Potassium

Potassium is a chemical element; it has symbol K (from Neo-Latin kalium) and atomic number 19\. It is a silvery white metal that is soft enough to easily cut with a knife.[1] Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmospheric oxygen to form flaky white potassium peroxide in only seconds of exposure. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, from which its name derives. In the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals, all of which have a single valence electron in the outer electron shell, which is easily removed to create an ion with a positive charge (which combines with anions to form salts). In nature, potassium occurs only in ionic salts. Elemental potassium reacts vigorously with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite hydrogen emitted in the reaction, and burning with a lilac-colored flame. It is found dissolved in seawater (which is 0.04% potassium by weight),[2][3] and occurs in many minerals such as orthoclase, a common constituent of granites and other igneous rocks.[4]

Potassium is chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in group 1 of the periodic table. They have a similar first ionization energy, which allows for each atom to give up its sole outer electron. It was first suggested in 1702 that they were distinct elements that combine with the same anions to make similar salts,[5] which was demonstrated in 1807 when elemental potassium was first isolated via electrolysis. Naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40K is radioactive. Traces of 40K are found in natural sources of potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body.

Potassium ions are vital for the functioning of all living cells. The transfer of potassium ions across nerve cell membranes is necessary for normal nerve transmission; potassium deficiency and excess can each result in numerous signs and symptoms, including an abnormal heart rhythm and various electrocardiographic abnormalities. Fresh fruits and vegetables are good dietary sources of potassium. The body responds to the influx of dietary potassium by increasing potassium excretion by the kidneys and sequestering potassium in the liver and muscles to avoid changes in serum potassium levels.

Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility of its compounds in water, such as saltwater soap. Heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting for 95% of global potassium chemical production.[6]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Discovery
* 3 Properties
* 3.1 Compounds
* 3.1.1 Binary compounds
* 3.1.2 Ternary and more complex compounds
* 3.1.3 Organopotassium compounds
* 3.2 Isotopes
* 4 History
* 4.1 Potash
* 5 Occurrence
* 5.1 Geology
* 6 Commercial production
* 6.1 Mining
* 6.2 Chemical extraction
* 6.3 Cation identification
* 7 Commercial uses
* 7.1 Fertilizer
* 7.2 Medical use
* 7.2.1 Potassium citrate
* 7.2.2 Potassium chloride
* 7.3 Food additives
* 7.4 Industrial
* 7.4.1 Niche uses
* 7.4.2 Laboratory uses
* 8 Biological role
* 8.1 Plants
* 8.2 Human physiology
* 8.3 Biochemical function
* 8.4 Homeostasis
* 8.4.1 Internal (cellular) homeostasis
* 8.4.2 Plasma levels
* 8.4.3 External (plasma-level) homeostasis
* 8.4.4 Renal filtration, reabsorption, and excretion
* 8.5 Nutrition
* 8.5.1 Dietary recommendations
* 8.5.1.1 North America
* 8.5.1.2 Europe
* 8.5.2 Food sources
* 8.5.3 Deficient intake
* 8.5.4 Supplementation
* 8.5.5 Detection by taste buds
* 9 Precautions
* 10 References
* 11 Bibliography
* 12 External links

## Etymology

The English name for the element potassium comes from the word potash, which refers to an early method of extracting various potassium salts: placing in a pot the ash of burnt wood or tree leaves, adding water, heating, and evaporating the solution. Humphry Davy named the element potassium after isolating the metal itself.[7]

The symbol K stems from kali, itself from the root word alkali, which in turn comes from Arabic: القَلْيَه al-qalyah 'plant ashes'. In 1797, the German chemist Martin Klaproth discovered "potash" in the minerals leucite and lepidolite, and realized that "potash" was not a product of plant growth but actually contained a new element, which he proposed calling kali.[8] In 1807, Humphry Davy produced the element via electrolysis: in 1809, Ludwig Wilhelm Gilbert proposed the name Kalium for Davy's "potassium".[9] In 1814, the Swedish chemist Berzelius advocated the name kalium for potassium, with the chemical symbol K.[10]

The English and French-speaking countries adopted the name Potassium, which was favored by Davy and French chemists Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard, whereas the other Germanic countries adopted Gilbert and Klaproth's name Kalium.[11] The "Gold Book" of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry has designated the official chemical symbol as K.[12]

## Discovery

Sir Humphry Davy

Potassium metal was first isolated in 1807 by Humphry Davy, who derived it by electrolysis of molten caustic potash (KOH) with the newly discovered voltaic pile. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis.[13] Later in the same year, Davy reported extraction of the metal sodium from a mineral derivative (caustic soda, NaOH, or lye) rather than a plant salt, by a similar technique, demonstrating that the elements, and thus the salts, are different.[14][15][16][17] Although the production of potassium and sodium metal should have shown that both are elements, it took some time before this view was universally accepted.[15]

## Properties

Pieces of potassium metal

Potassium is a soft silvery solid that easily cut with a knife.[18] Because of the sensitivity of potassium to water and air, air-free techniques are normally employed for handling the element. It is unreactive toward nitrogen and saturated hydrocarbons such as mineral oil or kerosene. It readily dissolves in liquid ammonia, up to 480 g per 1000 g of ammonia at 0 °C to form the electride [K(NH

6]+

, which features an electron as an anion.[19]

### Compounds

Structure of solid potassium superoxide (KO

Reflecting its low first ionization energy of 418.8 kJ/mol, potassium is a strong reducing agent, i.e., it readily releases an electron upon contact with other materials. With graphite, potassium metal forms graphite intercalation compounds. One such compound has the formula KC8, a gold colored solid that is described as a K+ salt of negatively charged graphite.[20] Potassium can reduce many salts to the metal as illustrated by the Rieke method for making magnesium powder from magnesium chloride:[21]

MgCl
2 \+ 2 K → Mg + 2 KCl

Most potassium compounds are ionic. Owing to the high hydration energy of the K+
ion, these salts often exhibit excellent water solubility. The main species in water solution are the aquo complexes [K(H
2O)
n]+
where n = 6 and 7.[22] Although typically insoluble in organic solvents, potassium salts dissolve in polar organic solvents in the presence of crown ethers and cryptand. These organic ligands envelop K+ ions, giving lipophilic coordination complexes. Similar complexation phenomena are found for some ion-binding antibiotics.[23]

#### Binary compounds

Potassium forms many binary compounds, i.e., compounds of potassium and one other element. The inventory is so extensive that one gap merits mention: no nitride of potassium is known. Potassium hydride forms directly from the elements:[24]

2 K + H
2 → 2 KH

It is a white, pyrophoric solid that finds some use as a base.

All of the halides salts are well known: potassium fluoride (KF), potassium chloride (KCl), and potassium bromide (KF), potassium iodide (KI). Four oxides of potassium are well studied: potassium oxide (K
2O), potassium peroxide (K

2), potassium superoxide (KO
2) and potassium ozonide (KO
3).[25] These species all hydrolyze (react with water) to give potassium hydroxide. Similarly an extensive array of sulfides, selenides, and tellurides are well characterized. Although such simple salts are typically white and diamagnetic, KO
2 is something of an exception, being deep yellow and paramagnetic.[26]

#### Ternary and more complex compounds

Although rarely encountered in anhydrous form, KOH is one of the dominant compounds of potassium from the commercial perspective. It is a strong base and highly corrosive. Illustrative of its hydrophilic character, as much as 1.21 kg of KOH can dissolve in a liter of water.[27][28] KOH reacts readily with carbon dioxide (CO
2) to produce potassium carbonate (K
2CO
3), and in principle could be used to remove traces of the gas from air. Like the closely related sodium hydroxide, KOH reacts with fats to produce soaps. Potassium-based soaps are used in soap dispensers because they more soluble in water than sodium soaps.[29]

Nitrate, nitrite, sulfate, and various phosphates also form potassium salts, all white solids, that are widely used. Illustrating the thermal stability typical for these materials, potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate, and sodium nitrite form a eutectic, which remains liquid from 142 to 600 °C.[30]

Sodium and potassium salts display virtually identical properties in aqueous solution, but their differing solubilities are of practical value The distinctive solubility of potassium heptafluorotantalate (K
2[TaF
7]) allows the purification of tantalum from the otherwise persistent contaminant of niobium.[31] The solubility of the K+ compound differs strikingly from that for the Na+ compound in the pairs sodium tetraphenylborate/potassium tetraphenylborate, sodium cobaltinitrite/potassium cobaltinitrite, and sodium hexachloroplatinate/ potassium hexachloroplatinate. These differences are the bases for gravimetric analysis for K+.[19][32]

Several potassium-containing reagents, so-called primary standards, have the advantage of being non-hygroscopic, in contrast the corresponding sodium salts. Thus, the oxidant potassium dichromate, the acid potassium hydrogen phthalate, and the reductant potassium ferrocyanide can be handled in air without gaining weight by hydration.[33] Potassium salts are often produced from the sodium salts e.g., sodium chromate and sodium permanganate, which are more directly obtained from ores.[34]

#### Organopotassium compounds

Organopotassium compounds are mainly of academic interest. They feature highly polar covalent K–C bonds.[35] An example is potassium diphenylmethyl KCH(C

2.[36]

### Isotopes

Main article: Physics:Isotopes of potassium

There are 25 known isotopes of potassium, three of which occur naturally: 39K (93.3%), 40K (0.0117%), and 41K (6.7%) (by mole fraction). Naturally occurring 40K has a half-life of 1.250×109 years. It decays to stable 40Ar by electron capture or positron emission (11.2%) or to stable 40Ca by beta decay (88.8%).[37] This decay results in a relatively higher concentration of Argon in the atmosphere.[38]: 40 The decay of 40K to 40Ar is the basis of a common method for dating rocks. The conventional potassium–argon dating method depends on the assumption that the rocks contained no argon at the time of formation and that all the subsequent radiogenic argon (40Ar) was quantitatively retained. Minerals are dated by measurement of the concentration of potassium and the amount of radiogenic 40Ar that has accumulated. The minerals best suited for dating include biotite, muscovite, metamorphic hornblende, and volcanic feldspar; whole rock samples from volcanic flows and shallow instrusives can also be dated if they are unaltered.[37][39] Apart from dating, potassium isotopes have been used as tracers in studies of weathering and for nutrient cycling studies because potassium is a macronutrient required for life[40] on Earth.

40K occurs in natural potassium (and thus in some commercial salt substitutes) in sufficient quantity that large bags of those substitutes can be used as a radioactive source for classroom demonstrations. 40K is the radioisotope with the largest abundance in the human body. In healthy animals and people, 40K represents the largest source of radioactivity, greater even than 14C. In a human body of 70 kg, about 4,400 nuclei of 40K decay per second.[41] The activity of natural potassium is 31 Bq/g.[42]

## History

### Potash

Main article: Chemistry:Potash

Potash is primarily a mixture of potassium salts because plants have little or no sodium content, and the rest of a plant's major mineral content consists of calcium salts of relatively low solubility in water. While potash has been used since ancient times, its composition was not understood. Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence that led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702,[5] and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736.[43] The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus Antoine Lavoisier did not include the alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789.[14][15] For a long time the only significant applications for potash were the production of glass, bleach, soap and gunpowder as potassium nitrate.[44] Potassium soaps from animal fats and vegetable oils were especially prized because they tend to be more water-soluble and of softer texture, and are therefore known as soft soaps.[6] The discovery by Justus Liebig in 1840 that potassium is a necessary element for plants and that most types of soil lack potassium[45] caused a steep rise in demand for potassium salts. Wood-ash from fir trees was initially used as a potassium salt source for fertilizer, but, with the discovery in 1868 of mineral deposits containing potassium chloride near Staßfurt, Germany, the production of potassium-containing fertilizers began at an industrial scale.[46][47][48] Other potash deposits were discovered, and by the 1960s Canada became the dominant producer.[49][50]

## Occurrence

Potassium is formed in supernovae by nucleosynthesis from lighter atoms. Potassium is believed to be created in Type II supernovae via an oxygen-consuming nuclear reaction, probably during the explosive stage of the nova.[51][52] 40K is also formed in s-process nucleosynthesis and the neon burning process.[53]

Potassium is the 20th most abundant element in the Solar System and the 17th most abundant element by weight in the Earth. It makes up about 2.6% of the weight of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element in the crust.[54] The potassium concentration in seawater is 0.39 g/L[2] (0.039 wt/v%), about one twenty-seventh the concentration of sodium.[55][56]

### Geology

Potassium in feldspar

Elemental potassium does not occur in nature because of its high reactivity with water[19] and oxygen.

Orthoclase (potassium feldspar) is a common rock-forming mineral. Granite for example contains 5% potassium, which is well above the average in the Earth's crust. Sylvite (KCl), carnallite (KCl * MgCl
2 * 6H2O), kainite (MgSO
4 * KCl * 3H2O), and langbeinite (MgSO
4 * K
2SO
4) are the minerals found in large evaporite deposits worldwide. The deposits often show layers starting with the least soluble at the bottom and the most soluble on top.[56] Deposits of niter (potassium nitrate) are formed by decomposition of organic material in contact with atmosphere, mostly in caves; because of the good water solubility of niter the formation of larger deposits requires special environmental conditions.[57]

## Commercial production

### Mining

Sylvite from New Mexico Monte Kali, a potash mining and beneficiation waste heap in Hesse, Germany, consisting mostly of sodium chloride

Potassium salts such as carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and sylvite form extensive evaporite deposits in ancient lake bottoms and seabeds,[55] making extraction of potassium salts in these environments commercially viable. The principal source of potassium – potash – is mined in Canada, Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Germany, Israel, the U.S., Jordan, and other places around the world.[58][59][60] The first mined deposits were located near Staßfurt, Germany, but the deposits span from Great Britain over Germany into Poland. They are located in the Zechstein and were deposited in the Middle to Late Permian. Canada leads the world production of potash; the easiest deposits to mine lie 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) below the surface of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan.[61] The water of the Dead Sea is used by Israel and Jordan as a source of potash, while the concentration in normal oceans is too low for commercial production at current prices.[59][60]

### Chemical extraction

Several methods are used to separate potassium salts from sodium and magnesium compounds. The most-used method is fractional precipitation using the solubility differences of the salts. Electrostatic separation of the ground salt mixture is also used in some mines. The resulting sodium and magnesium waste is either stored underground or piled up in slag heaps. Most of the mined potassium mineral ends up as potassium chloride after processing. The mineral industry refers to potassium chloride either as potash, muriate of potash, or simply MOP.[56]

Potassium metal can be isolated by electrolysis of its hydroxide in a process that has changed little since it was first used by Humphry Davy in 1807.[citation needed] Although the electrolysis process was developed and used in industrial scale in the 1920s, the thermal method, reacting sodium with potassium chloride in a chemical equilibrium reaction,

Na + KCl → NaCl + K,

became the dominant method in the 1950s.[38]: 40 The production of sodium–potassium alloys is accomplished by changing the reaction time and the amount of sodium used in the reaction. The Griesheimer process employing the reaction of potassium fluoride with calcium carbide was also used to produce potassium.[56][62]

2 KF + CaC
2 → 2 K + CaF
2 \+ 2 C

### Cation identification

The flame test of potassium

Potassium can be detected by a traditional flame test. Its compounds emit a lilac color with a peak emission wavelength of 766.5 nanometers.[63] Potassium can be quantified by spectroscopic methods, including flame photometry and X-ray fluorescence. Traditional gravimetric analysis is still employed in the fertilizer industry (the dominant use of potassium). The main analytical reagent is hexachloroplatinic acid.[64] Treatment of a solution containing K+ ions with an excess of this platinum compound quantitatively precipitates of potassium hexachloroplatinate, which is easily weighed and is non-hygroscopic:

2 K+
\+ H
2[PtCl
6] → K
2[PtCl
6] + 2 H+

A similar analytical procedure yields a precipitate of potassium tetraphenylborate from sodium tetraphenylborate.

## Commercial uses

### Fertilizer

Potassium sulfate/magnesium sulfate fertilizer

Potassium ions are an essential component of plant nutrition and are found in most soil types.[6] They are used as a fertilizer in agriculture, horticulture, and hydroponic culture in the form of chloride (KCl), sulfate (K
2SO
4), or nitrate (KNO
3), representing the 'K' in 'NPK'. Agricultural fertilizers consume 95% of global potassium chemical production, and about 90% of this potassium is supplied as KCl.[6] The potassium content of most plants ranges from 0.5% to 2% of the harvested weight of crops, conventionally expressed as amount of K
2O. Modern high-yield agriculture depends upon fertilizers to replace the potassium lost at harvest. Most agricultural fertilizers contain potassium chloride, while potassium sulfate is used for chloride-sensitive crops or crops needing higher sulfur content. The sulfate is produced mostly by decomposition of the complex minerals kainite (MgSO
4 * KCl * 3H2O) and langbeinite (MgSO
4 * K
2SO
4). Only a very few fertilizers contain potassium nitrate.[65] In 2005, about 93% of world potassium production was consumed by the fertilizer industry.[60] Furthermore, potassium can play a key role in nutrient cycling by controlling litter composition.[66]

### Medical use

#### Potassium citrate

Potassium citrate is used to treat a kidney stone condition called renal tubular acidosis.[67]

#### Potassium chloride

See also: Medicine:Potassium chloride (medical use)

Potassium, in the form of potassium chloride is used as a medication to treat and prevent low blood potassium.[68] Low blood potassium may occur due to vomiting, diarrhea, or certain medications.[69] It is given by slow injection into a vein or by mouth.[70]

### Food additives

Potassium sodium tartrate (KNaC

6, Rochelle salt) is a main constituent of some varieties of baking powder; it is also used in the silvering of mirrors. Potassium bromate (KBrO
3) is a strong oxidizer (E924), used to improve dough strength and rise height. Potassium bisulfite (KHSO
3) is used as a food preservative, for example in wine and beer-making (but not in meats). It is also used to bleach textiles and straw, and in the tanning of leathers.[71][72]

### Industrial

Major potassium chemicals are potassium hydroxide, potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, and potassium chloride. Megatons of these compounds are produced annually.[73]

KOH is a strong base, which is used in industry to neutralize strong and weak acids, to control pH and to manufacture potassium salts. It is also used to saponify fats and oils, in industrial cleaners, and in hydrolysis reactions, for example of esters.[74][75]

Potassium nitrate (KNO
3) or saltpeter is obtained from natural sources such as guano and evaporites or manufactured via the Haber process; it is the oxidant in gunpowder (black powder) and an important agricultural fertilizer. Potassium cyanide (KCN) is used industrially to dissolve copper and precious metals, in particular silver and gold, by forming complexes. Its applications include gold mining, electroplating, and electroforming of these metals; it is also used in organic synthesis to make nitriles. Potassium carbonate (K
2CO
3 or potash) is used in the manufacture of glass, soap, color TV tubes, fluorescent lamps, textile dyes and pigments.[76] Potassium permanganate (KMnO
4) is an oxidizing, bleaching and purification substance and is used for production of saccharin. Potassium chlorate (KClO
3) is added to matches and explosives. Potassium bromide (KBr) was formerly used as a sedative and in photography.[6]

While potassium chromate (K
2CrO
4) is used in the manufacture of a host of different commercial products such as inks, dyes, wood stains (by reacting with the tannic acid in wood), explosives, fireworks, fly paper, and safety matches,[77] as well as in the tanning of leather, all of these uses are due to the chemistry of the chromate ion rather than to that of the potassium ion.[78]

#### Niche uses

There are thousands of uses of various potassium compounds. One example is potassium superoxide, KO
2, an orange solid that acts as a portable source of oxygen and a carbon dioxide absorber. It is widely used in respiration systems in mines, submarines and spacecraft as it takes less volume than the gaseous oxygen.[79][80]

4 KO
2 \+ 2 CO
2 → 2 K
2CO
3 \+ 3 O

Another example is potassium cobaltinitrite, K
3[Co(NO

6], which is used as artist's pigment under the name of Aureolin or Cobalt Yellow.[81]

The stable isotopes of potassium can be laser cooled and used to probe fundamental and technological problems in quantum physics. The two bosonic isotopes possess convenient Feshbach resonances to enable studies requiring tunable interactions, while 40K is one of only two stable fermions amongst the alkali metals.[82]

#### Laboratory uses

An alloy of sodium and potassium, NaK is a liquid used as a heat-transfer medium and a desiccant for producing dry and air-free solvents. It can also be used in reactive distillation.[83] The ternary alloy of 12% Na, 47% K and 41% Cs has the lowest melting point of −78 °C of any metallic compound.[18]

Metallic potassium is used in several types of magnetometers.[84]

## Biological role

Main article: Biology:Potassium in biology

### Plants

Potassium is crucial for diverse plant species. It has a vital role in maintaining cell sap and internal root pressure required for plant growth. Potassium increases plant metabolism and uptake of carbon dioxide.[38]: 48

### Human physiology

Potassium is the eighth or ninth most common element by mass (0.2%) in the human body, so that a 60 kg adult contains a total of about 120 g of potassium.[85] The body has about as much potassium as sulfur and chlorine, and only calcium and phosphorus are more abundant (with the exception of the ubiquitous CHON elements).[86] Potassium ions are present in a wide variety of proteins and enzymes.[87] 98% of the potassium in a human body is inside of individual cells.[88]

### Biochemical function

Potassium levels influence multiple physiological processes, including[89][90][91]

* resting cellular-membrane potential and the propagation of action potentials in neuronal, muscular, and cardiac tissue. Due to the electrostatic and chemical properties, K+
ions are larger than Na+
ions, and ion channels and pumps in cell membranes can differentiate between the two ions, actively pumping or passively passing one of the two ions while blocking the other.[92]
* hormone secretion and action
* vascular tone
* systemic blood pressure control
* gastrointestinal motility
* acid–base homeostasis
* glucose and insulin metabolism
* mineralocorticoid action
* renal concentrating ability
* fluid and electrolyte balance
* local cortical monoaminergic norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine levels, and through them, sleep/wake balance, and spontaneous activity.[93]

### Homeostasis

Almost all cells have a sodium–potassium pump transporting sodium ions out and potassium ions in, maintaining a balance in a narrow range of concentrations essential to cell function. This internal homeostasis mechanism requires an external homeostasis mechanism to maintain the concentration of potassium ions in plasma in the intercellular space. External homeostasis is primarily provide by the kidneys.[94]

The action of the sodium–potassium pump is an example of primary active transport. The two carrier proteins embedded in the cell membrane on the left are using ATP to move sodium out of the cell against the concentration gradient; The two proteins on the right are using secondary active transport to move potassium into the cell. This process results in reconstitution of ATP.

#### Internal (cellular) homeostasis

The ion transport system moves potassium across the cell membrane using two mechanisms. One is active and pumps sodium out of, and potassium into, the cell. The other is passive and allows potassium to leak out of the cell. Potassium and sodium cations influence fluid distribution between intracellular and extracellular compartments by osmotic forces. The movement of potassium and sodium through the cell membrane is mediated by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase pump.[95] This ion pump uses ATP to pump three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell, creating an electrochemical gradient and electromotive force across the cell membrane. The highly selective potassium ion channels (which are tetramers) are crucial for hyperpolarization inside neurons after an action potential is triggered, to cite one example. The most recently discovered potassium ion channel is KirBac3.1, which makes a total of five potassium ion channels (KcsA, KirBac1.1, KirBac3.1, KvAP, and MthK) with a determined structure. All five are from prokaryotic species.[96]

Potassium can be sequestered in the liver and muscle. This potassium can be released into the extra-cellular plasma between meals to maintain potassium levels.[94]

#### Plasma levels

Plasma potassium is normally kept at 3.5 to 5.5 millimoles (mmol) [or milliequivalents (mEq)] per liter by multiple mechanisms.[97] Even narrower ranges are required to reduce mortality for patients with acute myocardial infarction.[98]

An average meal of 40–50 mmol presents the body with more potassium than is present in all plasma (20–25 mmol). Renal and extrarenal mechanisms external homeostasis mechanisms limit the rise in plasma potassium to less than 10%.[99]

Hypokalemia, a deficiency of potassium in the plasma, can be fatal if severe. Common causes are increased gastrointestinal loss (vomiting, diarrhea), and increased renal loss (diuresis).[100] Deficiency symptoms include muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, ECG abnormalities, decreased reflex response; and in severe cases, respiratory paralysis, alkalosis, and cardiac arrhythmia.[101]

#### External (plasma-level) homeostasis

Potassium content in the plasma is tightly controlled by three basic mechanisms:[94]

1. a reactive negative-feedback system,
2. a reactive feed-forward system, and
3. a predictive or circadian system,

The reactive negative-feedback system refers to the system that induces renal secretion of potassium in response to a rise in the plasma potassium (potassium ingestion, shift out of cells, or intravenous infusion).[94]

The reactive feed-forward system refers to an incompletely understood system that induces renal potassium secretion in response to potassium ingestion prior to any rise in the plasma potassium. This is probably initiated by gut cell potassium receptors that detect ingested potassium and trigger vagal afferent signals to the pituitary gland.[94]

The predictive or circadian system increases renal secretion of potassium during mealtime hours (e.g. daytime for humans, nighttime for rodents) independent of the presence, amount, or absence of potassium ingestion. It is mediated by a circadian oscillator in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the brain (central clock), which causes the kidney (peripheral clock) to secrete potassium in this rhythmic circadian fashion.[94]

#### Renal filtration, reabsorption, and excretion

Potassium ions are reabsorbed from blood plasma entering the glomeruli into the renal tubule of the kidneys. Only a small amount of potassium reaches the distal nephron.[102]

Renal handling of potassium is closely connected to sodium handling. Potassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells (150 mmol/L, 4.8 g/L), while sodium is the major cation of extracellular fluid (150 mmol/L, 3.345 g/L). In the kidneys, about 180 liters of plasma is filtered through the glomeruli and into the renal tubules per day.[103] Sodium is reabsorbed to maintain extracellular volume, osmotic pressure, and serum sodium concentration within narrow limits. Potassium is reabsorbed to maintain serum potassium concentration within narrow limits.[104] Sodium pumps in the renal tubules operate to reabsorb sodium. Potassium must be conserved, but because the amount of potassium in the blood plasma is very small and the pool of potassium in the cells is about 30 times as large, the situation is not so critical for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively[105][106] in counter flow to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual) Donnan equilibrium,[107] the urine can never sink below the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes by actively excreting water at the end of the processing. Potassium is excreted twice and reabsorbed three times before the urine reaches the collecting tubules.[108]

With no potassium intake, it is excreted at about 200 mg per day until, in about a week, potassium in the serum declines to a mildly deficient level of 3.0–3.5 mmol/L.[109] If potassium is still withheld, the concentration continues to fall until a severe deficiency causes eventual death.[110]

The potassium moves passively through pores in the cell membrane. When ions move through ion transporters (pumps) there is a gate in the pumps on both sides of the cell membrane and only one gate can be open at once. As a result, approximately 100 ions are forced through per second. Ion channels have only one gate, and there only one kind of ion can stream through, at 10 million to 100 million ions per second.[111] Calcium is required to open the pores,[112] although calcium may work in reverse by blocking at least one of the pores.[113] Carbonyl groups inside the pore on the amino acids mimic the water hydration that takes place in water solution[114] by the nature of the electrostatic charges on four carbonyl groups inside the pore.[115]

### Nutrition

#### Dietary recommendations

##### North America

The U.S. National Academy of Medicine (NAM), on behalf of both the U.S. and Canada, sets Dietary Reference Intakes, including Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), or Adequate Intakes (AIs) for when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs. For both males and females under 9 years of age, the AIs for potassium are: 400 mg of potassium for 0 to 6-month-old infants, 860 mg of potassium for 7 to 12-month-old infants, 2,000 mg of potassium for 1 to 3-year-old children, and 2,300 mg of potassium for 4 to 8-year-old children. For males 9 years of age and older, the AIs for potassium are: 2,500 mg of potassium for 9 to 13-year-old males, 3,000 mg of potassium for 14 to 18-year-old males, and 3,400 mg for males that are 19 years of age and older. For females 9 years of age and older, the AIs for potassium are: 2,300 mg of potassium for 9 to 18-year-old females, and 2,600 mg of potassium for females that are 19 years of age and older. For pregnant and lactating females, the AIs for potassium are: 2,600 mg of potassium for 14 to 18-year-old pregnant females, 2,900 mg for pregnant females that are 19 years of age and older; furthermore, 2,500 mg of potassium for 14 to 18-year-old lactating females, and 2,800 mg for lactating females that are 19 years of age and older. As for safety, the NAM also sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals, but for potassium the evidence was insufficient, so no UL was established.[116][117]

As of 2004, most Americans adults consume less than 3,000 mg.[118]

##### Europe

Likewise, in the European Union, in particular in Germany, and Italy, insufficient potassium intake is somewhat common.[119] The National Health Service in the United Kingdom recommends that "adults (19 to 64 years) need 3500 mg per day" and that excess amounts may cause health problems such as stomach pain and diarrhea.[120]

#### Food sources

Potassium is present in all fruits, vegetables, meat and fish. Foods with high potassium concentrations include yam, parsley, dried apricots, milk, chocolate, all nuts (especially almonds and pistachios), potatoes, bamboo shoots, bananas, avocados, coconut water, soybeans, and bran.[121]

The United States Department of Agriculture also lists tomato paste, orange juice, beet greens, white beans, plantains, and many other dietary sources of potassium, ranked in descending order according to potassium content. A day's worth of potassium is in 5 plantains or 11 bananas.[122]

#### Deficient intake

Main article: Medicine:Hypokalemia

Although mild hypokalemia does not cause distinct symptoms, it is a risk factor for hypertension[123][124] and cardiac arrhythmia.[125] Severe hypokalemia usually presents with hypertension, arrhythmia, muscle cramps, fatigue, weakness and constipation.[125] Causes of hypokalemia include vomiting, diarrhea, medications like furosemide and steroids, kidney dialysis, diabetes insipidus, hyperaldosteronism, and hypomagnesemia.[125]

#### Supplementation

Treating or preventing hypokalemia, a common electrolyte imbalance observed in 20% of hospital patients requires potassium supplements. There are many causes of hypokalemia, but in a clinical setting diuretics that block reabsorption of sodium and water, are the most common drug cause.[126]

A variety of prescription and over-the counter supplements are available.[127] Potassium chloride may be dissolved in water, but the salty/bitter taste makes liquid supplements unpalatable.[128][129] Potassium is also available in tablets or capsules, which are formulated to allow potassium to leach slowly out of a matrix.[70] The mechanism of action of potassium involves various types of transporters and channels that facilitate its movement across cell membranes. This process can lead to an increase in the pumping of hydrogen ions. This, in turn, can escalate the production of gastric acid, potentially contributing to the development of gastric ulcers.[130] An FDA ruling in the US requires warning of this issue on any non-prescription potassium pills with more than 99 mg of potassium.[131]

Studies of dietary potassium intake show higher intakes are correlated with lower blood pressures.[132] Studies of potassium supplements to mitigate the impact of hypertension, thereby reducing cardiovascular risk, give conflicting conclusions. Some studies report "a modest but significant impact"[133] Others find no effects. Potassium chloride and potassium bicarbonate may be useful to control mild hypertension.[134] In 2020, potassium was the 33rd most commonly prescribed medication in the U.S., with more than 17 million prescriptions.[135][136]

Other uses of potassium supplements include preventing the formation of kidney stones, a condition that can lead to renal complications if left untreated. Potassium has a role in bone health. It contributes to the acid-base equilibrium in the body and helps protect bone tissue. For individuals with type 2 diabetes, potassium supplementation may be necessary: potassium is essential for the secretion of insulin by pancreatic beta cells, which helps regulate glucose levels.[130]

Excessive potassium intake can have adverse effects, such as gastrointestinal discomfort and disturbances in heart rhythm.[130] Potassium chloride tablets are specifically associated with pill esophagitis.[137]

#### Detection by taste buds

Potassium can be detected by taste because it triggers three of the five types of taste sensations, according to concentration. Dilute solutions of potassium ions taste sweet, allowing moderate concentrations in milk and juices, while higher concentrations become increasingly bitter/alkaline, and finally also salty to the taste. The combined bitterness and saltiness of high-potassium solutions makes high-dose potassium supplementation by liquid drinks a palatability challenge.[128][138] As a food additive, potassium chloride has a salty taste. People wishing to increase their potassium intake or to decrease their sodium intake, after checking with a health professional that it is safe to do so, can substitute potassium chloride for some or all of the sodium chloride (table salt) used in cooking and at the table.[139]

## Precautions

Potassium  Hazards

GHS pictograms |
GHS Signal word | Danger

GHS hazard statements

| H260, H314

GHS precautionary statements

| P223, P231+232, P280, P305+351+338, P370+378, P422[140]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)  |

~~W~~

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Infobox references

Potassium metal can react violently with water producing KOH and hydrogen gas.

2 K(s) + 2 H
2O(l) → 2 KOH(aq) + H
2(g)↑

File:Potassium water 20.theora.ogv

This reaction is exothermic and releases sufficient heat to ignite the resulting hydrogen in the presence of oxygen. Finely powdered potassium ignites in air at room temperature. The bulk metal ignites in air if heated. Because its density is 0.89 g/cm3, burning potassium floats in water that exposes it to atmospheric oxygen. Many common fire extinguishing agents, including water, either are ineffective or make a potassium fire worse. Nitrogen, argon, sodium chloride (table salt), sodium carbonate (soda ash), and silicon dioxide (sand) are effective if they are dry. Some Class D dry powder extinguishers designed for metal fires are also effective. These agents deprive the fire of oxygen and cool the potassium metal.[141]

During storage, potassium forms peroxides and superoxides. These peroxides may react violently with organic compounds such as oils. Both peroxides and superoxides may react explosively with metallic potassium.[142]

Because potassium reacts with water vapor in the air, it is usually stored under anhydrous mineral oil or kerosene. Unlike lithium and sodium, potassium should not be stored under oil for longer than six months, unless in an inert (oxygen-free) atmosphere, or under vacuum. After prolonged storage in air dangerous shock-sensitive peroxides can form on the metal and under the lid of the container, and can detonate upon opening.[143]

Ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds, certain drugs, and homeostatic failure, can lead to hyperkalemia, leading to a variety of brady- and tachy-arrhythmias that can be fatal.[144][145][146] Potassium chloride is used in the U.S. for lethal injection executions.[144]

## References

1. ↑ Augustyn, Adam. "Potassium/ Chemical element". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/potassium. Retrieved 2019-04-17. "Potassium Physical properties".
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Webb, D. A. (April 1939). "The Sodium and Potassium Content of Sea Water". The Journal of Experimental Biology 16 (2): 183. doi:10.1242/jeb.16.2.178. Bibcode: 1939JExpB..16..178W. http://jeb.biologists.org/content/jexbio/16/2/178.full.pdf. Retrieved 2017-07-23.
3. ↑ Anthoni, J. (2006). "Detailed composition of seawater at 3.5% salinity". seafriends.org.nz. http://www.seafriends.org.nz/oceano/seawater.htm.
4. ↑ Halperin, Mitchell L.; Kamel, Kamel S. (1998-07-11). "Potassium" (in en). The Lancet 352 (9122): 135–140. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)85044-7. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 9672294. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140673698850447. Retrieved 2021-06-07.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Marggraf, Andreas Siegmund (1761). Chymische Schriften. p. 167. https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ATAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA167.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Greenwood, p. 73
7. ↑ Davy, Humphry (1808). "On some new phenomena of chemical changes produced by electricity, in particular the decomposition of the fixed alkalies, and the exhibition of the new substances that constitute their bases; and on the general nature of alkaline bodies". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 98: 32. doi:10.1098/rstl.1808.0001. https://books.google.com/books?id=gpwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA32.
8. ↑ Klaproth, M. (1797) "Nouvelles données relatives à l'histoire naturelle de l'alcali végétal" (New data regarding the natural history of the vegetable alkali), Mémoires de l'Académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres (Berlin), pp. 9–13 ; see p. 13. From p. 13: "Cet alcali ne pouvant donc plus être envisagé comme un produit de la végétation dans les plantes, occupe une place propre dans la série des substances primitivement simples du règne minéral, &I il devient nécessaire de lui assigner un nom, qui convienne mieux à sa nature.
La dénomination de Potasche (potasse) que la nouvelle nomenclature françoise a consacrée comme nom de tout le genre, ne sauroit faire fortune auprès des chimistes allemands, qui sentent à quel point la dérivation étymologique en est vicieuse. Elle est prise en effet de ce qu'anciennement on se servoit pour la calcination des lessives concentrées des cendres, de pots de fer (pott en dialecte de la Basse-Saxe) auxquels on a substitué depuis des fours à calciner.
Je propose donc ici, de substituer aux mots usités jusqu'ici d'alcali des plantes, alcali végétal, potasse, &c. celui de kali, & de revenir à l'ancienne dénomination de natron, au lieu de dire alcali minéral, soude &c."
(This alkali [i.e., potash] — [which] therefore can no longer be viewed as a product of growth in plants — occupies a proper place in the originally simple series of the mineral realm, and it becomes necessary to assign it a name that is better suited to its nature.
The name of "potash" (potasse), which the new French nomenclature has bestowed as the name of the entire species [i.e., substance], would not find acceptance among German chemists, who feel to some extent [that] the etymological derivation of it is faulty. Indeed, it is taken from [the vessels] that one formerly used for the roasting of washing powder concentrated from cinders: iron pots (pott in the dialect of Lower Saxony), for which roasting ovens have been substituted since then.
Thus I now propose to substitute for the until now common words of "plant alkali", "vegetable alkali", "potash", etc., that of kali ; and to return to the old name of natron instead of saying "mineral alkali", "soda", etc.)
9. ↑ Davy, Humphry (1809). "Ueber einige neue Erscheinungen chemischer Veränderungen, welche durch die Electricität bewirkt werden; insbesondere über die Zersetzung der feuerbeständigen Alkalien, die Darstellung der neuen Körper, welche ihre Basen ausmachen, und die Natur der Alkalien überhaupt". Annalen der Physik 31 (2): 113–175. doi:10.1002/andp.18090310202. Bibcode: 1809AnP....31..113D. https://books.google.com/books?id=vyswAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157. "p. 157: In unserer deutschen Nomenclatur würde ich die Namen Kalium und Natronium vorschlagen, wenn man nicht lieber bei den von Herrn Erman gebrauchten und von mehreren angenommenen Benennungen Kali-Metalloid and Natron-Metalloid, bis zur völligen Aufklärung der chemischen Natur dieser räthzelhaften Körper bleiben will. Oder vielleicht findet man es noch zweckmässiger fürs Erste zwei Klassen zu machen, Metalle und Metalloide, und in die letztere Kalium und Natronium zu setzen. — Gilbert. (In our German nomenclature, I would suggest the names Kalium and Natronium, if one would not rather continue with the appellations Kali-metalloid and Natron-metalloid which are used by Mr. Erman [i.e., German physics professor Paul Erman (1764–1851)] and accepted by several [people], until the complete clarification of the chemical nature of these puzzling substances. Or perhaps one finds it yet more advisable for the present to create two classes, metals and metalloids, and to place Kalium and Natronium in the latter — Gilbert.)".
10. ↑ Berzelius, J. Jacob (1814) Försök, att, genom användandet af den electrokemiska theorien och de kemiska proportionerna, grundlägga ett rent vettenskapligt system för mineralogien [Attempt, by the use of electrochemical theory and chemical proportions, to found a pure scientific system for mineralogy]. Stockholm, Sweden: A. Gadelius., p. 87.
11. ↑ 19\. Kalium (Potassium) – Elementymology & Elements Multidict . vanderkrogt.net
12. ↑ McNaught, A. D. and Wilkinson,A. eds. (1997). Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book"). IUPAC. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
13. ↑ Enghag, P. (2004). "11. Sodium and Potassium". Encyclopedia of the elements. Wiley-VCH Weinheim. ISBN 978-3-527-30666-4. https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofel0000engh.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. IX. Three alkali metals: Potassium, sodium, and lithium". Journal of Chemical Education 9 (6): 1035. doi:10.1021/ed009p1035. Bibcode: 1932JChEd...9.1035W.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Siegfried, R. (1963). "The Discovery of Potassium and Sodium, and the Problem of the Chemical Elements". Isis 54 (2): 247–258. doi:10.1086/349704. PMID 14147904.
16. ↑ Davy, Humphry (1808). "On some new phenomena of chemical changes produced by electricity, in particular the decomposition of the fixed alkalies, and the exhibition of the new substances that constitute their bases; and on the general nature of alkaline bodies". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 98: 1–44. doi:10.1098/rstl.1808.0001. https://books.google.com/books?id=gpwEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA57.
17. ↑ Shaposhnik, V. A. (2007). "History of the discovery of potassium and sodium (on the 200th anniversary of the discovery of potassium and sodium)". Journal of Analytical Chemistry 62 (11): 1100–2. doi:10.1134/S1061934807110160.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Greenwood, p. 76
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985). "Potassium" (in de). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-007511-3.
20. ↑ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
21. ↑ Rieke, R. D. (1989). "Preparation of Organometallic Compounds from Highly Reactive Metal Powders". Science 246 (4935): 1260–4. doi:10.1126/science.246.4935.1260. PMID 17832221. Bibcode: 1989Sci...246.1260R.
22. ↑ Lincoln, S. F.; Richens, D. T. and Sykes, A. G. "Metal Aqua Ions" in J. A. McCleverty and T. J. Meyer (eds.) Comprehensive Coordination Chemistry II , Vol. 1, pp. 515–555, ISBN 978-0-08-043748-4.
23. ↑ Rutkowski, J.; Brzezinski, B. (2013). "Structures and properties of naturally occurring polyether antibiotics". BioMed Research International: 1–31. doi:10.1155/2013/162513. PMID 23586016.
24. ↑ E. Dönges (1963). "Alkali HydridesI". in G. Brauer. Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd Ed.. 2. NY, NY: Academic Press. pp. 971.
25. ↑ Lide, David R. (1998). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (87th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida, United States: CRC Press. pp. 477; 520. ISBN 978-0-8493-0594-8.
26. ↑ Hayyan M.; Hashim M. A.; AlNashef I. M. (2016). "Superoxide Ion: Generation and Chemical Implications". Chem. Rev. 116 (5): 3029–3085. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00407. PMID 26875845.
27. ↑ Lide, D. R., ed (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. p. 4–80. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5.
28. ↑ Schultz, p. 94
29. ↑ Klaus Schumann; Kurt Siekmann (2005). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a24_247. ISBN 978-3527306732.
30. ↑ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
31. ↑ Anthony Agulyanski (2004). "Fluorine chemistry in the processing of tantalum and niobium". in Anatoly Agulyanski. Chemistry of Tantalum and Niobium Fluoride Compounds (1st ed.). Burlington: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-08-052902-8.
32. ↑ O. Glemser (1963). "Sodium Hexanitritocobaltate (III)". in G. Brauer. Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry. 1 (2nd ed.). NY, NY: Academic Press. pp. 1541. https://archive.org/details/Handbook_of_Preparative_Inorganic_Chemistry_1_2_Brauer/page/n1587/mode/2up?.
33. ↑ Khopkar, S. M. (2012). Basic Concepts of Analytical Chemistry (3rd ed.). New Academic Science. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-906574-37-6.
34. ↑ Gerd Anger, Jost Halstenberg, Klaus Hochgeschwender, Christoph Scherhag, Ulrich Korallus, Herbert Knopf, Peter Schmidt, Manfred Ohlinger. "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a07_067.
35. ↑ C. Elschenbroich (2006). Organometallics. VCH. ISBN 978-3-527-29390-2.
36. ↑ Schumann, Herbert; Freckmann, Dominique M. M.; Dechert, Sebastian (2006). "Organometallic Compounds of the Lanthanides. 179.1 Synthesis and Structural Characterization of a Mixed Alkyl (Benzhydryl, Trimethylsilylmethyl) Lutetium Complex". Organometallics 25 (10): 2696–2699. doi:10.1021/om0601201.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A 729: 3–128, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001, Bibcode: 2003NuPhA.729....3A, https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/in2p3-00020241/document
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Sicius, Hermann (2024). Handbook of the Chemical Elements. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3-662-68920-2.
39. ↑ Bowen, Robert; Attendorn, H. G. (1988). "Theory and Assumptions in Potassium–Argon Dating". Isotopes in the Earth Sciences. Springer. pp. 203–8. ISBN 978-0-412-53710-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=k90iAnFereYC&pg=PA207.
40. ↑ Anaç, D.; Martin-Prével, P. (1999). Improved crop quality by nutrient management. Springer. pp. 290–. ISBN 978-0-7923-5850-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hr4w6QhPGsC&pg=PA290.
41. ↑ "Radiation and Radioactive Decay. Radioactive Human Body". Harvard Natural Sciences Lecture Demonstrations. https://sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu/presentations/radioactive-human-body.
42. ↑ Winteringham, F. P. W; Effects, F.A.O. Standing Committee on Radiation, Land And Water Development Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1989). Radioactive fallout in soils, crops and food: a background review. Food & Agriculture Org.. p. 32. ISBN 978-92-5-102877-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=KRVXMiQWi0cC&pg=PA32.
43. ↑ du Monceau, H. L. D. (1702–1797). "Sur la Base de Sel Marin" (in fr). Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences: 65–68. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3533j/f73.image.r=Memoires de l'Academie royale des Sciences.langEN. Retrieved 2011-05-09.
44. ↑ Browne, C. A. (1926). "Historical notes upon the domestic potash industry in early colonial and later times". Journal of Chemical Education 3 (7): 749–756. doi:10.1021/ed003p749. Bibcode: 1926JChEd...3..749B.
45. ↑ Liebig, Justus von (1840) (in de). Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. F. Vieweg und Sohn. https://archive.org/details/dieorganischech01liebgoog.
46. ↑ Cordel, Oskar (1868) (in de). Die Stassfurter Kalisalze in der Landwirthschalt: Eine Besprechung .... L. Schnock. https://books.google.com/books?id=EYpIAAAAYAAJ.
47. ↑ Birnbaum, Karl (1869) (in de). Die Kalidüngung in ihren Vortheilen und Gefahren. https://books.google.com/books?id=J8Q6AAAAcAAJ.
48. ↑ United Nations Industrial Development Organization and Int'l Fertilizer Development Center (1998). Fertilizer Manual. Springer. pp. 46, 417. ISBN 978-0-7923-5032-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=qPkoOU4BvEsC&pg=PA417.
49. ↑ Miller, H. (1980). "Potash from Wood Ashes: Frontier Technology in Canada and the United States". Technology and Culture 21 (2): 187–208. doi:10.2307/3103338.
50. ↑ Rittenhouse, P. A. (1979). "Potash and politics". Economic Geology 74 (2): 353–7. doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.74.2.353. Bibcode: 1979EcGeo..74..353R.
51. ↑ Shimansky, V.; Bikmaev, I. F.; Galeev, A. I.; Shimanskaya, N. N.; Ivanova, D. V.; Sakhibullin, N. A.; Musaev, F. A.; Galazutdinov, G. A. (September 2003). "Observational constraints on potassium synthesis during the formation of stars of the Galactic disk". Astronomy Reports 47 (9): 750–762. doi:10.1134/1.1611216. Bibcode: 2003ARep...47..750S.
52. ↑ Takeda, Yoichi (2020). "Determination of Potassium Abundances for Giant and Dwarf Stars in the Galactic Disk". Stars and Galaxies 2: 1. doi:10.32231/starsandgalaxies.2.0_1. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/starsandgalaxies/2/0/2_1/_article.
53. ↑ The, L.-S.; Eid, M. F. El; Meyer, B. S. (2000). "A New Study of s-Process Nucleosynthesis in Massive Stars". The Astrophysical Journal 533 (2): 998. doi:10.1086/308677. ISSN 0004-637X. Bibcode: 2000ApJ...533..998T.
54. ↑ Greenwood, p. 69
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Micale, Giorgio; Cipollina, Andrea; Rizzuti, Lucio (2009). Seawater Desalination: Conventional and Renewable Energy Processes. Springer. p. 3. ISBN 978-3-642-01149-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=NXEmcGHScV8C&pg=PA3.
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 Prud'homme, Michel; Krukowski, Stanley T. (2006). "Potash". Industrial minerals & rocks: commodities, markets, and uses. Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. pp. 723–740. ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=zNicdkuulE4C&pg=PA723.
57. ↑ Ross, William H. (1914). "The Origin of Nitrate Deposits". Popular Science. Bonnier Corporation. pp. 134–145. https://books.google.com/books?id=NyUDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA134.
58. ↑ Garrett, Donald E. (1995-12-31). Potash: deposits, processing, properties and uses. Springer. ISBN 978-0-412-99071-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=EHx51n3T858C.
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Ober, Joyce A.. "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2008:Potash". United States Geological Survey. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/potash/mcs-2008-potas.pdf.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Ober, Joyce A.. "Mineral Yearbook 2006:Potash". United States Geological Survey. https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/potash/myb1-2006-potas.pdf.
61. ↑ Wishart, David J. (2004). Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. U of Nebraska Press. p. 433. ISBN 978-0-8032-4787-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=rtRFyFO4hpEC&pg=PA433.
62. ↑ Chiu, Kuen-Wai (2000). "Potassium". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. doi:10.1002/0471238961.1615200103080921.a01.pub2. ISBN 978-0-471-23896-6.
63. ↑ Greenwood, p. 75
64. ↑ Burkhardt, Elizabeth R. (2006). "Potassium and Potassium Alloys". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. A22. pp. 31–38. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_031.pub2. ISBN 978-3-527-30673-2.
65. ↑ Roy, Amit H. (2007). Kent and Riegel's handbook of industrial chemistry and biotechnology. Springer. pp. 1135–57. ISBN 978-0-387-27843-8. Bibcode: 2007karh.book....... https://books.google.com/books?id=AYjFoLCNHYUC&pg=PA1135.
66. ↑ Ochoa-Hueso, R; Delgado-Baquerizo, M; King, PTA; Benham, M; Arca, V; Power, SA (2019). "Ecosystem type and resource quality are more important than global change drivers in regulating early stages of litter decomposition". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 129: 144–152. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.11.009. Bibcode: 2019SBiBi.129..144O.
67. ↑ "Potassium Uses, Side Effects & Interactions" (in en). https://www.drugs.com/potassium.html.
68. ↑ WHO Model Formulary 2008. World Health Organization. 2009. p. 491. ISBN 978-92-4-154765-9.
69. ↑ "Potassium chloride medical facts from Drugs.com". https://www.drugs.com/mtm/potassium-chloride.html.
70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 British national formulary: BNF 69 (69 ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. pp. 680, 684. ISBN 978-0-85711-156-2.
71. ↑ Figoni, Paula I (2010). "Bleaching and Maturing Agents". How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science. John Wiley and Sons. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-470-39267-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=XqKF7PqV02cC&pg=PA86.
72. ↑ Chichester, C. O. (July 1986). "Uses and Exposure to Sulfites in Food". Advances in food research. Academic Press. pp. 4–6. ISBN 978-0-12-016430-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=eblAtwEXffcC&pg=PA4.
73. ↑ Schultz
74. ↑ Toedt, John; Koza, Darrell; Cleef-Toedt, Kathleen Van (2005). "Personal Cleansing Products: Bar Soap". Chemical composition of everyday products. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32579-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=UnjD4aBm9ZcC&pg=PA4.
75. ↑ Schultz, p. 95
76. ↑ Schultz, p. 99
77. ↑ Siegel, Richard S. (1940). "Ignition of the safety match". Journal of Chemical Education 17 (11): 515. doi:10.1021/ed017p515. Bibcode: 1940JChEd..17..515S.
78. ↑ Anger, Gerd; Halstenberg, Jost; Hochgeschwender, Klaus; Scherhag, Christoph; Korallus, Ulrich; Knopf, Herbert; Schmidt, Peter; Ohlinger, Manfred. "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 9. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. p. 178. doi:10.1002/14356007.a07_067.
79. ↑ Greenwood, p. 74
80. ↑ Marx, Robert F. (1990). The history of underwater exploration. Courier Dover Publications. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-486-26487-5. https://archive.org/details/historyofunderwa00marx.
81. ↑ Gettens, Rutherford John; Stout, George Leslie (1966). Painting materials: A short encyclopaedia. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 109–110. ISBN 978-0-486-21597-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=bdQVgKWl3f4C&pg=PA109. Retrieved 2016-01-08.
82. ↑ Modugno, G.; Benkő, C.; Hannaford, P.; Roati, G.; Inguscio, M. (1999-11-01). "Sub-Doppler laser cooling of fermionic ${}^{40}\mathrm{K}$ atoms". Physical Review A 60 (5): R3373–R3376. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.60.R3373. Bibcode: 1999PhRvA..60.3373M.
83. ↑ Jackson, C. B.; Werner, R. C. (1957). "Ch. 18: The Manufacture of Potassium and NaK". Handling and uses of the alkali metals. Advances in Chemistry. 19. pp. 169–173. doi:10.1021/ba-1957-0019.ch018. ISBN 978-0-8412-0020-3.
84. ↑ Kearey, Philip; Brooks, M; Hill, Ian (2002). "Optical Pumped Magnetometer". An introduction to geophysical exploration. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-632-04929-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=R_Y925b97ncC&pg=PA164.
85. ↑ Abdel-Wahab, M.; Youssef, S.; Aly, A.; el-Fiki, S.; el-Enany, N.; Abbas, M. (1992). "A simple calibration of a whole-body counter for the measurement of total body potassium in humans". International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation A 43 (10): 1285–9. doi:10.1016/0883-2889(92)90208-V. PMID 1330980.
86. ↑ Chang, Raymond (2007). Chemistry. McGraw-Hill Higher Education. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-07-110595-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=huSDQAAACAAJ.
87. ↑ Vašák, Milan; Schnabl, Joachim (2016). "Chapter 8. Sodium and Potassium Ions in Proteins and Enzyme Catalysis". in Astrid, Sigel; Helmut, Sigel; Roland K.O., Sigel. The Alkali Metal Ions: Their Role in Life. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 16. Springer. pp. 259–290. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21756-7_8. ISBN 978-3-319-21755-0.
88. ↑ Zacchia, Miriam; Abategiovanni, Maria Luisa; Stratigis, Spiros; Capasso, Giovambattista (2016). "Potassium: From Physiology to Clinical Implications" (in en). Kidney Diseases 2 (2): 72–79. doi:10.1159/000446268. ISSN 2296-9381. PMID 27536695.
89. ↑ "Disorders of potassium metabolism". Comprehensive clinical nephrology (5th ed.). St. Louis: Saunders. 2014. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-323-24287-5.
90. ↑ "Regulation of K+ excretion". Seldin and Giebisch's the kidney: physiology and pathophysiology (5th ed.). London: Academic Press. 2013. pp. 1659–1716. ISBN 978-0-12-381463-0.
91. ↑ "Disorders of potassium balance". The kidney (9th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. 2011. pp. 640–688. ISBN 978-1-4557-2304-1.
92. ↑ Lockless, S. W.; Zhou, M.; MacKinnon, R. (2007). "Structural and thermodynamic properties of selective ion binding in a K+ channel". PLOS Biol 5 (5). doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050121. PMID 17472437.
93. ↑ Dietz, Andrea Grostøl; Weikop, Pia; Hauglund, Natalie; Andersen, Mie; Petersen, Nicolas Caesar; Rose, Laura; Hirase, Hajime; Nedergaard, Maiken (2023). "Local extracellular K + in cortex regulates norepinephrine levels, network state, and behavioral output". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 120 (40). doi:10.1073/pnas.2305071120. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 37774097. Bibcode: 2023PNAS..12005071D.
94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 94.2 94.3 94.4 94.5 Gumz, Michelle L.; Rabinowitz, Lawrence; Wingo, Charles S. (July 2, 2015). Ingelfinger, Julie R.. ed. "An Integrated View of Potassium Homeostasis" (in en). New England Journal of Medicine 373 (1): 60–72. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1313341. ISSN 0028-4793. http://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMra1313341.
95. ↑ Campbell, Neil (1987). Biology. Menlo Park, California: Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co.. p. 795. ISBN 978-0-8053-1840-1.
96. ↑ Hellgren, Mikko; Sandberg, Lars; Edholm, Olle (2006). "A comparison between two prokaryotic potassium channels (KirBac1.1 and KcsA) in a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation study". Biophysical Chemistry 120 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.bpc.2005.10.002. PMID 16253415.
97. ↑ Wei, Kuang-Yu; Gritter, Martin; Vogt, Liffert; de Borst, Martin H; Rotmans, Joris I; Hoorn, Ewout J (2020-09-02). "Dietary potassium and the kidney: lifesaving physiology". Clinical Kidney Journal (Oxford University Press (OUP)) 13 (6): 952–968. doi:10.1093/ckj/sfaa157. ISSN 2048-8513. PMID 33391739.
98. ↑ Goyal, Abhinav; Spertus, John A.; Gosch, Kensey; Venkitachalam, Lakshmi; Jones, Philip G.; Van den Berghe, Greet; Kosiborod, Mikhail (2012). "Serum Potassium Levels and Mortality in Acute Myocardial Infarction". JAMA 307 (2): 157–164. doi:10.1001/jama.2011.1967. PMID 22235086.
99. ↑ Moore-Ede, M. C. (1986). "Physiology of the circadian timing system: predictive versus reactive homeostasis". Am J Physiol 250 (5 Pt 2): R737–R752. doi:10.1152/ajpregu.1986.250.5.R737. PMID 3706563.
100. ↑ Slonim, Anthony D.; Pollack, Murray M. (2006). "Potassium". Pediatric critical care medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 812. ISBN 978-0-7817-9469-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=_XavFllbnS0C&pg=PA812.
101. ↑ Visveswaran, Kasi (2009). "hypokalemia". Essentials of Nephrology (2nd ed.). BI Publications. p. 257. ISBN 978-81-7225-323-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=c4xAdJhIi6oC&pg=PT257.
102. ↑ Palmer, Biff F.; Clegg, Deborah J. (December 2016). "Physiology and pathophysiology of potassium homeostasis" (in en). Advances in Physiology Education 40 (4): 480–490. doi:10.1152/advan.00121.2016. ISSN 1043-4046. https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/advan.00121.2016.
103. ↑ Potts, W. T. W.; Parry, G. (1964). Osmotic and ionic regulation in animals. Pergamon Press.
104. ↑ Lans, H. 's.; Stein, I. F.; Meyer, K. A. (1952). "The relation of serum potassium to erythrocyte potassium in normal subjects and patients with potassium deficiency". American Journal of the Medical Sciences 223 (1): 65–74. doi:10.1097/00000441-195201000-00011. PMID 14902792.
105. ↑ Bennett, C. M.; Brenner, B. M.; Berliner, R. W. (1968). "Micropuncture study of nephron function in the rhesus monkey". Journal of Clinical Investigation 47 (1): 203–216. doi:10.1172/JCI105710. PMID 16695942.
106. ↑ Solomon, A. K. (1962). "Pumps in the living cell". Scientific American 207 (2): 100–8. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0862-100. PMID 13914986. Bibcode: 1962SciAm.207b.100S.
107. ↑ Kernan, Roderick P. (1980). Cell potassium (Transport in the life sciences). New York: Wiley. pp. 40, 48. ISBN 978-0-471-04806-0.
108. ↑ Wright, F. 's. (1977). "Sites and mechanisms of potassium transport along the renal tubule". Kidney International 11 (6): 415–432. doi:10.1038/ki.1977.60. PMID 875263.
109. ↑ Squires, R. D.; Huth, E. J. (1959). "Experimental potassium depletion in normal human subjects. I. Relation of ionic intakes to the renal conservation of potassium". Journal of Clinical Investigation 38 (7): 1134–48. doi:10.1172/JCI103890. PMID 13664789.
110. ↑ Fiebach, Nicholas H.; Barker, Lee Randolph; Burton, John Russell; Zieve, Philip D. (2007). Principles of ambulatory medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 748–750. ISBN 978-0-7817-6227-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=UGVylX6g4i8C&pg=PA748.
111. ↑ Gadsby, D. C. (2004). "Ion transport: spot the difference". Nature 427 (6977): 795–7. doi:10.1038/427795a. PMID 14985745. Bibcode: 2004Natur.427..795G. ; for a diagram of the potassium pores are viewed, see Miller, C (2001). "See potassium run". Nature 414 (6859): 23–24. doi:10.1038/35102126. PMID 11689922. Bibcode: 2001Natur.414...23M.
112. ↑ Jiang, Y.; Lee, A.; Chen, J.; Cadene, M.; Chait, B. 't.; Mackinnon, R. (2002). "Crystal structure and mechanism of a calcium-gated potassium channel". Nature 417 (6888): 515–22. doi:10.1038/417515a. PMID 12037559. Bibcode: 2002Natur.417..515J. http://einstein.ciencias.uchile.cl/CursoTroncal2007/Biblio/Jiang__MacKinnonNature417_515_2002.pdf.
113. ↑ Shi, N.; Ye, S.; Alam, A.; Chen, L.; Jiang, Y. (2006). "Atomic structure of a Na+\- and K+-conducting channel". Nature 440 (7083): 570–4. doi:10.1038/nature04508. PMID 16467789. Bibcode: 2006Natur.440..570S; includes a detailed picture of atoms in the pump.
114. ↑ Zhou, Y.; Morais-Cabral, J. H.; Kaufman, A.; MacKinnon, R. (2001). "Chemistry of ion coordination and hydration revealed by a K+ channel-Fab complex at 2.0 A resolution". Nature 414 (6859): 43–48. doi:10.1038/35102009. PMID 11689936. Bibcode: 2001Natur.414...43Z. http://www.acsu.buffalo.edu/~moralesm/Zhou.pdf.
115. ↑ Noskov, S. Y.; Bernèche, S.; Roux, B. (2004). "Control of ion selectivity in potassium channels by electrostatic and dynamic properties of carbonyl ligands". Nature 431 (7010): 830–4. doi:10.1038/nature02943. PMID 15483608. Bibcode: 2004Natur.431..830N. https://www.physics.uci.edu/~tritz/BP/ionchannel.pdf.
116. ↑ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (2019). "Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". in Stallings, Virginia A; Harrison, Meghan; Oria, Maria. Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. Bibcode: 2019nap..book25353N. https://www.nap.edu/read/25353/chapter/8. Retrieved 2019-05-13.
117. ↑ Stallings, Virginia A; Harrison, Meghan; Oria, Maria, eds (March 5, 2019). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium – Publication. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/Reports/2019/dietary-reference-intakes-sodium-potassium.aspx. Retrieved May 13, 2019.
118. ↑ Panel on Dietary Reference Intakes for Electrolytes and Water, Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition (2004). DRI, dietary reference intakes for water, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-53049-1. http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2004/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-Water-Potassium-Sodium-Chloride-and-Sulfate.aspx.
119. ↑ Karger, S. (2004). "Energy and nutrient intake in the European Union". Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 48 (2 (suppl)): 1–16. doi:10.1159/000083041.
120. ↑ "Vitamins and minerals". 18 November 2021. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/others/.
121. ↑ "Potassium Food Charts". Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. http://apjcn.nhri.org.tw/server/info/books-phds/books/foodfacts/html/data/data5b.html.
122. ↑ "Potassium Content of Selected Foods per Common Measure, sorted by nutrient content". USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20. http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR20/nutrlist/sr20w306.pdf.
123. ↑ "Effects of oral potassium on blood pressure. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials". JAMA 277 (20): 1624–32. 1997. doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540440058033. PMID 9168293.
124. ↑ Krishna, GG; Miller, E; Kapoor, S (1989). "Increased blood pressure during potassium depletion in normotensive men". The New England Journal of Medicine 320 (18): 1177–82. doi:10.1056/NEJM198905043201804. PMID 2624617.
125. ↑ 125.0 125.1 125.2 Soar, J; Perkins, GD; Abbas, G; Alfonzo, A; Barelli, A; Bierens, JJ; Brugger, H; Deakin, CD et al. (October 2010). "European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2010 Section 8. Cardiac arrest in special circumstances: Electrolyte abnormalities, poisoning, drowning, accidental hypothermia, hyperthermia, asthma, anaphylaxis, cardiac surgery, trauma, pregnancy, electrocution.". Resuscitation 81 (10): 1400–33. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2010.08.015. PMID 20956045.
126. ↑ Weir, Matthew R.; Espaillat, Ramon (September 3, 2015). "Clinical perspectives on the rationale for potassium supplementation" (in en). Postgraduate Medicine 127 (5): 539–548. doi:10.1080/00325481.2015.1045814. ISSN 0032-5481. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00325481.2015.1045814.
127. ↑ Ng, Kimberly; Lee, Chung-Shie (February 16, 2017). "Updated Treatment Options in the Management of Hyperkalemia" (in en). https://www.uspharmacist.com/article/updated-treatment-options-in-the-management-of-hyperkalemia.
128. ↑ 128.0 128.1 Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Optimization of Nutrient Composition of Military Rations for Short-Term, High-Stress Situations; Institute of Medicine (U.S.). Committee on Military Nutrition Research (2006). Nutrient composition of rations for short-term, high-intensity combat operations. National Academies Press. pp. 287–. ISBN 978-0-309-09641-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=kFatoIBbMboC&pg=PT287.
129. ↑ Benge, Cassandra D.; Burka, Abigail T. (2020). "Oral Liquid Potassium Chloride Dosing Pathway in a Tertiary Care Veteran Affairs Academic Medical Center" (in en). Critical Pathways in Cardiology: A Journal of Evidence-Based Medicine 19 (1): 18–21. doi:10.1097/HPC.0000000000000197. ISSN 1535-282X. PMID 31478945. https://journals.lww.com/10.1097/HPC.0000000000000197.
130. ↑ 130.0 130.1 130.2 "Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug (NSAID)-, Potassium Supplement-, Bisphosphonate-, and Doxycycline-Mediated Peptic Ulcer Effects: A Narrative Review". Cureus 16 (1). January 2024. doi:10.7759/cureus.51894. PMID 38333496.
131. ↑ "Potassium - Fact Sheet for Health Professionals" (in en). June 2, 2022. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Potassium-HealthProfessional/.
132. ↑ D'Elia, L.; Barba, G.; Cappuccio, F.; Strazzullo (2011). "Potassium Intake, Stroke, and Cardiovascular Disease: A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies". J Am Coll Cardiol 57 (10): 1210–9. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2010.09.070. PMID 21371638.
133. ↑ Dickinson, Heather O; Nicolson, Donald; Campbell, Fiona; Beyer, Fiona R; Mason, James (July 19, 2006). Cochrane Hypertension Group. ed. "Potassium supplementation for the management of primary hypertension in adults" (in en). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004641.pub2. https://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/14651858.CD004641.pub2.
134. ↑ "Effects of potassium chloride and potassium bicarbonate on endothelial function, cardiovascular risk factors, and bone turnover in mild hypertensives". Hypertension 55 (3): 681–8. 2010. doi:10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.147488. PMID 20083724.
135. ↑ "The Top 300 of 2020". https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Top300Drugs.aspx.
136. ↑ "Potassium Chloride - Drug Usage Statistics". https://clincalc.com/DrugStats/Drugs/PotassiumChloride.
137. ↑ Abdi, Saeed; Masbough, Farnoosh; Nazari, Maryam; Abbasinazari, Mohammad (2022-06-20). "Drug-induced esophagitis and helpful management for healthcare providers". Gastroenterology and Hepatology from Bed to Bench 15 (3): 219–224. doi:10.22037/ghfbb.v15i3.2591. ISSN 2008-4234. PMID 36311965.
138. ↑ Shallenberger, R. S. (1993). Taste chemistry. Springer. pp. 120–. ISBN 978-0-7514-0150-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=8_bjyjgClq0C&pg=PA120.
139. ↑ Tsai, Yi-Ching; Tsao, Yen-Po; Huang, Chi-Jung; Tai, Yen-Hsuan; Su, Yang-Chin; Chiang, Chern-En; Sung, Shih-Hsien; Chen, Chen-Huan et al. (2022). "Effectiveness of salt substitute on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis" (in en). The Journal of Clinical Hypertension 24 (9): 1147–1160. doi:10.1111/jch.14562. ISSN 1751-7176. PMID 36196475.
140. ↑ "Potassium 244856". Sigma Aldrich. https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/aldrich/244856?lang=en&region=US.
141. ↑ Solomon, Robert E. (2002). Fire and Life Safety Inspection Manual. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 459. ISBN 978-0-87765-472-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=2fHsoobsCNwC&pg=PA459.
142. ↑ "DOE Handbook-Alkali Metals Sodium, Potassium, NaK, and Lithium". Hss.doe.gov. http://www.hss.doe.gov/nuclearsafety/ns/techstds/standard/hdbk1081/hbk1081d.html.
143. ↑ Wray, Thomas K.. "Danger: peroxidazable chemicals". Environmental Health & Public Safety, North Carolina State University. https://www.ncsu.edu/ehs/www99/right/handsMan/lab/Peroxide.pdf.
144. ↑ 144.0 144.1 Schonwald, Seth (2004). "Potassium Chloride and Potassium Permanganate". Medical toxicology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 903–5. ISBN 978-0-7817-2845-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=BfdighlyGiwC&pg=PA903.
145. ↑ Markovchick, Vincent J.; Pons, Peter T. (2003). Emergency medicine secrets. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 223. ISBN 978-1-56053-503-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=l8RkPU1-M5wC&pg=PA223.
146. ↑ Clase, Catherine M.; Carrero, Juan-Jesus; Ellison, David H.; Grams, Morgan E.; Hemmelgarn, Brenda R.; Jardine, Meg J.; Kovesdy, Csaba P.; Kline, Gregory A. et al. (January 2020). "Potassium homeostasis and management of dyskalemia in kidney diseases: conclusions from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference" (in en). Kidney International 97 (1): 42–61. doi:10.1016/j.kint.2019.09.018. PMID 31706619. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0085253819310129.

## Bibliography

* Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8.
* Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (2007). "Potassium" (in de). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017770-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=mahxPfBdcxcC.
* Schultz, H.; Bauer, G.; Schachl, E.; Hagedorn, F.; Schmittinger, P. (2006). "Potassium compounds". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. A22. pp. 39–103. doi:10.1002/14356007.a22_031.pub2. ISBN 978-3-527-30673-2.
* National Nutrient Database at USDA Website

## External links

* Template:Pubchem

* v
* t
* e

Periodic table

|  | 1 | 2 |  | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

1 | H |  | He
2 | Li | Be |  | B | C | N | O | F | Ne
3 | Na | Mg |  | Al | Si | P | S | Cl | Ar
4 | K | Ca |  | Sc | Ti | V | Cr | Mn | Fe | Co | Ni | Cu | Zn | Ga | Ge | As | Se | Br | Kr
5 | Rb | Sr |  | Y | Zr | Nb | Mo | Tc | Ru | Rh | Pd | Ag | Cd | In | Sn | Sb | Te | I | Xe
6 | Cs | Ba | La | Ce | Pr | Nd | Pm | Sm | Eu | Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Er | Tm | Yb | Lu | Hf | Ta | W | Re | Os | Ir | Pt | Au | Hg | Tl | Pb | Bi | Po | At | Rn
7 | Fr | Ra | Ac | Th | Pa | U | Np | Pu | Am | Cm | Bk | Cf | Es | Fm | Md | No | Lr | Rf | Db | Sg | Bh | Hs | Mt | Ds | Rg | Cn | Nh | Fl | Mc | Lv | Ts | Og

| Alkali metal | Alkaline earth metal | Lan­thanide | Actinide | Transition metal | Post-​transition metal | Metalloid | Reactive nonmetal | Noble gas

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

* v
* t
* e

Potassium compounds

* KAsO2
* KBr
* KBrO3
* KCN
* KCNO
* KCl
* KClO
* KClO3
* KClO4
* KF
* KH
* KHCO2
* KHCO3
* KHF2
* KHS
* KHSO3
* KHSO4
* KH2AsO4
* KH2PO3
* KH2PO4
* KI
* KIO3
* KIO4
* KMnO4
* KNH2
* KN3
* K3N
* KNO2
* KNO3
* KOCN
* KOH
* KO2
* KPF6
* KSCN
* KCH3COO
* K2Al2O4
* K2CO3
* K2CrO4
* K2Cr2O7
* K2FeO4
* K2HPO4
* K2MnO4
* K2O
* K2O2
* K2PtCl4
* K2PtCl6
* K2S
* K2SeO4
* K2SO3
* K2SO4
* KHSO5
* K2S2O5
* K2S2O7
* K2S2O8
* K2Po
* K2SiO3
* K3[Fe(CN)6]
* K3[Fe(C2O4)3]
* K4[Fe(CN)6]
* K3PO4
* K4Mo2Cl8

Find out more on Wikipedia's
Sister projects|

* News stories
from Wikinews
* Definitions
from Wiktionary
* Textbooks
from Wikibooks
* Source texts
from Wikisource
* Learning resources
from Wikiversity

|

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Chemistry:Potassium&oldid=4246057"
*[H260]: In contact with water releases flammable gases which may ignite spontaneously
*[H314]: Causes severe skin burns and eye damage
*[P223]: Keep away from any possible contact with water, because of violent reaction and possible flash fire
*[P231+232]: Handle under inert gas. Protect from moisture
*[P280]: Wear protective gloves/protective clothing/eye protection/face protection
*[P305+351+338]: IF IN EYES: Rinse continuously with water for several minutes. Remove contact lenses if present and easy to do – continue rinsing
*[P370+378]: In case of fire: Use … for extinction
*[P422]: Store contents under …
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template