Scholasticism

Scholasticism is a medieval European philosophical movement or methodology that was the predominant education in Europe from about 1100 to 1700.[1] It is known for employing logically precise analyses toward the goal of reconciling classical philosophy (particularly Aristotelian logic) and Catholic Christianity.[2]

The Scholastics, also known as Schoolmen,[3][4] used dialectical reasoning predicated upon Aristotelianism and the Ten Categories. Scholasticism emerged within the monastic schools that translated medieval Judeo-Islamic philosophies, and "rediscovered" the collected works of Aristotle. Endeavoring to harmonize Aristotle's metaphysics and Latin Catholic theology, these monastic schools became the basis of the earliest European medieval universities, and thus became the bedrock for the development of modern science and philosophy in the Western world. The rise of scholasticism was closely associated with these schools that flourished in Italy, France, Portugal, Spain and England.[5]

Scholasticism is a method of learning more than a philosophy or a theology, since it places a strong emphasis on dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference and to resolve contradictions. Scholastic thought is also known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the careful drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit disputation: a topic drawn from the tradition is broached in the form of a proposition on a question to be debated, oppositional responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and oppositional arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.[6][7]

Scholasticism was initially a program conducted by medieval Christian thinkers attempting to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antique philosophy, especially that of Aristotle but also of Neoplatonism.[8] Prominent scholastic figures include Anselm of Canterbury ("the father of scholasticism"[9]), Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's masterwork, Summa Theologica (1265–1274), is widely considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy.[10] Important work in the scholastic tradition has been carried on well past Aquinas's time, such as with English scholastics Robert Grosseteste and his student Roger Bacon, by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina, and also among Lutheran and Reformed thinkers.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 2.1 Early scholasticism
* 2.2 High scholasticism
* 2.3 Post-scholasticism
* 2.4 Spanish scholasticism
* 2.5 Late Scholasticism
* 2.6 Protestant Scholasticism
* 2.7 Lutheran Scholasticism
* 2.8 Reformed scholasticism
* 2.9 Neo-scholasticism
* 2.10 Thomistic scholasticism
* 2.11 Analytical scholasticism
* 3 Scholastic method
* 4 Scholastic instruction
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 6.1 Works cited
* 7 Further reading
* 8 External links

## Etymology

The terms "scholastic" and "scholasticism" derive from the Latin word scholasticus, the Latinized form of the Greek σχολαστικός (scholastikos), an adjective derived from σχολή (scholē), "school".[11] Scholasticus means "of or pertaining to schools". The "scholastics", therefore, were roughly "schoolmen".

## History

The foundations of Christian scholasticism were laid by Boethius through his logical and theological essays.[6] Later forerunners (and then companions) to scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, meaning "science of discourse",[12] and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam.[13]

### Early scholasticism

Anselm of Canterbury

Peter Abelard

The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages. Charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Ireland, where some Greek works continued to survive in the original. By a 787 decree, he established schools at every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the name scholasticism derived, became centers of medieval learning.[14]

During this period, knowledge of Ancient Greek had vanished in the West except in Ireland, where its teaching and use was fairly common in its monastic schools.[15] Irish scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning.[16] Among them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815–877), one of the founders of scholasticism.[17] Eriugena was the most significant Irish intellectual of the early monastic period and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality.[16] He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers and the Greek theological tradition.[16] Three other primary founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century archbishops Lanfranc and Anselm of Canterbury in England and Peter Abelard in France.[17]

This period saw the beginning of the "rediscovery" of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin West. As early as the latter half of the 10th century, the Toledo School of Translators in Muslim Spain had begun translating Arabic texts into Latin.[18] After a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars and, as these Europeans encountered Judeo-Islamic philosophies, they opened a wealth of Arab and Judaic knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.[19] The Latin translations of the 12th century also included figures like Constantine the African in Italy and James of Venice in Constantinople. Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements into Latin.[20]

At the same time, the School of Chartres produced Bernard of Chartres's commentaries on Plato's Timaeus and a range of works by William of Conches that attempted to reconcile the use of classical pagan and philosophical sources in a medieval Christian concept using the kludge of integumentum, treating the obviously heretical surface meanings as coverings disguising a deeper (and more orthodox) truth.[21] Abelard himself was condemned by Bernard of Clairvaux at the 1141 Council of Sens and William avoided a similar fate through systematic self-bowdlerization of his early work, but his commentaries and encyclopedic De Philosophia Mundi and Dragmaticon were miscredited to earlier scholars like Bede and widely disseminated. Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic (the middle subject of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities.[22]

More recently, Leinsle,[23] Novikoff,[24] and others have argued against the idea that scholasticism primarily derived from philosophical contact, emphasizing its continuity with earlier Patristic Christianity. This remains, however, a minority viewpoint.[citation needed]

### High scholasticism

Albertus Magnus

Thomas Aquinas

Duns Scotus

William of Ockham

The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew up in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italy and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.[25] William of Moerbeke's translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied. Edward Grant writes "Not only was the structure of the Arabic language radically different from that of Latin, but some Arabic versions had been derived from earlier Syriac translations and were thus twice removed from the original Greek text. Word-for-word translations of such Arabic texts could produce tortured readings. By contrast, the structural closeness of Latin to Greek, permitted literal, but intelligible, word-for-word translations."[19]

Universities developed in the large cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders within the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two main orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded by Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only discover truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious faith.[26] Other important Franciscan scholastics were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and William of Ockham.[27][28]

By contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded by St Dominic in 1215, to propagate and defend Christian doctrine, placed more emphasis on the use of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East and Moorish Spain. The great representatives of Dominican thinking in this period were Albertus Magnus and (especially) Thomas Aquinas, whose artful synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy.

Aquinas's masterwork, Summa Theologica (1265–1274), is considered to be the pinnacle of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy.[10] It began while Aquinas was regent master at the studium provinciale of Santa Sabina in Rome, the forerunner of the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator, Averroes.[29]

### Post-scholasticism

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Philosopher Johann Beukes has suggested that from 1349 to 1464, the era between the deaths of William of Ockham and Nicholas of Cusa, there was a distinct period characterized by "robust and independent philosophers" who departed from high scholasticism on issues such as institutional criticism and materialism but retained scholasticism's method. These philosophers include Marsilius of Padua, Thomas Bradwardine, John Wycliffe, Catherine of Sienna, Jean Gerson, Gabriel Biel and ended with Nicholas of Cusa.[30]

### Spanish scholasticism

Main article: Philosophy:School of Salamanca

### Late Scholasticism

Main article: Philosophy:Second scholasticism

### Protestant Scholasticism

### Lutheran Scholasticism

Main article: Philosophy:Lutheran scholasticism

### Reformed scholasticism

Main article: Philosophy:Reformed scholasticism

Following the Reformation, Calvinists largely adopted the scholastic method of theology, while differing regarding sources of authority and content of theology.[31]

### Neo-scholasticism

Main article: Philosophy:Neo-scholasticism

The revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy is sometimes called neo-Thomism.[32]

### Thomistic scholasticism

Catholic philosopher Thomas Aquinas

As J. A. Weisheipl O.P. emphasizes, within the Dominican Order Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Order, small as it was after the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the General Chapters, beginning after the death of St. Thomas, as well as the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology."[33]

"Thomistic scholasticism" or "scholastic Thomism" identifies with the philosophical and theological tradition stretching back to the time of St. Thomas Aquinas. It focuses not only on exegesis of the historical Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous system of orthodox Thomism to be used as an instrument of critique of contemporary thought. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called, according to philosophers like Edward Feser, "Strict Observance Thomism".[34] A discussion of recent and current Thomistic scholasticism can be found in La Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino e i suoi interpreti (2002) by Battista Mondin (it), which includes such figures as Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908–1990),[35] Cornelio Fabro (1911–1995), Carlo Giacon (1900–1984),[36] Tomas Tyn O.P. (1950–1990), Abelardo Lobato O.P. (1925–2012), Leo Elders (1926– ) and Giovanni Ventimiglia (1964– ), among others. Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality, especially with respect to the actus essendi or act of existence of finite beings by participating in being itself. Other scholars such as those involved with "Il Progetto Tommaso" seek to establish an objective and universal reading of Aquinas' texts.[37]

Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went into decline in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by Jacques Maritain, Étienne Gilson, and others, diminished in influence. Partly, this was because this branch of Thomism had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas after the Second Vatican Council.

### Analytical scholasticism

A renewed interest in the "scholastic" way of doing philosophy has recently awoken within analytic philosophy.[38][39] Attempts emerged to combine elements of scholastic and analytic methodology in pursuit of a contemporary philosophical synthesis. Proponents of various incarnations of this approach include Anthony Kenny, Peter King, Thomas Williams or David Oderberg.[citation needed]

## Scholastic method

Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge and how to communicate effectively so that it may be acquired by others. It was thought that the best way to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process (modus inveniendi).[40]

The scholasticists would choose a book by a renowned scholar, auctor (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the author. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, be it ancient or contemporary. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae. Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the two sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would be totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways. The first was through philological analysis. Words were examined and argued to have multiple meanings. It was also considered that the auctor might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find common ground between two otherwise contradictory statements. The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic – as they were known at the time – to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader.[41]

## Scholastic instruction

Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The first was the lectio: a teacher would read an authoritative text followed by a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the meditatio (meditation or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the quaestio students could ask questions (quaestiones) that might have occurred to them during meditatio. Eventually the discussion of quaestiones became a method of inquiry apart from the lectio and independent of authoritative texts. Disputationes were arranged to resolve controversial quaestiones.[42]

Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand, but students could propose a question to the teacher unannounced – disputationes de quodlibet. In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted; on the following day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his final position, riposting all rebuttals.[41][43]

The quaestio method of reasoning was initially used especially when two authoritative texts seemed to contradict one another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the form of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved (sic) or denied (non). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments against the position, and finally the arguments against would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.[44]

## See also

* Actus primus
* Allegory in the Middle Ages
* Casuistry
* History of science in the Middle Ages
* Medieval philosophy
* Nominalism
* Pardes (Jewish exegesis)
* Renaissance of the 12th century
* Scotism

## References

1. ↑ See Steven P. Marone, "Medieval philosophy in context" in A. S. McGrade, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the difference between scholastic and medieval monastic postures towards learning, see Jean Leclercq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970) esp. 89; 238ff.
2. ↑ Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin Press, pp. 146-7.
3. ↑ "Schoolmen". Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/Schoolmen.
4. ↑ Campbell, Timothy P.; Harrison, Timothy M.; McDonagh, Josephine et al., eds (May 1950) (in en). Modern Philology. 47. doi:10.1086/mp.1950.47.issue-4. ISSN 0026-8232. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/mp.1950.47.issue-4. Retrieved 15 June 2023.
5. ↑ Gracia, Jorge JE, and Timothy B. Noone, eds. A companion to philosophy in the middle ages. John Wiley & Sons, 2008, 55–64
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Patte, Daniel. The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 11132-1133
7. ↑ Grant, Edward. God and Reason in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 159
8. ↑ Particularly through Pseudo-Dionysius, Augustine, and Boethius, and through the influence of Plotinus and Proclus on Muslim philosophers. In the case of Aquinas, for instance, see Jan Aertsen, "Aquinas' philosophy in its historical setting" in The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas, ed. Norman Kretzmann and Eleonore Stump (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Jean Leclerq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970).
9. ↑ Grant, Edward. God and Reason in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 56
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Gilson, Etienne (1991). The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gifford Lectures 1933–35). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 490. ISBN 978-0-268-01740-8.
11. ↑ "school". http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=school&allowed_in_frame=0. "scholastic". scholastic. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=scholastic&allowed_in_frame=0. σχολή, σχολαστικός. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
12. ↑ Winter, Tim J. "Introduction." Introduction. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. 4–5. Print.
13. ↑ Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p. 391. ISBN 1438109075
14. ↑ Colish, Marcia L. Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400. Yale University Press, 1999, 66–67
15. ↑ Sandys, John Edwin (1903). A History of Classical Scholarship. Cambridge University Press. p. 438. https://books.google.com/books?id=godfAAAAMAAJ.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 "John Scottus Eriugena". Stanford University. 2004-10-17. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scottus-eriugena/.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Toman 2007, p. 10: "Abelard himself was ... together with John Scotus Erigena (9th century), and Lanfranc and Anselm of Canterbury (both 11th century), one of the founders of scholasticism."
18. ↑ Lindberg 1978, pp. 60–61.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Grant, Edward, and Emeritus Edward Grant. The foundations of modern science in the Middle Ages: their religious, institutional and intellectual contexts. Cambridge University Press, 1996, 23–28
20. ↑ Clagett 1982, p. 356.
21. ↑ Adamson, Peter (2019), Medieval Philosophy, A History of Philosophy without Any Gaps, Vol. 4, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 93 ff, ISBN 978-0-19-884240-8, https://books.google.com/books?id=hverDwAAQBAJ .
22. ↑ Hoffecker, Andrew. "Peter Lombard, Master of the Sentences". Ligonier Ministries. https://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/peter-lombard-master-of-the-sentences/.
23. ↑ Leinsle, Ulrich G.. Introduction to Scholastic Theology. ISBN 0-8132-1925-6. OCLC 1303318773.
24. ↑ Novikoff, Alex J. (April 2012). "Toward a Cultural History of Scholastic Disputation" (in en). The American Historical Review 117 (2): 331–364. doi:10.1086/ahr.117.2.331.
25. ↑ Lindberg 1978, pp. 70–72.
26. ↑ Hammond, Jay, Wayne Hellmann, and Jared Goff, eds. A companion to Bonaventure. Brill, 2014, 122
27. ↑ Evans, Gillian Rosemary. Fifty key medieval thinkers. Routledge, 2002, 93–93, 147–149, 164–169
28. ↑ Gracia, Jorge JE, and Timothy B. Noone, eds. A companion to philosophy in the middle ages. John Wiley & Sons, 2008, 353–369, 494–503, 696–712
29. ↑ Hannam, James. The genesis of science: How the Christian Middle Ages launched the scientific revolution. Simon and Schuster, 2011, 90–93
30. ↑ Beukes, Johann (19 March 2021). "The case for post-scholasticism as an internal period indicator in Medieval philosophy". HTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies 77 (4). doi:10.4102/hts.v77i4.6270.
31. ↑ Douglass, Jane Dempsey, et al. The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 227–228
32. ↑ Edward Feser (15 October 2009). "The Thomistic tradition, Part I (archived copy)". http://edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2009/10/thomistic-tradition-part-i.html.
33. ↑ Weisheipl, James (1962). "The Revival of Thomism: An Historical Survey". http://domcentral.org/blog/the-revival-of-thomism-an-historical-survey-weisheipl/.
34. ↑ "Edward Feser: The Thomistic tradition, Part I". 15 October 2009. http://edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2009/10/thomistic-tradition-part-i.html.
35. ↑ Vanni Rovighi, Sofia. Treccani Encyclopedia./ Accessed 17 August 2013
36. ↑ GIACON, Carlo. Treccani Encyclopedia./ Accessed 9 April 2013
37. ↑ See Rizzello, Raffaele (1999). "Il Progetto Tommaso". Vita quaerens intellectum. Rome: Millennium Romae. pp. 157–161. http://www.phmae.it/rec35.htm. Retrieved 2013-09-25.
38. ↑ Peterson, Craig; Pugh, Matthew, eds (2006). "Analytical Thomism: traditions in dialogue". Analytical Thomism: traditions in dialogue. Aldershot, England: Ashgate. ISBN 0754634388.
39. ↑ Simpson, William M. R.; Koons, Robert C.; Orr, James, eds (11 October 2021). "Neo-Aristotelian Metaphysics and the Theology of Nature". Neo-Aristotelian Metaphysics and the Theology of Nature. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003125860-3. ISBN 9781003125860. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003125860/.
40. ↑ Cornelius, O'Boyle (1998). The art of medicine: medical teaching at the University of Paris, 1250–1400. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004111240. OCLC 39655867.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Colish, Marcia L. Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400. Yale University Press, 1999, 265–273
42. ↑ van Asselt 2011, p. 59.
43. ↑ van Asselt 2011, p. 60.
44. ↑ van Asselt 2011, pp. 61–62.

### Works cited

* van Asselt, Willem J. (2011) (in nl). Inleiding in de Gereformeerde Scholastiek. With contributions by T. Theo J. Pleizier, Pieter L. Rouwendal, and Maarten Wisse; Translated by Albert Gootjes. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Reformation Heritage Books. ISBN 978-1-60178-121-5.
* Clagett, Marshall (1982). "William of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 126 (5): 356–366.
* Decock, W. (2013), Theologians and Contract Law: The Moral Transformation of the Ius Commune (c. 1500–1650), Leiden/Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, ISBN 978-90-04-23284-6.
* Fryde, E., The Early Palaeologan Renaissance, Brill 2000.
* Gracia, J. G. and Noone, T. B., eds., (2003) A Companion to Philosophy in the Middle Ages. London: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-21672-3
* McGrade, A. S., ed., (2003) The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Lindberg, David C. (1978). Science in the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-48232-3.
* Toman, Rolf (2007). The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. photography by Achim Bednorz. Tandem Verlag GmbH. ISBN 978-3-8331-4676-3.

## Further reading

Primary

* Hyman, J., ed (1973). Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-0-915144-05-1.
* Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed (1996). Readings in Medieval Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509293-6.

Secondary

* Gallatin, Harlie Kay (2001). "Medieval Intellectual Life and Christianity". http://users.sbuniv.edu/~hgallatin/ht34632e18.html#res.
* Maurer, Armand A. (1982). Medieval Philosophy (2nd ed.). Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. ISBN 978-0-88844-704-3. https://archive.org/details/medievalphilosop0000maur.
* Rexroth, Frank (2023) (in en). Knowledge True and Useful: A Cultural History of Early Scholasticism. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-1-5128-2471-1.
* Trueman, Carl R; Clark, R. Scott, eds (1999). Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment. Carlisle, UK: Paternoster Press. ISBN 0-85364-853-0.

## External links

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* Scholasticon by Jacob Schmutz
* Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources
* "Scholasticism". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
* Scholasticism Joseph Rickaby, (1908), 121 pp. (also at googlebooks)
* Scholasticism in The Catholic Encyclopedia
* Yahoo! directory category: Scholasticism
* The genius of the scholastics and the orbit of Aristotle, article by James Franklin on the influence of scholasticism on later thought
* Medieval Philosophy, Universities and the Church by James Hannam
* Script error: The function "in_lang" does not exist. ALCUIN – Regensburger Infothek der Scholastik – Huge database with information on biography, text chronology, editions.

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* Revelation

|

Ante-Nicene period (100–325)|

* Persecution
* Church Fathers
* Apostolic Fathers
* Pope Clement I
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Canon
* Tertullian
* Origen

Late antiquity
(313–476)|

| Great Church
(180–451)
Roman
state church
(380-451)|

* Constantine the Great
* Christianity
* Arian controversy
* Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
* Old St. Peter's Basilica
* First Council of Nicaea
* Pope Sylvester I
* First Council of Constantinople
* Biblical canon
* Jerome
* Vulgate
* Council of Ephesus
* Council of Chalcedon

|

Early Middle Ages|

* Benedict of Nursia
* Monasticism
* Second Council of Constantinople
* Pope Gregory I
* Gregorian chant
* Islamic conquests
* Third Council of Constantinople
* Saint Boniface
* Byzantine Iconoclasm
* Second Council of Nicaea
* Charlemagne
* Pope Leo III
* Fourth Council of Constantinople
* East–West Schism

High Middle Ages|

* Pope Urban II
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Northern
* States
* Military orders
* Universities
* Scholasticism
* First Council of the Lateran
* Second Council of the Lateran
* Third Council of the Lateran
* Pope Innocent III
* Latin Empire
* Francis of Assisi
* Fourth Council of the Lateran
* Inquisition
* First Council of Lyon
* Second Council of Lyon
* Bernard of Clairvaux

Late Middle Ages|

* Thomas Aquinas
* Pope Boniface VIII
* Western Schism
* Avignon Papacy
* Pope Clement V
* Council of Vienne
* Knights Templar
* Catherine of Siena
* Pope Alexander VI
* Age of Discovery

Reformation
Catholic Reformation

* Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Thomas More
* Pope Leo X
* Society of Jesus
* Ignatius of Loyola
* Francis Xavier
* Dissolution of the Monasteries
* Council of Trent
* Pope Pius V
* Tridentine Mass
* Teresa of Ávila
* John of the Cross
* Philip Neri
* Robert Bellarmine
* Thirty Years' War

Baroque Period to the
French Revolution

* Pope Innocent XI
* Pope Benedict XIV
* Suppression of the Society of Jesus
* Age of Enlightenment
* Anti-clericalism
* Pope Pius VI
* Shimabara Rebellion
* Edict of Nantes
* Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

19th century|

* Pope Pius VII
* Pope Pius IX
* Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary
* Our Lady of La Salette
* Our Lady of Lourdes
* First Vatican Council
* Papal infallibility
* Pope Leo XIII
* Mary of the Divine Heart
* Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart
* Rerum novarum

20th century|

* Pope Pius X
* Our Lady of Fátima
* Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII
* Pope Pius XII
* Pope Pius XII Consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
* Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary
* Lateran Treaty
* Nazism
* Pope John XXIII
* Second Vatican Council
* Pope Paul VI
* Pope John Paul I
* Mother Teresa
* Communism
* Pope John Paul II
* World Youth Day
* 1995

21st century|

* Sexual abuse scandal
* Islam
* World Youth Day
* 2000
* 2002
* 2005
* 2008
* 2011
* 2013
* 2016
* 2019
* Pope Benedict XVI
* Pope Francis

*   *

* v
* t
* e

Catholic Church

* Index
* Outline
* Glossary
* Lists of Catholics

History
Timeline
Ecclesiastical
Legal|

| Early Church|

* Jesus
* Ministry
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Apostles
* Succession
* Petrine primacy
* Church fathers
* Apostolic fathers
* History of the papacy
* Primacy

|

Great Church|

* Ante-Nicene Period
* Constantine
* First seven ecumenical councils
* Nicaea I
* Chalcedon
* Late antiquity
* Biblical canon
* Monasticism

Middle Ages|

* Islamic conquests
* Pope Gregory I
* Papal States
* Schism (1054)
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Schism (1378)
* Inquisition
* Universities
* Scholasticism
* Age of Discovery

Modern era|

* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Trent
* Thirty Years' War
* Enlightenment
* French Revolution
* Nazism
* Vatican II
* Communism
* Sexual abuse scandal
* Islam

Theology
Bible
Tradition;
Catechism|

| General|

* God
* Trinity
* Kingdom
* Body and soul
* Divine grace
* Dogma
* Nicene Creed
* Original sin
* Saints
* Salvation
* Sermon on the Mount
* Ten Commandments
* Vulgate
* Official Bible
* Vulgata Sixtina
* Sixto-Clementine Vulgate
* Nova Vulgata
* Worship

|

Ecclesiology|

* Communitas perfecta
* Councils
* Ecumenism
* Four marks
* Catholic
* Infallibility
* Corporis Christi
* One true church
* People of God
* Three states
* Subsistit in
* In canon law

Sacraments|

* Baptism
* Confirmation
* Eucharist
* Penance
* Anointing of the Sick
* Last rites
* Holy orders
* Matrimony

Mariology|

* Assumption
* History
* Immaculate Conception
* Mariology of the popes
* Mariology of the saints
* Mother of God
* Perpetual virginity
* Veneration
* See also:
* Josephology

Philosophy|

* Natural law
* Moral theology
* Personalism
* Social teaching
* Philosophers
* Philosophy of canon law
* See also:
* Science
* Evolution
* Separation of church and state
* Relations
* Politics

Saints|

* Holy Family
* Mary
* Joseph
* Patriarchs
* Prophets
* Archangels
* Martyrs
* Doctors of the Church
* Evangelists
* Confessors
* Disciples
* Virgins

Organisation
Hierarchy
Canon law
Laity
Precedence
By country|

| Holy See
(List of popes)|

* Pope Francis
* Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI
* Ecumenical councils
* College of Cardinals
* List
* Advisers
* Roman Curia
* Dicasteries
* Synod of Bishops
* Properties

| Vatican City|

* Index
* Outline
* Apostolic Palace
* Lateran Treaty
* Roman Rota
* St. Peter's Basilica
* Swiss Guard
* Vatican Museums

|

Polity (Holy orders)|

* Diocese (Episcopal conference):
* Bishop
* Patriarch
* Major
* Primate
* Metropolitan
* Archbishop
* Diocesan
* Coadjutor
* Auxiliary
* Titular
* Emeritus
* Parish:
* Priest
* Deacon

Consecrated life|

* Religious:
* Superior
* Abbot/Abbess
* General
* Provincial
* Prior/Prioress
* Grand Master
* Brother
* Friar
* Monk
* Sister
* Nun
* Hermit
* Novice
* Master
* Oblate
* Postulant

Particular churches
sui iuris|

* Latin Church
* Eastern Catholic Churches:
* Albanian
* Armenian
* Belarusian
* Bulgarian
* Chaldean
* Coptic
* Croatian and Serbian
* Eritrean
* Ethiopian
* Georgian
* Greek
* Hungarian
* Italo-Albanian
* Macedonian
* Maronite
* Melkite
* Romanian
* Russian
* Ruthenian
* Slovak
* Syriac
* Syro-Malabar
* Syro-Malankara
* Ukrainian

Liturgical rites|

* Alexandrian
* Antiochian
* Armenian
* Byzantine
* East Syriac
* Latin
* Ambrosian
* Braga
* Mozarabic
* Roman
* Paul VI
* Tridentine
* Anglican
* Zaire
* West Syriac
* Malankara

Culture|

* Art
* Marian
* Artists
* Authors
* Church buildings
* Altarpieces
* Library
* Museums
* Music
* Distinctions
* Role in civilisation
* See also:
* Criticism of the Catholic Church
* Anti-Catholicism

Media|

* Holy See Press Office
* Vatican Media
* Vatican News
* Vatican Television Center
* Vatican Radio
* Vatican Polyglot Press
* L'Osservatore Romano
* Acta Apostolicae Sedis
* Annuario Pontificio

Religious orders,
institutes, societies|

* Assumptionists
* Annonciades
* Augustinians
* Basilians
* Benedictines
* Bethlehemites
* Blue nuns
* Camaldoleses
* Camillians
* Carmelites
* Carthusians
* Cistercians
* Clarisses
* Conceptionists
* Crosiers
* Dominicans
* Franciscans
* Good Shepherd Sisters
* Hieronymites
* Jesuits
* Mercedarians
* Minims
* Olivetans
* Oratorians
* Piarists
* Premonstratensians
* Redemptorists
* Servites
* Theatines
* Trappists
* Trinitarians
* Visitandines

Associations
of the faithful|

* Confraternities
* Movements
* Lay
* Marian
* Youth
* Workers
* Third orders
* Saint Dominic
* Lay Carmelites
* Discalced
* Saint Francis
* Secular
* Military orders
* Fimcap
* Catholic Action
* Charismatic Renewal
* Communion and Liberation
* Sant'Egidio
* Focolare
* International Alliance of Catholic Knights
* Scouting
* Legion of Mary
* Neocatechumenal Way
* Opus Dei
* Schoenstatt

Charities|

* Aid to the Church in Need
* Caritas
* Home Missions
* Relief Services
* CIDSE
* Pax Christi
* Society of Saint Vincent de Paul

* See also:
* Health care
* Schools
* Universities

*   * Book
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Catholic philosophy

Ethics|

* Cardinal virtues
* Divine command
* Just price
* Just war
* Probabilism
* Natural law
* Personalism
* Seven virtues
* Social teaching
* Theological virtues
* Virtue ethics

Schools|

| Medieval|

* Augustinianism
* Scholasticism
* Thomism
* Scotism
* Occamism

|

Modern|

* Salamanca
* Christian humanism
* Cartesianism
* Molinism
* Neo-scholasticism
* Analytical Thomism

Universals|

* Augustinian realism
* Nominalism
* Conceptualism
* Moderate realism
* Scotistic realism

Other|

* Theological intellectualism
* Theological voluntarism
* Foundationalism

Philosophers|

* Clement
* Augustine
* Boethius
* Dionysius
* Isidore
* Eriugena
* Alcuin
* Anselm
* Abelard
* Lombard
* Albertus
* Bonaventure
* Aquinas
* Llull
* Scotus
* Occam
* Ficino
* Pico
* Erasmus
* Cusa
* Luis
* More
* Suárez
* Descartes
* Pierre
* Montaigne
* Pascal
* Krasicki
* Kołłątaj
* Staszic
* Newman
* Scheler
* Chesterton
* Maritain
* Stein
* Mortimer
* Rahner
* Anscombe
* MacIntyre
* Wojtyla
* Ratzinger

Concepts|

* Actus purus
* Actus Essendi
* Actus primus
* Quinque viae
* Theodicy
* Augustinian
* Irenaean
* Formal distinction
* Univocity
* Head of a pin
* Occam's razor
* Augustinian values
* Principle of double effect
* Seven deadly sins
* Quiddity
* Cardinal virtues
* Stratification of emotional life
* Disputation
* Evil demon
* Aevum
* Haecceity
* Cartesian dualism
* Divine illumination
* Peripatetic axiom
* Memento mori
* Ressentiment
* Rota Fortunae
* Double truth
* Ontological argument
* Utopia
* Trademark argument
* Pascal's wager
* Dehellenization
* Differentia
* Homo unius libri
* Cogito, ergo sum
* Infused righteousness

Related|

* Catholic theology
* Platonism
* Aristotelianism
* Neoplatonism
* Islamic philosophy
* Doctor of the Church
* Renaissance
* Rationalism
* Empiricism
* Phenomenology

*   *

* v
* t
* e

Philosophy of language

Index of language articles

Philosophers|

* Plato (Cratylus)
* Gorgias
* Confucius
* Xunzi
* Aristotle
* Stoics
* Pyrrhonists
* Scholasticism
* Ibn Rushd
* Ibn Khaldun
* Thomas Hobbes
* Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
* Johann Herder
* Ludwig Noiré
* Wilhelm von Humboldt
* Fritz Mauthner
* Paul Ricœur
* Ferdinand de Saussure
* Gottlob Frege
* Franz Boas
* Paul Tillich
* Edward Sapir
* Leonard Bloomfield
* Zhuangzi
* Henri Bergson
* Lev Vygotsky
* Ludwig Wittgenstein
* Philosophical Investigations
* Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
* Bertrand Russell
* Rudolf Carnap
* Jacques Derrida
* Of Grammatology
* Limited Inc
* Benjamin Lee Whorf
* Gustav Bergmann
* J. L. Austin
* Noam Chomsky
* Hans-Georg Gadamer
* Saul Kripke
* A. J. Ayer
* G. E. M. Anscombe
* Jaakko Hintikka
* Michael Dummett
* Donald Davidson
* Roger Gibson
* Paul Grice
* Gilbert Ryle
* P. F. Strawson
* Willard Van Orman Quine
* Hilary Putnam
* David Lewis
* John Searle
* Joxe Azurmendi
* Scott Soames
* Stephen Yablo
* John Hawthorne
* Stephen Neale
* Paul Watzlawick

Theories|

* Causal theory of reference
* Contrast theory of meaning
* Contrastivism
* Conventionalism
* Cratylism
* Deconstruction
* Descriptivism
* Direct reference theory
* Dramatism
* Expressivism
* Linguistic determinism
* Mediated reference theory
* Nominalism
* Non-cognitivism
* Phallogocentrism
* Relevance theory
* Semantic externalism
* Semantic holism
* Structuralism
* Supposition theory
* Symbiosism
* Theological noncognitivism
* Theory of descriptions (Definite description)
* Unilalianism
* Verification theory

Concepts|

* Ambiguity
* Cant
* Linguistic relativity
* Meaning
* Language
* Truth-bearer
* Proposition
* Use–mention distinction
* Concept
* Categories
* Set
* Class
* Family resemblance
* Intension
* Logical form
* Metalanguage
* Mental representation
* Presupposition
* Principle of compositionality
* Property
* Sign
* Sense and reference
* Speech act
* Symbol
* Entity
* Sentence
* Statement
* more...

Related articles|

* Analytic philosophy
* Philosophy of information
* Philosophical logic
* Linguistics
* Pragmatics
* Rhetoric
* Semantics
* Formal semantics
* Semiotics

* Category
* Task Force
* Discussion

* v
* t
* e

European Middle Ages

Early Middle Ages|

* Migration Period
* Decline of the Western Roman Empire
* Late antiquity
* Decline of Hellenistic religion
* Christianization
* Rise of Islam
* First Bulgarian Empire
* Frankish Empire
* Kingdom of Croatia
* Anglo-Saxon England
* Viking Age
* Carolingian Empire
* Old Church Slavonic
* Civitas Schinesghe
* Kievan Rus'
* Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire

High Middle Ages|

* Holy Roman Empire
* Second Bulgarian Empire
* Georgian Empire
* Kingdom of Poland
* Feudalism
* Great Schism
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Scholasticism
* Monasticism
* Communalism
* Manorialism
* Medieval Warm Period
* Mongol invasion of Europe

Late Middle Ages|

* Hundred Years' War
* Wars of the Roses
* Hussite Wars
* Burgundy
* House of Habsburg
* Western Schism
* Fall of Constantinople
* Rise of the Ottoman Empire
* Swiss mercenaries
* Chivalry
* Renaissance Humanism
* Universities
* Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
* Little Ice Age

Culture|

* Architecture
* Art
* Church and State
* Cuisine
* Demography
* Household
* Literature
* Medicine
* Music
* Philosophy
* Poetry
* Science
* Slavery
* Technology
* Warfare

See also|

* Dark Ages
* Disability in the Middle Ages
* Basic topics list
* Medievalism
* Medieval reenactment
* Medieval studies
* Neo-medievalism
* Timeline
* Global history of same period of time

* v
* t
* e

Philosophy

Branches

| Traditional|

* Metaphysics
* Ontology
* Epistemology
* Logic
* Ethics
* Aesthetics

|

Philosophy of|

* Action
* Art
* Culture
* Design
* Music
* Film
* Business
* Color
* Cosmos
* Dialogue
* Education
* Environment
* Futility
* Happiness
* Healthcare
* History
* Human nature
* Humor
* Feminism
* Language
* Life
* Literature
* Mathematics
* Mind
* Pain
* Psychology
* Philosophy of psychiatry
* Philosophy of perception
* Philosophy
* Religion
* Science
* Physics
* Chemistry
* Biology
* Geography
* Sexuality
* Social science
* Culture
* Economics
* Justice
* Law
* Politics
* Society
* Space and time
* Sport
* Technology
* Artificial intelligence
* Computer science
* Engineering
* Information
* War

Schools of thought

| By era|

* Ancient
* Western
* Medieval
* Renaissance
* Early modern
* Modern
* Contemporary

|

Ancient|

| Chinese|

* Agriculturalism
* Confucianism
* Legalism
* Logicians
* Mohism
* Chinese naturalism
* Neotaoism
* Taoism
* Yangism
* Chan

|

[[Philosophy:Ancient Greek philosopGreco-Hellenistic philosophy|Roman]] |

* Aristotelianism
* Atomism
* Cynicism
* Cyrenaics
* Eleatics
* Eretrian school
* Epicureanism
* Hermeneutics
* Ionian
* Ephesian
* Milesian
* Megarian school
* Neoplatonism
* Peripatetic
* Platonism
* Pluralism
* Presocratic
* Pyrrhonism
* Pythagoreanism
* Neopythagoreanism
* Sophistic
* Stoicism

Indian|

* Hindu
* Samkhya
* Nyaya
* Vaisheshika
* Yoga
* Mīmāṃsā
* Ājīvika
* Ajñana
* Cārvāka
* Jain
* Anekantavada
* Syādvāda
* Buddhist
* Śūnyatā
* Madhyamaka
* Yogacara
* Sautrāntika
* Svatantrika

Persian|

* Mazdakism
* Mithraism
* Zoroastrianism
* Zurvanism

Medieval|

| European|

* Christian
* Augustinianism
* Scholasticism
* Thomism
* Scotism
* Occamism
* Renaissance humanism

|

East Asian|

* Korean Confucianism
* Edo neo-Confucianism
* Neo-Confucianism

Indian|

* Vedanta
* Acintya bheda abheda
* Advaita
* Bhedabheda
* Dvaita
* Nimbarka Sampradaya
* Shuddhadvaita
* Vishishtadvaita
* Navya-Nyāya

Islamic|

* Averroism
* Avicennism
* Illuminationism
* ʿIlm al-Kalām
* Sufi

Jewish|

* Judeo-Islamic

Modern|

| People|

* Cartesianism
* Kantianism
* Neo-Kantianism
* Hegelianism
* Marxism
* Spinozism

|

* Anarchism
* Classical Realism
* Liberalism
* Collectivism
* Conservatism
* Determinism
* Dualism
* Empiricism
* Existentialism
* Foundationalism
* Historicism
* Holism
* Humanism
* Anti-
* Idealism
* Absolute
* British
* German
* Objective
* Subjective
* Transcendental
* Individualism
* Kokugaku
* Materialism
* Modernism
* Monism
* Naturalism
* Natural law
* Nihilism
* New Confucianism
* Neo-scholasticism
* Pragmatism
* Phenomenology
* Positivism
* Reductionism
* Rationalism
* Social contract
* Socialism
* Transcendentalism
* Utilitarianism

Contemporary|

| Analytic|

* Applied ethics
* Analytic feminism
* Analytical Marxism
* Communitarianism
* Consequentialism
* Critical rationalism
* Experimental philosophy
* Falsificationism
* Foundationalism / Coherentism
* Generative linguistics
* Internalism and externalism
* Logical positivism
* Legal positivism
* Normative ethics
* Meta-ethics
* Moral realism
* Quinean naturalism
* Ordinary language philosophy
* Postanalytic philosophy
* Quietism
* Rawlsian
* Reformed epistemology
* Systemics
* Scientism
* Scientific realism
* Scientific skepticism
* Transactionalism
* Contemporary utilitarianism
* Vienna Circle
* Wittgensteinian

|

Continental|

* Critical theory
* Deconstruction
* Existentialism
* Feminist
* Frankfurt School
* New Historicism
* Hermeneutics
* Neo-Marxism
* Phenomenology
* Posthumanism
* Postmodernism
* Post-structuralism
* Social constructionism
* Structuralism
* Western Marxism

Other|

* Kyoto School
* Objectivism
* Postcritique
* Russian cosmism
* more...

Positions

| Aesthetics|

* Formalism
* Institutionalism
* Aesthetic response

|

Ethics|

* Consequentialism
* Deontology
* Virtue

Free will|

* Compatibilism
* Determinism
* Hard
* Incompatibilism
* Hard
* Libertarianism

Metaphysics|

* Atomism
* Dualism
* Monism
* Naturalism

Epistemology|

* Constructivism
* Empiricism
* Idealism
* Particularism
* Fideism
* Rationalism
* /Nihilism-->
* Solipsism

Mind|

* Behaviorism
* Emergentism
* Eliminativism
* Epiphenomenalism
* Functionalism
* Objectivism
* Subjectivism

Normativity|

* Absolutism
* Particularism
* Relativism
* Nihilism
* Skepticism
* Universalism

Ontology|

* Action
* Event
* Process

Reality|

* Anti-realism
* Conceptualism
* Idealism
* Materialism
* Naturalism
* Nominalism
* Physicalism
* Realism

* By region
* Related lists
* Miscellaneous

| By region|

* African
* Ethiopian
* Amerindian
* Aztec
* Eastern
* Chinese
* Egyptian
* Indian
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* Iranian
* Japanese
* Korean
* Pakistani
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* Western
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* Australian
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* Czech
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* French
* German
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* Italian
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* Russian
* Slovene
* Spanish
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|

Lists|

* Outline
* Index
* Years
* Problems
* Schools
* Glossary
* Philosophers
* Movements
* Publications

Miscellaneous|

* Natural law
* Sage
* Theoretical philosophy / Practical philosophy
* Women in philosophy

* Portal
* Category
* Book

* v
* t
* e

Western world and culture

Aspects|

* Canon
* Law
* Literature
* Media
* Music
* Painting
* Modern/Contemporary Painting
* Philosophy
* Religion
* Thought

History|

* Classical antiquity
* Late Antiquity
* Early Middle Ages
* Middle Ages
* Late Middle Ages
* Renaissance
* Reformation
* Age of Enlightenment
* Early modern period
* Great Divergence
* Modernism
* World Wars

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism. Read more

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