islands

Arctic|

* Arctic Alaska
* British Arctic Territories
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Finnmark
* Greenland
* Northern Canada
* Northwest Territories
* Nunavik
* Nunavut
* Russian Arctic
* Sakha
* Sápmi
* Yukon
* North American Arctic

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Borders of the oceans

Arctic Ocean|

* Amundsen Gulf
* Barents Sea
* Beaufort Sea
* Chukchi Sea
* East Siberian Sea
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Boothia
* Kara Sea
* Laptev Sea
* Lincoln Sea
* Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
* Pechora Sea
* Queen Victoria Sea
* Wandel Sea
* White Sea

Atlantic Ocean|

* Adriatic Sea
* Aegean Sea
* Alboran Sea
* Archipelago Sea
* Argentine Sea
* Baffin Bay
* Balearic Sea
* Baltic Sea
* Bay of Biscay
* Bay of Bothnia
* Bay of Campeche
* Bay of Fundy
* Black Sea
* Bothnian Sea
* Caribbean Sea
* Celtic Sea
* English Channel
* Foxe Basin
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Gulf of Lion
* Gulf of Guinea
* Gulf of Maine
* Gulf of Mexico
* Gulf of Saint Lawrence
* Gulf of Sidra
* Gulf of Venezuela
* Hudson Bay
* Ionian Sea
* Irish Sea
* Irminger Sea
* James Bay
* Labrador Sea
* Levantine Sea
* Libyan Sea
* Ligurian Sea
* Marmara Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Myrtoan Sea
* North Sea
* Norwegian Sea
* Sargasso Sea
* Sea of Åland
* Sea of Azov
* Sea of Crete
* Sea of the Hebrides
* Thracian Sea
* Tyrrhenian Sea
* Wadden Sea

Indian Ocean|

* Andaman Sea
* Arabian Sea
* Bali Sea
* Bay of Bengal
* Flores Sea
* Great Australian Bight
* Gulf of Aden
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Gulf of Oman
* Gulf of Suez
* Java Sea
* Laccadive Sea
* Mozambique Channel
* Persian Gulf
* Red Sea
* Timor Sea

Pacific Ocean|

* Arafura Sea
* Banda Sea
* Bering Sea
* Bismarck Sea
* Bohai Sea
* Bohol Sea
* Camotes Sea
* Celebes Sea
* Chilean Sea
* Coral Sea
* East China Sea
* Gulf of Alaska
* Gulf of Anadyr
* Gulf of California
* Gulf of Carpentaria
* Gulf of Fonseca
* Gulf of Panama
* Gulf of Thailand
* Gulf of Tonkin
* Halmahera Sea
* Koro Sea
* Mar de Grau
* Molucca Sea
* Moro Gulf
* Philippine Sea
* Salish Sea
* Savu Sea
* Sea of Japan
* Sea of Okhotsk
* Seram Sea
* Seto Inland Sea
* Shantar Sea
* Sibuyan Sea
* Solomon Sea
* South China Sea
* Sulu Sea
* Tasman Sea
* Visayan Sea
* Yellow Sea

Southern Ocean|

* Amundsen Sea
* Bellingshausen Sea
* Cooperation Sea
* Cosmonauts Sea
* Davis Sea
* D'Urville Sea
* King Haakon VII Sea
* Lazarev Sea
* Mawson Sea
* Riiser-Larsen Sea
* Ross Sea
* Scotia Sea
* Somov Sea
* Weddell Sea

Endorheic basins|

* Aral Sea
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Salton Sea

* Book
* Category

[ ⚑ ]  50°N 30°E﻿ / ﻿50°N 30°E﻿ / 50; 30

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