Hypnotherapy

Short description: Type of complementary and alternative medicine

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* v
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* e

Hypnotherapy, also known as hypnotic medicine,[1] is a use of hypnosis in psychotherapy.[2][3] Hypnotherapy is viewed as a helpful adjunct therapy by proponents, having additive effects when treating psychological disorders, such as depression, anxiety, eating disorders, sleep disorders, compulsive gambling, phobias and post-traumatic stress,[4][5] along with cognitive therapies. The effectiveness of hypnotherapy is not adequately supported by scientific evidence,[1][6][7] and due to the lack of evidence indicating any level of efficiency,[8] it is regarded as a type of alternative medicine by reputable medical organisations such as the National Health Service.[9]

## Contents

* 1 Definition
* 1.1 Traditional
* 1.2 Ericksonian
* 1.3 Solution-focused
* 1.4 Cognitive/behavioral
* 1.5 Curative
* 1.6 Mindful
* 1.7 Relationship to scientific medicine
* 2 Uses
* 2.1 Menopause
* 2.2 Irritable bowel syndrome
* 2.3 Childbirth
* 2.4 Bulimia
* 2.5 Anxiety
* 2.6 PTSD
* 2.7 Depression
* 2.8 Other uses
* 3 Efficacy
* 4 Occupational accreditation
* 4.1 United States
* 4.2 United Kingdom
* 4.2.1 UK National Occupational Standards
* 4.2.2 UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations (UKCHO)
* 4.2.3 The National Council for Hypnotherapy (NCH)
* 4.3 Australia
* 5 See also
* 6 References

## Definition

The United States Department of Labor's Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) describes the job of the hypnotherapist:

> "Induces hypnotic state in client to increase motivation or alter behavior patterns: Consults with client to determine nature of problem. Prepares client to enter hypnotic state by explaining how hypnosis works and what client will experience. Tests subject to determine degree of physical and emotional suggestibility. Induces hypnotic state in client, using individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based on interpretation of test results and analysis of client's problem. May train client in self-hypnosis conditioning."[10]

### Traditional

The form of hypnotherapy practiced by most Victorian hypnotists, including James Braid and Hippolyte Bernheim, mainly employed direct suggestion of symptom removal, with some use of therapeutic relaxation and occasionally aversion to alcohol, drugs, etc.[11]

### Ericksonian

In the 1950s, Milton H. Erickson developed a radically different approach to hypnotism, which has subsequently become known as "Ericksonian hypnotherapy" or "Neo-Ericksonian hypnotherapy." Based on his belief that dysfunctional behaviors were defined by social tension, Erickson coopted the subject's behavior to establish rapport, a strategy he termed "utilization." Once rapport was established, he made use of an informal conversational approach to direct awareness. His methods included complex language patterns and client-specific therapeutic strategies (reflecting the nature of utilization). He claimed to have developed ways to suggest behavior changes during apparently ordinary conversation.[12]

This divergence from tradition led some, including Andre Weitzenhoffer, to dispute whether Erickson was right to label his approach "hypnosis" at all.[13] Erickson's foundational paper, however, considers hypnosis as a mental state in which specific types of "work" may be done, rather than a technique of induction.[14]

The founders of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), a method somewhat similar in some regards to some versions of hypnotherapy, claimed that they had modelled the work of Erickson extensively and assimilated it into their approach.[15][16] Weitzenhoffer disputed whether NLP bears any genuine resemblance to Erickson's work.[13]

### Solution-focused

In the 2000s, hypnotherapists began to combine aspects of solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) with Ericksonian hypnotherapy to produce therapy that was goal-focused (what the client wanted to achieve) rather than the more traditional problem-focused approach (spending time discussing the issues that brought the client to seek help). A solution-focused hypnotherapy session may include techniques from NLP.[17]

### Cognitive/behavioral

Cognitive behavioral hypnotherapy (CBH) is an integrated psychological therapy employing clinical hypnosis and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).[18] The use of CBT in conjunction with hypnotherapy may result in greater treatment effectiveness. A meta-analysis of eight different researches revealed "a 70% greater improvement" for patients undergoing an integrated treatment to those using CBT only.[19]

In 1974, Theodore X. Barber and his colleagues published a review of the research which argued, following the earlier social psychology of Theodore R. Sarbin, that hypnotism was better understood not as a "special state" but as the result of normal psychological variables, such as active imagination, expectation, appropriate attitudes, and motivation.[20] Barber introduced the term "cognitive-behavioral" to describe the nonstate theory of hypnotism, and discussed its application to behavior therapy.

The growing application of cognitive and behavioral psychological theories and concepts to the explanation of hypnosis paved the way for a closer integration of hypnotherapy with various cognitive and behavioral therapies.[21]

Many cognitive and behavioral therapies were themselves originally influenced by older hypnotherapy techniques,[22] e.g., the systematic desensitisation of Joseph Wolpe, the cardinal technique of early behavior therapy, was originally called "hypnotic desensitisation"[23] and derived from the Medical Hypnosis (1948) of Lewis Wolberg.[24]

### Curative

Dr. Peter Marshall, author of A Handbook of Hypnotherapy, devised the Trance Theory of Mental Illness, which asserts that people suffering from depression, or certain other kinds of neuroses, are already living in a trance. He asserts that this means the hypnotherapist does not need to induce trance, but instead to make them understand this and lead them out of it.[25]

### Mindful

Mindful hypnotherapy is therapy that incorporates mindfulness and hypnotherapy. A pilot study was made at Baylor University, Texas, and published in the International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. Dr. Gary Elkins, director of the Mind-Body Medicine Research Laboratory at Baylor University called it "a valuable option for treating anxiety and stress reduction” and "an innovative mind-body therapy". The study showed a decrease in stress and an increase in mindfulness.[26]

### Relationship to scientific medicine

Hypnotherapy practitioners occasionally attract the attention of mainstream medicine. Attempts to instill academic rigor have been frustrated by the complexity of client suggestibility, which has social and cultural aspects, including the reputation of the practitioner. Results achieved in one time and center of study have not been reliably transmitted to future generations.[27]

In the 1700s Anton Mesmer offered pseudoscientific justification for his practices, but his rationalizations were debunked by a commission that included Benjamin Franklin.

## Uses

This section's representation of one or more viewpoints about a controversial issue may be unbalanced or inaccurate. Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page. (December 2022)

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Clinicians choose hypnotherapy to address a wide range of circumstances; however, according to Yeates (2016), people choose to have hypnotherapy for many other reasons:

"Ignoring specific issues such as performance anxiety, road rage, weight, smoking, drinking, unsafe sex, etc., those seeking hypnotherapy today do so because of ill-defined, vague feelings that: (a) their health is far from optimal; (b) their worry about past/present/future events is excessive and debilitating; (c) they are not comfortable with who they are; (d) they're not performing up to the level of their true potential; and/or (e) their lives are lacking some significant (but unidentified) thing."[28]

### Menopause

There is evidence supporting the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of menopause related symptoms, including hot flashes.[29][30][31] The North American Menopause Society recommends hypnotherapy for the nonhormonal management of menopause-associated vasomotor symptoms, giving it the highest level of evidence.[32]

### Irritable bowel syndrome

The use of hypnotherapy in treating the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome is supported by research, including randomized controlled trials.[33][34][35][36] A 2015 audit of 1000 patients undertaking gut-focused hypnotherapy in normal clinical practice found that hypnotherapy was an effective intervention for refractory IBS.[37] Gut-directed hypnotherapy is recommended in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome by the American College of Gastroenterology clinical guideline for the management of IBS.[38]

### Childbirth

Hypnotherapy is often applied in the birthing process and the post-natal period,[39][40][41][42][43] but there is insufficient evidence to determine if it alleviates pain during childbirth[44][45] and no evidence that it is effective against post-natal depression.[46]

### Bulimia

Literature shows that a wide variety of hypnotic interventions have been investigated for the treatment of bulimia nervosa, with inconclusive effect.[47] Similar studies have shown that groups suffering from bulimia nervosa, undergoing hypnotherapy, were more exceptional to no treatment, placebos, or other alternative treatments.[47]

### Anxiety

Hypnotherapy is shown to be comparable in effectiveness to other forms of therapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, that utilize relaxation techniques and imagery.[48] It has also shown to be successful when used to reduce anxiety in those with dental anxiety and phobias.[49]

### PTSD

Professor Charcot, his students, and a woman experiencing hysteria.

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and its symptoms have been shown to improve due to implementation of hypnotherapy, in both long and short term.[50] As research continues, hypnotherapy is being more openly considered as an effective intervention for those with PTSD.[51]

### Depression

Hypnotherapy has been shown to be effective when used to treat long term depressive symptoms. It has been shown to be comparable to the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy, and when used in tandem, efficacy seems to increase.[52]

### Other uses

Among its many other applications in other medical domains,[53] hypnotism was used therapeutically, by some alienists in the Victorian era, to treat the condition then known as hysteria.[54]

Modern hypnotherapy is widely accepted for the treatment of certain habit disorders, to control irrational fears,[55][56] as well as in the treatment of conditions such as insomnia[57] and addiction.[58] Hypnosis has also been used to enhance recovery from non-psychological conditions such as after surgical procedures,[59] in breast cancer care[60] and even with gastro-intestinal problems.[61]

## Efficacy

* A 2003 meta-analysis on the efficacy of hypnotherapy concluded that "the efficacy of hypnosis is not verified for a considerable part of the spectrum of psychotherapeutic practice."[62]
* In 2007, a meta-analysis from the Cochrane Collaboration found that the therapeutic effect of hypnotherapy was "superior to that of a waiting list control or usual medical management, for abdominal pain and composite primary IBS symptoms, in the short term in patients who fail standard medical therapy", with no harmful side-effects. However the authors noted that the quality of data available was inadequate to draw any firm conclusions.[63]
* Two Cochrane reviews in 2012 concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support its efficacy in managing the pain of childbirth[44] or post-natal depression.[46]
* A 2014 meta-analysis that focused on hypnotherapy's efficacy on irritable bowel syndrome found that it was beneficial for short term abdominal pain and other gastrointestinal issues.[64]
* In 2016, a literature review published in La Presse Médicale found that there is not sufficient evidence to "support the efficacy of hypnosis in chronic anxiety disorders".[65]
* In 2019, a Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of benefit of hypnosis in smoking cessation, and suggested if there is, it is small at best.[66]
* A 2019 meta-analysis of hypnosis as a treatment for anxiety found that "the average participant receiving hypnosis reduced anxiety more than about 79% of control participants," also noting that "hypnosis was more effective in reducing anxiety when combined with other psychological interventions than when used as a stand-alone treatment."[67]
* In a 2022 meta-analysis on hypnotherapy's efficacy on dental anxiety, it was found that "hypnosis can also be regarded as powerful and successful method for anxiety reduction," but also stated that further research is required.[49]

## Occupational accreditation

### United States

The laws regarding hypnosis and hypnotherapy vary by state and municipality. Some states, like Colorado, Connecticut and Washington, have mandatory licensing and registration requirements, while many other states have no specific regulations governing the practice of hypnotherapy.[68]

### United Kingdom

#### UK National Occupational Standards

In 2002, the Department for Education and Skills developed National Occupational Standards for hypnotherapy[69] linked to National Vocational Qualifications based on the then National Qualifications Framework under the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. NCFE, a national awarding body, issues level four national vocational qualification diploma in hypnotherapy. Currently AIM Awards offers a Level 3 Certificate in Hypnotherapy and Counselling Skills at level 3 of the Regulated Qualifications Framework.[70]

#### UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations (UKCHO)

The regulation of the hypnotherapy profession in the UK is at present the main focus of UKCHO, a non-profit umbrella body for hypnotherapy organisations. Founded in 1998 to provide a non-political arena to discuss and implement changes to the profession of hypnotherapy, UKCHO currently represents 9 of the UK's professional hypnotherapy organisations and has developed standards of training for hypnotherapists, along with codes of conduct and practice that all UKCHO registered hypnotherapists are governed by. As a step towards the regulation of the profession, UKCHO's website now includes a National Public Register of Hypnotherapists[71] who have been registered by UKCHO's Member Organisations and are therefore subject to UKCHO's professional standards. Further steps to full regulation of the hypnotherapy profession will be taken in consultation with the Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health.

#### The National Council for Hypnotherapy (NCH)

The National Council for Hypnotherapy is a Professional Association, established in 1973 to create a National Membership Organisation for independent Hypnotherapy Practitioners. The organisation is not for profit, with a Board of around 12 people (this can vary slightly) composed of volunteer Directors, usually in practice Hypnotherapists and paid executives.

NCH membership meet the hypnotherapy training standards and agree to follow the CECP; the NCH’s ethical code of practice, all members are expected to be insured to practice and meet supervision requirements and annual CPD expectations. [72]

### Australia

Professional hypnotherapy and use of the occupational titles hypnotherapist or clinical hypnotherapist are not government-regulated in Australia.

In 1996, as a result of a three-year research project led by Lindsay B. Yeates, the Australian Hypnotherapists Association (founded in 1949), the oldest hypnotism-oriented professional organization in Australia, instituted a peer-group accreditation system for full-time Australian professional hypnotherapists, the first of its kind in the world, which "accredit[ed] specific individuals on the basis of their actual demonstrated knowledge and clinical performance; instead of approving particular 'courses' or approving particular 'teaching institutions'" (Yeates, 1996, p.iv; 1999, p.xiv).[73] The system was further revised in 1999.[74]

Australian hypnotism/hypnotherapy organizations (including the Australian Hypnotherapists Association) are seeking government regulation similar to other mental health professions. However, currently hypnotherapy is not subject to government regulation through the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA).

## See also

* Unsolved:Atavistic regression - Reversion to a more primitive mental state under hypnosis
* Philosophy:Astral projection - Interpretation of out-of-body experiences
* Unsolved:Autogenic training - Relaxation technique
* Autosuggestion
* Doctor of Clinical Hypnotherapy
* Hypnotherapy in the United Kingdom
* Hypnosis
* Hypnosurgery
* The Pregnant Man and Other Cases from a Hypnotherapist's Couch
* Psychotherapy
* Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
* Scientific skepticism
* Subconscious mind
* Suggestibility
* The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Häuser, Winfried; Hagl, Maria; Schmierer, Albrecht; Hansen, Ernil (April 2016). "The Efficacy, Safety and Applications of Medical Hypnosis". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International 113 (17): 289–296. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2016.0289. ISSN 1866-0452. PMID 27173407.
2. ↑ "Hypnotherapy | University of Maryland Medical Center". 27 June 2013. https://umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/treatment/hypnotherapy.
3. ↑ "Australian Society of Clinical Hypnotherapists". https://www.asch.com.au/general-public/faq#6.
4. ↑ Deirdre Barrett (1998). The Pregnant Man: Tales from a Hypnotherapist's Couch (1998/hardback, 1999 paper ed.). NY: Times Books/Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-2905-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=O_cEAAAACAAJ. Retrieved 7 November 2015.
5. ↑ Assen Alladin (2008). Cognitive hypnotherapy: an integrated approach to the treatment of emotional disorders. J. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-03251-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=B0hMPgAACAAJ. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
6. ↑ Flammer, Erich; Bongartz, Walter (2006). "On the efficacy of hypnosis: a meta-analytic study" (in en). Contemporary Hypnosis (Wiley) 20 (4): 179–197. doi:10.1002/ch.277. ISSN 0960-5290. http://www.hypnose-kikh.de/content/Metaanalyse-Flammer-2004.pdf. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
7. ↑ Chan, Natalie A.; Zhang, Zhisong; Yin, Guoxing; Li, Zhimeng; Ho, Roger C. (November 2023). "Update on hypnotherapy for psychiatrists" (in en). BJPsych Advances 29 (6): 381–387. doi:10.1192/bja.2021.54. ISSN 2056-4678. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-advances/article/abs/update-on-hypnotherapy-for-psychiatrists/F8BCC7AABAEDCD28D625DBC48D51CBE1.
8. ↑ Barnes, Joanne; McRobbie, Hayden; Dong, Christine Y; Walker, Natalie; Hartmann-Boyce, Jamie (2019-06-14). "Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Wiley) 2019 (6): CD001008. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001008.pub3. ISSN 1465-1858. PMID 31198991.
9. ↑ "Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) | Health Careers". https://www.healthcareers.nhs.uk/explore-roles/wider-healthcare-team/roles-wider-healthcare-team/clinical-support-staff/complementary-and-alternative-medicine-cam.
10. ↑ "Dictionary of Occupational Titles: Hypnotherapist (079.157-010)". U.S. Department of Labor, Office of Administrative Law Judges. https://www.oalj.dol.gov/PUBLIC/DOT/REFERENCES/DOT01C.HTM.
11. ↑ "Covert sensitization revisited: six case studies". Contemporary Hypnosis 22 (4): 202–209. 2005. doi:10.1002/ch.10.
12. ↑ "Deep Hypnosis and Its Induction," M. Erickson, Experimental Hypnosis, Leslie M. LeCron (ed.), New York, Macmillan: 70-114
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 The practice of hypnotism (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 2000. ISBN 9780471297901. OCLC 606253084.
14. ↑ "Deep Hypnosis and Its Induction," M. Erickson, Experimental Hypnosis, Leslie M. LeCron (ed.), New York, Macmillan: 70–114.
15. ↑ Patterns of the hypnotic techniques of Milton H. Erickson. 1. Grinder & Associates. 1976. ISBN 978-1-55552-052-6.
16. ↑ "Milton Hyland Erickson". The American Journal of Psychiatry 162 (7): 1255. 2005. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1255.
17. ↑ "Solution Focused Brief Therapy". June 9, 2017. http://afsfh.com/solution-focused-brief-therapy/.
18. ↑ The Practice of Cognitive-Behavioural Hypnotherapy: A Manual for Evidence-Based Clinical Hypnosis. London: Karnac. 2012. ISBN 978-1855755307. https://books.google.com/books?id=um6_7kEszusC.
19. ↑ "Hypnosis as an adjunct to cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy: a meta-analysis". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 63 (2): 214–220. April 1995. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.63.2.214. PMID 7751482.
20. ↑ Hypnotism, imagination, and human potentialities. Pergamon Press. 1974. OCLC 912492464. https://archive.org/details/hypnosisimaginat00barb.
21. ↑ "The additive benefit of hypnosis and cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating acute stress disorder". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 73 (2): 334–340. April 2005. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.2.334. PMID 15796641.
22. ↑ "Behavior therapeutic techniques and hypnotherapeutic methods". The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 15 (2): 71–82. October 1972. doi:10.1080/00029157.1972.10402222. PMID 4679810.
23. ↑ "Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition". Conditional Reflex 3 (4): 234–40. 1958. doi:10.1007/BF03000093. ISBN 978-0804705097. PMID 5712667.
24. ↑ Medical hypnosis. 2. Grune & Stratton. 1948. OCLC 881360526.
25. ↑ A Handbook of Hypnotherapy. Bexhill-on-Sea: Oakley Books. 2012. ISBN 978-0-9569784-5-5.
26. ↑ "Brief Mindful Hypnotherapy Shown to Ease Stress & Anxiety" (in en-US). 2020-06-18. https://psychcentral.com/news/2020/06/18/brief-mindful-hypnotherapy-shown-to-ease-stress-anxiety/157426.html.
27. ↑ The Cure Within: A History of Mind-Body Medicine. W.W. Norton & Company. 2008. ISBN 978-0-393-06563-3.
28. ↑ "Émile Coué and his Method (I): The Chemist of Thought and Human Action". Australian Journal of Clinical Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis 38 (1): 3–27. 2016. http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:47777/bin55efd6f6-374a-478d-8f8d-cf96f616d62f?view=true&xy=01. : 7
29. ↑ "Clinical hypnosis in the treatment of postmenopausal hot flashes: a randomized controlled trial". Menopause 20 (3): 291–298. March 2013. doi:10.1097/GME.0b013e31826ce3ed. PMID 23435026.
30. ↑ "Hypnosis for Hot Flashes and Associated Symptomsin Women with Breast Cancer". The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 60 (2): 123–136. October 2017. doi:10.1080/00029157.2017.1334622. PMID 28891773.
31. ↑ The Royal Women's Hospital. "CBT and hypnosis effective in treating menopause" (in en). https://www.thewomens.org.au/news/cbt-and-hypnosis-effective-in-treating-menopause.
32. ↑ "Nonhormonal management of menopause-associated vasomotor symptoms: 2015 position statement of The North American Menopause Society". Menopause 22 (11): 1155–1172; quiz 1173–1174. November 2015. doi:10.1097/GME.0000000000000546. PMID 26382310.
33. ↑ "Randomised clinical trial: the efficacy of gut-directed hypnotherapy is similar to that of the low FODMAP diet for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 44 (5): 447–459. September 2016. doi:10.1111/apt.13706. PMID 27397586.
34. ↑ "Gut-directed hypnotherapy for functional abdominal pain or irritable bowel syndrome in children: a systematic review". Archives of Disease in Childhood 98 (4): 252–257. April 2013. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2012-302906. PMID 23220208.
35. ↑ "Efficacy of individual and group hypnotherapy in irritable bowel syndrome (IMAGINE): a multicentre randomised controlled trial". The Lancet. Gastroenterology & Hepatology 4 (1): 20–31. January 2019. doi:10.1016/S2468-1253(18)30310-8. PMID 30473202. https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/files/84611432/Main_document_changes_accepted.docx.
36. ↑ "Controlled trial of hypnotherapy in the treatment of severe refractory irritable-bowel syndrome". Lancet 2 (8414): 1232–1234. December 1984. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(84)92793-4. PMID 6150275.
37. ↑ "Hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome: an audit of one thousand adult patients". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 41 (9): 844–855. May 2015. doi:10.1111/apt.13145. PMID 25736234.
38. ↑ "ACG Clinical Guideline: Management of Irritable Bowel Syndrome" (in en-US). The American Journal of Gastroenterology 116 (1): 17–44. January 2021. doi:10.14309/ajg.0000000000001036. PMID 33315591.
39. ↑ Childbirth without fear: the principles and practice of natural childbirth. Pinter & Martin. 2004. ISBN 978-0-9530964-6-6. https://archive.org/details/childbirthwithou00mich. [page needed]
40. ↑ "Non-pharmacological Methods for Relief of Labor Pain". Obstetric Anesthesia Handbook. 2010. pp. 85–93. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-88602-2_7. ISBN 978-0-387-88601-5.
41. ↑ "HypnoBirthing". The Australian Journal of Holistic Nursing 12 (1): 41–42. April 2005. PMID 19175270. http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=492196603589508;res=IELHEA. Retrieved 22 September 2012.
42. ↑ "HypnoBirthing. A radical change on our perspective of pain in childbirth". Midwifery Today with International Midwife (55): 36–38. 2000. PMID 11189565.
43. ↑ "Hypnosis: removing the labour from birth". The Practising Midwife 9 (3): 26–7, 29. March 2006. PMID 16562656.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Pain management for women in labour: an overview of systematic reviews". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3 (3): CD009234. March 2012. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009234.pub2. PMID 22419342.
45. ↑ Madden, Kelly; Middleton, Philippa; Cyna, Allan M; Matthewson, Mandy; Jones, Leanne (2016-05-19). "Hypnosis for pain management during labour and childbirth". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016 (5). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009356.pub3. PMC 7120324. https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009356.pub3/full.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Hypnosis during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postnatal period for preventing postnatal depression". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 6 (6): CD009062. June 2012. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009062.pub2. PMID 22696381.
47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Cognitive hypnotherapy with bulimia". The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 54 (4): 353–364. April 2012. doi:10.1080/00029157.2012.658122. PMID 22655335.
48. ↑ "Cognitive hypnotherapy for anxiety disorders". The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 54 (4): 263–274. April 2012. doi:10.1080/00029157.2011.650333. PMID 22655330.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Wolf, Thomas Gerhard; Schläppi, Sina; Benz, Carla Irene; Campus, Guglielmo (2022-04-20). "Efficacy of Hypnosis on Dental Anxiety and Phobia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Brain Sciences 12 (5): 521. doi:10.3390/brainsci12050521. ISSN 2076-3425. PMID 35624907.
50. ↑ Rotaru, Tudor-Ștefan; Rusu, Andrei (2016-01-02). "A Meta-Analysis for the Efficacy of Hypnotherapy in Alleviating PTSD Symptoms". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 64 (1): 116–136. doi:10.1080/00207144.2015.1099406. ISSN 0020-7144. PMID 26599995. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207144.2015.1099406.
51. ↑ Lynn, Steven Jay; Malakataris, Anne; Condon, Liam; Maxwell, Reed; Cleere, Colleen (April 2012). "Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Cognitive Hypnotherapy, Mindfulness, and Acceptance-Based Treatment Approaches". American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 54 (4): 311–330. doi:10.1080/00029157.2011.645913. ISSN 0002-9157. PMID 22655333. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00029157.2011.645913.
52. ↑ A., Chapman, Robin (2006). The clinical use of hypnosis in cognitive behavior therapy : a practitioner's casebook. Springer Pub. ISBN 0-8261-2884-X. OCLC 60671838. http://worldcat.org/oclc/60671838.
53. ↑ The Harveian Oration on Experimental Psychology and Hypnotism Delivered before the Royal College of Physicians of London, October 18, 1909. London: Henry Frowde. 1909. https://archive.org/details/b24976106.
54. ↑ "Conversion hysteria: History, diagnostic issues, and clinical practice". Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 4 (3): 165–180. 1999. doi:10.1080/135468099395909.
55. ↑ "Phobias and intense fears: Facilitating their treatment with hypnosis". Handbook of clinical hypnosis. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. 1993. pp. 311–337. doi:10.1037/10274-015. ISBN 978-1-55798-440-1.
56. ↑ "Hypnosis with a 31-year-old female with dental phobia requiring emergency extraction". Contemporary Hypnosis 23 (2): 83–91. 2006. doi:10.1002/ch.312. http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4531139/Gow-Hypnosis_31_year_old_female_dental_phobia.pdf.
57. ↑ The pregnant man: tales from a hypnotherapist's couch. New York: Times Books. 1998. ISBN 9780812929058. https://books.google.com/books?id=O_cEAAAACAAJ.
58. ↑ "Hypnosis and the addictions: a critical review". Addictive Behaviors 5 (1): 41–47. 1980-01-01. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(80)90020-9. PMID 6994434.
59. ↑ "Hypnosis for rehabilitation after stroke: Six case studies". Contemporary Hypnosis 23 (4): 173–180. 2006. doi:10.1002/ch.319. http://biorobotics.harvard.edu/pubs/2006/journal/Diamond2006 - Hypnosis stroke case studies.pdf.
60. ↑ "Hypnosis in breast cancer care: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials". Integrative Cancer Therapies 14 (1): 5–15. January 2015. doi:10.1177/1534735414550035. PMID 25233905.
61. ↑ "Effects of hypnosis on GI problems". UNCCenter for Functional GI & Motility Disorders. http://www.med.unc.edu/ibs/files/educational-gi-handouts/IBS and Hypnosis.pdf.
62. ↑ "On the efficacy of hypnosis: a meta-analytic study.". Contemporary Hypnosis 20 (4): 179–197. 2003. doi:10.1002/ch.277. http://www.hypnose-kikh.de/content/Metaanalyse-Flammer-2004.pdf.
63. ↑ "Hypnotherapy for treatment of irritable bowel syndrome". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4): CD005110. October 2007. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005110.pub2. PMID 17943840.
64. ↑ Lee, Han Hee; Choi, Yoon Young; Choi, Myung-Gyu (April 2014). "The Efficacy of Hypnotherapy in the Treatment of Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Journal of Neurogastroenterology and Motility 20 (2): 152–162. doi:10.5056/jnm.2014.20.2.152. ISSN 2093-0879. PMID 24840368.
65. ↑ "Hypnosis for anxiety and phobic disorders: A review of clinical studies". Presse Médicale 45 (3): 284–290. March 2016. doi:10.1016/j.lpm.2015.12.002. PMID 26944812.
66. ↑ "Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2019 (6): CD001008. June 2019. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001008.pub3. PMID 31198991.
67. ↑ "The efficacy of hypnosis as a treatment for anxiety: a meta-analysis". The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 67 (3): 336–363. July 2019. doi:10.1080/00207144.2019.1613863. PMID 31251710.
68. ↑ "Summary of State Laws Regarding Hypnosis". Hypnotherapists Union Local 472. https://hypnotherapistsunion.wildapricot.org/statelaws.
69. ↑ "National Occupational Standards for hypnotherapy". Register for Evidence-Based Hypnotherapy & Psychotherapy (REBHP). December 2002. http://www.rebhp.org/articles/Hypnotherapy.pdf.
70. ↑ "Register of Regulated Qualifications". Ofqual. http://register.ofqual.gov.uk/Detail/Index/31621?category=qualifications&query=hypnotherapy.
71. ↑ "UKCHO Register search page - The UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations". Ukcho.co.uk. 2010-12-01. http://ukcho.co.uk/register-search.asp.
72. ↑ "About Us". National Council for Hypnotherapy. https://www.hypnotherapists.org.uk/about-nch/.
73. ↑ A Set of Competency and Proficiency Standards for Australian Professional Clinical Hypnotherapists: A Descriptive Guide to the Australian Hypnotherapists' Association Accreditation System. Sydney: Australian Hypnotherapists' Association. 1996. ISBN 0-646-27250-0. http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:47786/bin21c6104f-ed93-4ada-b2fe-2db8d0234d43?view=true&xy=01.
74. ↑ A Set of Competency and Proficiency Standards for Australian Professional Clinical Hypnotherapists: A Descriptive Guide to the Australian Hypnotherapists' Association Accreditation System (Second ed.). Sydney: Australian Hypnotherapists' Association. 1999. ISBN 0-9577694-0-7. http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:47778/bine651285b-281c-4950-9c91-fa60a9a40983?view=true&xy=01.

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Psychotherapy (list)

Schools|

| Psychodynamic|

* Psychoanalysis
* Adlerian therapy
* Analytical therapy
* Mentalization-based treatment
* Transference focused psychotherapy

|

Cognitive and
behavioral|

* Clinical behavior analysis
* Acceptance and commitment therapy
* Functional analytic psychotherapy
* Cognitive behavioral therapy
* Cognitive therapy
* Dialectical behavior therapy
* Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy
* Rational emotive behavior therapy

Humanistic|

* Emotionally focused therapy
* Existential therapy
* Focusing
* Gestalt therapy
* Logotherapy
* Person-centered therapy

Other|

* Art therapy
* Dance therapy
* Feminist therapy
* Music therapy
* Narrative therapy
* Play therapy
* Reality therapy
* Systemic therapy
* Transactional analysis
* List

Integrative|

* Eclectic psychotherapy
* Integrative psychotherapy
* Multimodal therapy
* Transtheoretical model

Approaches|

* Brief psychotherapy
* Counseling
* Online counseling
* Residential treatment
* Self-help
* Support groups

Research|

* Clinical formulation
* Clinical pluralism
* Common factors theory
* Discontinuation
* History
* Practitioner–scholar model

Techniques|

| Behaviour therapy|

* Aversion therapy
* Chaining
* Contingency management
* Shaping
* Stimulus control
* Token economy
* Counterconditioning
* Desensitization/Exposure therapy
* Systematic desensitization

|

Other individual therapy|

* Autogenic training
* Biofeedback
* Cognitive restructuring
* Emotion regulation
* Free association
* Homework
* Hypnotherapy
* Modeling

Group psychotherapy|

* Co-therapy
* Couples therapy
* Family therapy
* Psychodrama
* Sensitivity training

People|

* Philippe Pinel (1745–1826)
* Josef Breuer (1842–1925)
* Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
* Pierre Janet (1859–1947)
* Alfred Adler (1870–1937)
* Sándor Ferenczi (1873–1933)
* Carl Jung (1875–1961)
* Ludwig Binswanger (1881–1966)
* Melanie Klein (1882–1960)
* Otto Rank (1884–1939)
* Karen Horney (1885–1952)
* Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949)
* Fritz Perls (1893–1970)
* Anna Freud (1895–1982)
* Donald Winnicott (1896–1971)
* Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957)
* Milton H. Erickson (1901–1980)
* Jacques Lacan (1901–1981)
* Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
* Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
* Viktor Frankl (1905–1997)
* George Kelly (1905–1967)
* Rollo May (1909–1994)
* Virginia Axline (1911–1988)
* Carl Whitaker (1912–1995)
* Albert Ellis (1913–2007)
* James Bugental (1915–2008)
* Joseph Wolpe (1915–1997)
* Virginia Satir (1916–1988)
* Aaron T. Beck (b. 1921)
* Salvador Minuchin (1921–2017)
* Hans Herrman Strupp (1921–2006)
* Paul Watzlawick (1921–2007)
* Haim Ginott (1922–1973)
* Ogden Lindsley (1922–2004)
* Arthur Janov (1924–2017)
* Eugene Gendlin (1926–2017)
* R. D. Laing (1927–1989)
* Jean Baker Miller (1927–2006)
* Otto F. Kernberg (b. 1928)
* Nathan Azrin (1930–2013)
* Irvin D. Yalom (b. 1931)
* Arnold Lazarus (1932–2013)
* Lorna Smith Benjamin (b. 1934)
* Marsha M. Linehan (b. 1943)
* Vittorio Guidano (1944–1999)
* Les Greenberg (b. 1945)
* William R. Miller (b. 1947)
* Steven C. Hayes (b. 1948)
* Michael White (1948–2008)
* Jeffrey Young (b. 1950)
* Peter Fonagy (b. 1952)

Associations|

* Association for the Advancement of Psychotherapy
* Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback
* Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies
* Association for Behavior Analysis International
* European Association for Psychotherapy
* Society for Psychotherapy Research
* World Council for Psychotherapy

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