Soil contamination

Short description: Pollution of land by human-made chemicals or other alteration

Excavation showing soil contamination at a disused gasworks in England

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Soil contamination, soil pollution, or land pollution as a part of land degradation is caused by the presence of xenobiotic (human-made) chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity,[1] agricultural chemicals[2] or improper disposal of waste.[3] The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons,[4] polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as naphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene),[5] solvents,[6] pesticides,[7] and heavy metals.[8] The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct contact with contaminated soil or consumption of plants growing in contaminated soil,[9] vapour inhalation from the contaminants,[10] or from secondary contamination of water supplies within (groundwater) and underlying the soil (aquifer).[11] Mapping of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanups are time-consuming and expensive tasks, and require expertise in geology, hydrology, chemistry, computer modelling, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an appreciation of the history of site pollution.[12] It has been suggested that the examination of humus forms, which necessitates only a cursory glance upon ground floor thickness and structure of the underlying mineral horizon, could used at low cost for the early detection and mapping of potential soil contamination.[13]

In North America and Europe the extent of contaminated land is best known for as many of the countries in these areas have a legal framework to identify and deal with this environmental problem.[14][15][16] Other countries tend to be less tightly regulated despite some of them have undergone significant industrialization and are searching for more regulation.[17][18]

## Contents

* 1 Causes
* 1.1 Pesticides and herbicides
* 1.2 Agents of war
* 2 Human health
* 2.1 Exposure pathways
* 2.2 Consequences
* 3 Ecosystem effects
* 3.1 Potential effects of contaminants to soil functions
* 4 Cleanup options
* 5 By country
* 5.1 People's Republic of China
* 5.2 European Union
* 5.3 United Kingdom
* 5.4 Canada
* 5.5 India
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Causes

Soil pollution can be caused by the following (non-exhaustive list):

* Microplastics
* Oil spills
* Mining and activities by other heavy industries
* Accidental spills may happen during activities, etc.
* Corrosion of underground storage tanks (including piping used to transmit the contents)
* Acid rain
* Intensive farming
* Agrochemicals, such as pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers
* Petrochemicals
* Industrial accidents
* Road debris
* Construction activities
* Exterior lead-based paints
* Drainage of contaminated surface water into the soil
* Ammunitions, chemical agents, and other agents of war
* Waste disposal
* Oil dumping and fuel dumping
* Nuclear wastes
* Direct discharge of industrial wastes to the soil
* Discharge of sewage
* Landfill and illegal dumping
* Coal ash
* Electronic waste
* Contamination by rocks containing large amounts of toxic elements.
* Contamination by Pb due to vehicle exhaust, Cd, and Zn caused by tire wear.
* Contamination by strengthening air pollutants by incineration of fossil raw materials.

The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals.[19]

Any activity that leads to other forms of soil degradation (erosion, compaction, etc.) may indirectly worsen the contamination effects in that soil remediation becomes more tedious.[20]

E-waste processing in Agbogbloshie, Ghana. Improper disposal of manufactured goods and industrial wastes, often means that communities in the global south have to process goods. Especially without proper protections, heavy metals and other contaminates can seep into the soil, and create water pollution and air pollution.

Historical deposition of coal ash used for residential, commercial, and industrial heating, as well as for industrial processes such as ore smelting, were a common source of contamination in areas that were industrialized before about 1960.[21] Coal naturally concentrates arsenic, cadmium lead and zinc during its formation, as well as other heavy metals to a lesser degree.[22] When the coal is burned, most of these metals become concentrated in the ash (the principal exception being mercury, which evaporates).[23] Coal ash and slag may contain sufficient lead to qualify as a "characteristic hazardous waste",[24] defined in the US as containing more than 5 mg/L, further revised to 1.5 mg/L of extractable lead using the TCLP procedure.[25] In addition to lead, coal ash typically contains variable but significant concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs; e.g., benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, phenanthrene, anthracene, and others).[26] These PAHs are known human carcinogens[27] and the acceptable concentrations of them in soil are typically from 0.1 mg/kg to 10 mg/kg, with a strong variation from a PAH to another.[28] Coal ash and slag can be recognised by the presence of off-white grains in soil, gray heterogeneous soil, or (coal slag) bubbly, vesicular pebble-sized grains.[29]

Treated sewage sludge, known in the industry as biosolids, has become controversial as a "fertilizer". As it is the byproduct of sewage treatment, it generally contains more contaminants such as organisms, pesticides, and heavy metals than other soil.[30] In the European Union, the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive allows sewage sludge to be sprayed onto land, although several European countries have introduced more stringent requirements in comparison with the directive.[31] 10 million tons dry matter of sewage sludge have been produced in Europe every year over the period 2003–2006. This has good agricultural properties due to the high nitrogen, phosphate and potassium content.[32] However, there is a need to control sewage sludge application to agricultural land so that pathogenic microorganisms do not get into water courses[33] and to ensure that there is no accumulation of heavy metals in the topsoil.[34] Composting of sewage sludge allows to decrease its content in pathogens[35] and organic pollutants (bioremediation, to the exception of persistent organic pollutants)[36] but not that of heavy metals, although these are in a less bioavailable form.[37]

### Pesticides and herbicides

A pesticide is a substance used to kill a pest. A pesticide may be a chemical substance, biological agent (such as a virus or bacteria), antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest. Pests include harmful insects, plant pathogens, weeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms) and microbes that compete with humans for food, destroy property, spread or are a vector for disease or cause a nuisance. Although there are benefits to the use of pesticides,[38] there are also drawbacks, such as potential toxicity to humans[39] and other organisms.[40][41][42]

Herbicides are used to kill weeds, especially on pavements[43] and railways,[44] but also in agricultural crops either for destructing the total vegetation (e.g. glyphosate) or only a class of undesired plants (e.g. 2,4-D). The so-called auxin herbicides are similar to auxins and are selective to dicots.[45] Glyphosate is a non-selective (broad-spectrum) systemic herbicide which competes with enzymes used in the synthesis of key plant amino acids.[46] Most herbicides are biodegradable by soil bacteria.[47] However, one group derived from trinitrotoluene (2,4-D and 2,4,5-T) have the impurity dioxin, which is very toxic and causes fatality even in low concentrations.[48] Another common herbicide is Paraquat, banned in the European Union but still frequently used in agricultural areas of the United States and Asia.[49] It is highly toxic to humans[50] and other animals[51] and cannot rapidly degrade in the soil where it is adsorbed and thus protected in clay lattices.[52] Glyphosate is rapidly transformed in AMPA by soil bacteria but its residues are detected in drinking water, agriculture, and food products and have major effects on the health of reproductive systems.[53] Glyphosate is used in genetically modified crops to kill all vegetation except the target crop, more especially in developing countries where it offers yield and profit gains despite growing concerns about environment and human health.[54]

Insecticides are used to rid farms of pests which damage crops. The insects damage not only standing crops but also stored ones and in the tropics it is reckoned that one third of the total production is lost during food storage.[55] As with fungicides, the first insecticides used in the nineteenth century were inorganic e.g. Paris Green and other compounds of arsenic.[56] Nicotine has also been used since 1690.[57] Neonicotinoids, i.e. synthetic insecticides derived from nicotin are the last generation of insecticides. They have been scheduled to be highly selective to insect pests, although it appeared that acetamiprid, IMI, and thiacloprid were toxic to birds, thiacloprid to fish, and several neonicotinoids were harmful to honeybees, either by direct contact or ingestion.[58]

There are now three main groups of synthetic insecticides:

1\. Organochlorines include DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin and benzene hexachloride (BHC). They are cheap to produce, potent and persistent but have harmful effects on a lot of beneficial organisms, from microbes[59] to a wide range of plants and animals, humans included,[60] hence their banishment in many (but not all) countries,[61] inasmuch as resistance occurred in a lot of target insect pests.[62] DDT was used on a massive scale from the 1930s, with a peak of 72,000 tonnes used in 1970.[63] Then usage fell as the harmful environmental effects were realized.[64] It was found worldwide in fish and birds[65] and was even discovered in the snow in the Antarctic.[66] It is only slightly soluble in water[67] but is very soluble in the bloodstream,[68] and in fats. It affects the nervous[69] and endocrine systems[70] and causes the eggshells of birds to lack calcium causing them to be easily breakable.[71] It is thought to be responsible for the decline of numbers of birds of prey like ospreys and peregrine falcons in the 1950s, now recovering.[72] As well as increased concentration via the food chain, it is known to enter via permeable membranes, so fish get it through their gills and then it accumulates in fatty organs.[73] As it has low water solubility and a high affinity to the air-water interface,[74] DDT tends to stay at the water surface, so organisms that live there are most affected, in particular mosquito larvae,[75] the target organisms of malaria control.[76] DDT and its breakdown product DDE found in fish that formed part of the human food chain caused concern, with levels found in human liver, kidney and brain tissues around 13 ppm in 1970,[77] with a general decrease since DDT was banished from developing countries but with still high levels in Asia and Africa where DDT is used against malaria.[78] DDT was banned by the Stockholm convention in 2001 to stop its further buildup in the food chain. However, the World Health Organization allowed its reintroduction only for control of vector-borne diseases in some tropical countries in 2006.[79] U.S. manufacturers continued to sell DDT to developing countries, who could not afford the expensive replacement chemicals and who did not have such stringent regulations governing the use of pesticides.[80]

2\. Organophosphates, e.g. parathion, methyl parathion and about 40 other insecticides are available nationally. Parathion is highly toxic, methyl-parathion less so[81] but health concerns have resulted in cancellation of the use of methyl-parathion in most food crops in the United States.[82] There is no evidence that malathion affects the ability of humans to reproduce. There is also no conclusive proof that malathion causes cancer in humans, although some studies have found increased incidence of some cancers in people who are regularly exposed to pesticides, such as farmers and pesticide applicators.[83] This group of insecticides works by preventing normal nerve transmission as acetylcholinesterase is prevented from breaking down the transmitter substance acetylcholine, resulting in uncontrolled muscle movements.[84]

3\. Neonicotinoids, e.g. acetamiprid, imidacloprid, are the last generation of insecticides and are now largely used for crop protection.[85] They affect the central nervous system of insects, with higher selectivity for insects than organophosphates and organochlorines.[86] However, their biocidal action includes both pests and beneficial organisms, e.g. pollinators,[87] predatory insects, parasitoids.[88] The ay also act as endocrine disruptors on juvenile bees.[89] The dramatic decline of honey bee colonies,[90] for example, could be linked to, or at least exacerbated by the use of neonicotinoids.[91] Like nicotine, their molecular base, they are degraded in the soil but the environmental residues of neonicotinoids have enormously increased due to large-scale applications.[92]

### Agents of war

The disposal of munitions, and a lack of care in manufacture of munitions caused by the urgency of production, can contaminate soil for extended periods.[93] There is little published evidence on this type of contamination largely because of restrictions placed by governments of many countries on the publication of material related to war effort, in particular under ongoing conflict scenarios.[94] However, mustard gas stored during World War II has contaminated some sites for up to 50 years[95] and the testing of Anthrax as a potential biological weapon contaminated the whole island of Gruinard, leaving it in quarantine for 48 years.[96] There are abandoned delaboration sites around the former World War I front in Belgium and also in France which are still contaminated by arsenic and lead.[97]

## Human health

### Exposure pathways

Contaminated or polluted soil directly affects human health through direct contact with soil[98] or via inhalation of soil contaminants that have vaporized.[99] Potentially greater threats are posed by the infiltration of soil contaminants into groundwater aquifers used for irrigation[100] or direct human consumption,[101] sometimes in areas far from any apparent source of above-ground contamination (long-range diffuse soil contamination).[102] Toxic metals can also make their way up the food chain through plants that reside in soils containing high concentrations of heavy metals.[103] This tends to result in the development of pollution-related diseases.

Most exposure to soil contamination is accidental, and can happen through:[104]

* Ingesting dust or soil directly
* Ingesting food or vegetables grown in contaminated soil or with foods in contact with contaminants
* Skin contact with dust or soil
* Vapors from the soil
* Inhaling clouds of dust while working in soils or windy environments

However, some studies estimate that 90% of human exposure is through eating contaminated food.[104]

### Consequences

Health consequences from exposure to soil contamination vary greatly depending on pollutant type, the pathway of attack, and the vulnerability of the exposed population.[105] Researchers suggest that pesticides and heavy metals in soil may harm cardiovascular health, including inflammation and change in the body's circadian rhythm.[106]

Chronic exposure to chromium, lead, and other metals, petroleum, solvents, and many pesticide and herbicide formulations can be carcinogenic (mutagenic),[107] can cause congenital disorders,[108] or other chronic diseases.[109] Industrial or human-made concentrations of naturally occurring substances, such as nitrate and ammonia associated with livestock manure from agricultural operations, have also been identified as health hazards in soil and groundwater.[110]

Chronic exposure to benzene at sufficient concentrations is known to be associated with a higher incidence of leukemia.[111] Mercury and cyclodienes are known to induce higher incidences of kidney damage and some irreversible diseases.[112][113] PCBs and cyclodienes are linked to liver toxicity.[114] Organophosphates can cause a chain of responses leading to neuromuscular blockage.[115] Many chlorinated solvents induce liver changes, kidney changes, and depression of the central nervous system.[116] There is an entire spectrum of further health effects such as headache, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash for the above cited and other chemicals, including those commonly used in agriculture.[117] At sufficient dosages a large number of soil contaminants can cause death by exposure via direct contact, inhalation or ingestion.[118]

## Ecosystem effects

File:Sanitation in Ghana.jpgThis area is contaminated with stagnant water and refuse, making the environment unhygienic.

Not unexpectedly, soil contaminants can have significant deleterious consequences for ecosystems.[119] There are radical soil chemistry changes which can arise from the presence of many hazardous chemicals even at low concentration of the contaminant species.[120] These changes can manifest in the alteration of the metabolism of soil microorganisms and soil animals resident in a given soil environment.[121][122] The result can be virtual eradication of some of the primary food chain, which in turn could have major consequences for predator or consumer species.[123] Even if the chemical effect on lower life forms is small, the lower pyramid levels of the food chain may ingest alien chemicals, which then become more and more concentrated for each consuming rung of the food chain.[124] Many of these effects are now well known, such as the concentration of persistent DDT materials for avian consumers, leading to weakening of egg shells, increased chick mortality and potential extinction of species.[125]

Detrimental impacts of contaminants on soil food chains result in dramatic changes in humus forms, mediated by the disappearance or reduced activity of key organisms, also called soil ecosystem engineers, e.g. earthworms, which arez particularly sensitive to a wide range of soil contaminants.[126] In contaminated land the topsoil passes from a stage in which organic matter is decomposed and incorporated to mineral matter (mull humus, with a good granular soil structure) to a stage in which organic matter accumulates undecayed above a compact mineral soil with poor structure (mor humus).[127]

Agricultural lands display certain types of soil contamination, involving in particular heavy metals and metalloids. These contaminants typically alter plant metabolism, often causing a reduction in crop yields.[128] This has a secondary effect upon soil conservation, since the languishing crops cannot shield the Earth's soil from erosion.[129] Some of these chemical contaminants have long half-lives and in other cases derivative chemicals are formed from decay of primary soil contaminants.[130]

### Potential effects of contaminants to soil functions

Heavy metals and other soil contaminants can adversely affect the activity, species composition and abundance of soil microorganisms, thereby threatening soil functions such as biochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen.[131] However, soil contaminants can also become less bioavailable by time (natural attenuation),[132] and microorganisms and ecosystems can adapt to altered conditions.[133] Soil properties such as pH, organic matter content and texture are very important and modify mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of pollutants in contaminated soils.[134] The same amount of contaminant can be toxic in one soil but totally harmless in another soil.[135] This stresses the need for soil-specific risk assessment[136] and remediation measures.[137]

## Cleanup options

Cleanup or environmental remediation is analyzed by environmental scientists who utilize field measurement of soil chemicals and also apply computer models (GIS in Environmental Contamination) for analyzing transport[138] and fate of soil chemicals.[139] Various technologies have been developed for remediation of oil-contaminated soil and sediments.[140] There are several principal strategies for remediation of contaminated soils:

* Excavate soil and take it to a disposal site away from ready pathways for human or sensitive ecosystem contact. This technique also applies to dredging of bay muds or navigable canals containing toxicants.[141]
* Aeration of soils at the contaminated site,[142] with attendant risk of creating air pollution.[143]
* Thermal remediation (thermal desorption) by introduction of heat to raise subsurface temperatures sufficiently high to volatilize chemical contaminants out of the soil for vapor extraction.[144] Technologies include in situ thermal desorption (ISTD), electrical resistance heating (ERH), and electro thermal dynamic stripping process (ET-DSP).
* Bioremediation, involving microbial digestion of certain organic chemicals.[145] Techniques used in bioremediation include landfarming, biostimulation and bioaugmentating soil biota with commercially available microflora.[146]
* Extraction of groundwater or soil vapor with an active electromechanical system (electrokinetic soil flushing (EKSF)), with subsequent air stripping of the contaminants from the extract.[147]
* Phytoremediation, or using plants (such as willow) to extract heavy metals.[148]
* Mycoremediation, or using fungi to metabolize contaminants and accumulate heavy metals.[149]
* Remediation of oil contaminated sediments with self-collapsing air microbubbles.[150]
* Surfactant leaching.
* Interfacial solar evaporation to extract heavy metal ions from moist soil.[151]

## By country

Various national standards for concentrations of particular contaminants include the United States EPA Region 9 Preliminary Remediation Goals (U.S. PRGs),[152] the United States EPA Region 3 Risk Based Concentrations (U.S. EPA RBCs),[153] and National Environment Protection Council of Australia Guideline on Investigation Levels for Soil and Groundwater.[154]

### People's Republic of China

The immense and sustained growth of the People's Republic of China since the 1970s has exacted a price from the land in increased soil pollution.[155] The Ministry of Ecology and Environment believes it to be a threat to the environment, to food safety and to sustainable agriculture.[156] According to a scientific sampling, 150 million mu (100,000 square kilometres) of China's cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate a further 32.5 million mu (21,670 square kilometres) and another 2 million mu (1,300 square kilometres) covered or destroyed by solid waste. In total, the area accounts for one-tenth of China's cultivatable land, and is mostly in economically developed areas. An estimated 12 million tonnes of grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 20 billion yuan ($2.57 billion USD).[157] Recent survey shows that 19% of the agricultural soils are contaminated with heavy metals and metalloids, and the rate of contamination still increases dramatically.[158] China established a series of soil pollution remediation systems under the Chinese Soil Pollution Prevention and Control Law which still remain to be improved because of imperfect remediation standards and insufficient public participation.[159]

### European Union

According to the received data from member states in 2012, in the European Union the number of estimated potential contaminated sites was more than 2.5 million and the identified contaminated sites around 342 thousand .[160] Municipal and industrial wastes contributed most to soil contamination (38%), followed by the industrial/commercial sector (34%). Mineral oil and heavy metals were the main contaminants contributing around 60% to soil contamination. In terms of budget, the management of contaminated sites was estimated to cost around 6 billion Euros (€) annually.[160] The EU's Soil Monitoring Law, entered into force on 16 December 2025, protects and restores soils, ensuring that they are used sustainably.[161]

### United Kingdom

Generic guidance commonly used in the United Kingdom are the Soil Guideline Values published by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and the Environment Agency.[162] These are screening values that demonstrate the minimal acceptable level of a substance. Above this there can be no assurances in terms of significant risk of harm to human health. These have been derived using the Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment Model (CLEA UK).[163] Certain input parameters such as Health Criteria Values, age and land use are fed into CLEA UK to obtain a probabilistic output.[164]

Guidance by the Inter Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (ICRCL)[165] has been formally withdrawn in 2002 by the DEFRA, for use as a prescriptive document to determine the potential need for remediation or further assessment.[166][167]

The CLEA model published by DEFRA and the Environment Agency (EA) in March 2002, updated on September 2009, sets a framework for the appropriate assessment of risks to human health from contaminated land, as required by Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990.[168] As part of this framework, generic Soil Guideline Values (SGVs) have currently been derived for ten contaminants to be used as "intervention values".[169] These values should not be considered as remedial targets but values above which further detailed assessment should be considered.[170]

Three sets of CLEA SGVs have been produced for three different land uses,[171] namely

* residential (with and without plant uptake)
* allotments
* commercial/industrial

It was intended that the SGVs replace the former ICRCL values.[166] The CLEA SGVs relate to assessing chronic (long term) risks to human health and do not apply to the protection of ground workers during construction, or other potential receptors such as groundwater, buildings, plants or other ecosystems. The CLEA SGVs are not directly applicable to a site completely covered in hardstanding, as there is no direct exposure route to contaminated soils.[172]

To date, fifteen of fifty-five contaminant SGVs have been published, for the following: arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, benzene, ethyl benzene, phenol, xylene, toluene, dioxines, furanes, and dioxin-like PCBs.[171] Toxicological data (Tox) has been published for each of these contaminants as well as for benzo(a)pyrene, naphthalene, vinyl chloride, 1,1,2,2 tetrachloroethane and 1,1,1,2 tetrachloroethane, 1,1,1 trichloroethane, tetrachloroethene, carbon tetrachloride, 1,2-dichloroethane, and trichloroethene.[173] The SGVs for ethyl benzene, phenol and toluene are dependent on the soil organic matter (SOM) content (which can be calculated from the total organic carbon (TOC) content).[174] As an initial screen the SGVs for 1% SOM are considered to be appropriate.[164]

### Canada

As of July 2025, there are a total of 24,000 plus contaminated sites in Canada, of which more than 19,000 have been closed after historical reviews, testing, clean-ups or long-term monitoring activities determined that no further action was required.[175] One infamous contaminated sited is located near a nickel-copper smelting site in Sudbury, Ontario. A study investigating the heavy metal pollution in the vicinity of the smelter reveals that elevated levels of nickel and copper were found in the soil; values going as high as 5,104ppm Ni, and 2,892 ppm Cu within a 1.1 km range of the smelter location. Other metals were also found in the soil; such metals include iron, cobalt, and silver. Furthermore, upon examining the different vegetation surrounding the smelter it was evident that they too had been affected; the results show that the plants contained nickel, copper and aluminium as a result of soil contamination.[176] Soil quality guidelines have been published for 32 soil contaminants.[177]

### India

In March 2009, the issue of uranium poisoning in Punjab attracted press coverage. It was alleged to be caused by fly ash ponds of thermal power stations, which reportedly lead to severe birth defects in children in the Faridkot and Bhatinda districts of Punjab. The news reports claimed the uranium levels were more than 60 times the maximum safe limit.[178][179] Out of total 140 samples collected and analyzed in south-west Punjab, 76% have uranium levels greater than the chemical toxicity limit of World Health Organization (WHO, 30 μg.L−1) and 34% samples have concentration higher than the radiological toxicity limit given by Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB, 60 μg.L−1).[180] Research is underway to identify natural or other sources for the uranium. A study suggested that prolonged application of uranium-containing fertilizers could have contributed to its enhanced concentration in the soil,[181] while a more recent study rather suggested that a complex interplay of hydrogeochemical processes under monsoonal influence could have played a decisive role in uranium mobility and contamination of groundwater above tolerated thresholds.[182]

## See also

* Bioremediation
* Bioswale
* Constructed wetland
* Contamination control
* Dutch pollutant standards
* Ecological sanitation
* Environmental policy in China#Soil pollution
* GIS in environmental contamination
* Groundwater pollution
* Groundwater remediation
* Habitat destruction
* Index of waste management articles
* Land degradation
* Landfill
* List of solid waste treatment technologies
* List of waste management companies
* Litter
* Nanoremediation
* Pesticide drift
* Plasticulture
* Plastic-eating organisms
* Remediation of contaminated sites with cement
* Triangle of death (Italy)
* Water pollution

## References

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4. ↑ Ellis, Roscoe Jr; Adams, Russell S. Jr (1961). "Contamination of soils by petroleum hydrocarbons". in Norman, Arthur Geoffrey. Advances in agronomy. 13. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 197–216. doi:10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60959-1. ISBN 978-0-12-000713-4. https://z-lib.sk/book/69722266/9a9d2e. Retrieved 27 January 2026.
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6. ↑ McCarty, Perry L. (2010). "Groundwater contamination by chlorinated solvents: history, remediation technologies and strategies". In situ remediation of chlorinated solvent plumes. New York, New York: Springer. pp. 1–28. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1401-9_1. ISBN 978-1-4419-1401-9. https://archive.org/details/mc-carty-2010. Retrieved 16 February 2026.
7. ↑ Wołejko, Elżbieta; Jabłońska-Trypuć, Agata; Wydro, Urszula; Butarewicz, Andrzej; Łozowicka, Bożena (March 2020). "Soil biological activity as an indicator of soil pollution with pesticides: a review". Applied Soil Ecology 147. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2019.09.006. Bibcode: 2020AppSE.14703356W. https://www.academia.edu/88908883. Retrieved 27 January 2026.
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12. ↑ George, Rebecca; Joy, Varsha; Aiswarya, S.; Jacob, Priya Achamma (June 2014). "Treatment methods for contaminated soils: translating science into practice". International Journal of Education and Applied Research 4 (1): 17–19. https://www.academia.edu/66178557. Retrieved 28 January 2026.
13. ↑ Korkina, Irina N.; Vorobeichik, Evgenii L. (February 2018). "Humus Index as an indicator of the topsoil response to the impacts of industrial pollution". Applied Soil Ecology 123: 455–63. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2017.09.025. Bibcode: 2018AppSE.123..455K. https://www.academia.edu/104413182. Retrieved 28 January 2026.
14. ↑ "Soil Monitoring Law". December 2025. https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/soil-health/soil-monitoring-law_en.
15. ↑ Ramón, Francisca; Lull, Cristina (July 2019). "Legal measures to prevent and manage soil contamination and to increase food safety for consumer health: the case of Spain". Environmental Pollution 250: 883–91. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.04.074. https://riunet.upv.es/server/api/core/bitstreams/5fddca1f-1c75-4176-94d7-caf9e017b847/content. Retrieved 29 January 2026.
16. ↑ Li, Wenbiao; Li, Zijian; Jennings, Aaron (December 2018). "Regulatory performance dataset constructed from U.S. soil jurisdictions based on the top 100 concerned pollutants". Data in Brief 21 (6): 36–49. doi:10.1016/j.dib.2018.09.049. PMC 6186953. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327908530. Retrieved 29 January 2026.
17. ↑ Sun, Yiming; Li (December 2019). "Soil contamination in China: studies on the status, priorities, policies, management and risk assessment". https://files01.core.ac.uk/download/pdf/322487825.pdf.
18. ↑ Yakovlev, Aleksandr Sergeevich; Evdokimova, Mariya V. (24 May 2022). "Approaches to the regulation of soil pollution in Russia and foreign countries". Eurasian Soil Science 55 (5): 641–50. doi:10.1134/S1064229322050131. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367800896. Retrieved 29 January 2026.
19. ↑ Rodríguez-Eugenio, Natalia; McLaughlin, Michael; Pennock, Daniel (2018). "Soil pollution: a hidden reality". Rome, Italy. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/3f7e6959-db0b-44d3-971e-109bcfe78195/content.
20. ↑ Thompson, Richard (2021). "Technologies for remediating polluted soils". Rome, Italy. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/fe5df8d6-6b19-4def-bdc6-62886d824574/content/src/html/chapter-13-4.html.
21. ↑ Kamara, Saidu; Foday, Edward Hingha Jr; Wang, Wei (2 July 2023). "A review on the utilization and environmental concerns of coal fly ash". American Journal of Chemistry and Pharmacy 2 (2): 53–65. doi:10.54536/ajcp.v2i2.1609.
22. ↑ Mastalerz, Maria; Drobniak, Agnieszka (1 June 2007). "Arsenic, cadmium, lead, and zinc in the Danville and Springfield coal members (Pennsylvanian) from Indiana". International Journal of Coal Geology 71 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1016/j.coal.2006.05.005. https://z-library.sk/book/34976655/d23afd. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
23. ↑ Vassilev, Stanislav V.; Vassileva, Christina G. (March 1997). "Geochemistry of coals, coal ashes and combustion wastes from coal-fired power stations". Fuel Processing Technology 51 (1–2): 19–45. doi:10.1016/S0378-3820(96)01082-X. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223430970. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
24. ↑ Block, Chantal; Dams, R. (December 1975). "Lead contents of coal, coal ash and fly ash". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 5 (2): 207–11. doi:10.1007/BF00282962. https://www.academia.edu/54387722. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
25. ↑ Intrakamhaeng, Vicharana; Clavier, Kyle A.; Townsend, Timothy G. (5 February 2020). "Hazardous waste characterization implications of updating the toxicity characteristic list". Journal of Hazardous Materials 383. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121171. https://z-library.sk/book/108173053/dc5fb9. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
26. ↑ Buha-Marković, Jovana Z.; Marinković, Ana D.; Nemoda, Stevan D.; Savić, Jasmina Z. (November 2020). "Distribution of PAHs in coal ashes from the thermal power plant and fluidized bed combustion system; estimation of environmental risk of ash disposal". Environmental Pollution 266 (Part 3). doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115282. https://z-library.sk/book/113437289/256602. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
27. ↑ Straif, Kurt; Baan, Robert; Grosse, Yann; Secretan, Béatrice; El Ghissassi, Fatiha; Cogliano, Vincent (December 2005). "Carcinogenicity of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons". The Lancet Oncology 6 (12): 931–2. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(05)70458-7. https://z-library.sk/book/50455780/590754. Retrieved 27 January 2026.
28. ↑ Kalf, Dennis F.; Crommentuijn, Trudie; Van de Plassche, Erik J. (February 1997). "Environmental quality objectives for 10 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 36 (1): 89–97. doi:10.1006/eesa.1996.1495. https://z-library.sk/book/47966267/710e3f. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
29. ↑ Fisher, Gerald L.; Prentice, Bruce A.; Silberman, David; Ondov, John M.; Biermann, Arthur H.; Ragaini, Richard C.; McFarland, Andrew R. (April 1978). "Physical and morphological studies of size-classified coal fly ash". Environmental Science & Technology 12 (4): 447–51. doi:10.1021/es60140a008. https://z-library.sk/book/61444112/911ef7. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
30. ↑ Snyder, Caroline (19 July 2013). "The dirty work of promoting "recycling" of America's sewage sludge". International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 11 (4): 415–27. doi:10.1179/oeh.2005.11.4.415. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7420466. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
31. ↑ Hudcová, Hana; Vymazal, Jan; Rozkošný, Miloš (30 June 2019). "Present restrictions of sewage sludge application in agriculture within the European Union". Soil and Water Research 14 (2): 104–20. doi:10.17221/36/2018-SWR. https://swr.agriculturejournals.cz/pdfs/swr/2019/02/06.pdf. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
32. ↑ Antoniadis, Vasileios; Koutroubas, Spyridon D.; Fotiadis, Sideris (8 January 2015). "Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium availability in manure- and sewage sludge-applied soil". Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 46 (3): 393–404. doi:10.1080/00103624.2014.983241. https://z-library.sk/book/74880594/357b7f. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
33. ↑ Lewis, David L.; Gattie, David K. (1 July 2002). "Pathogen risks from applying sewage sludge to land". Environmental Science & Technology 36 (13): 287A–293A. doi:10.1021/es0223426. https://z-library.sk/book/gjG2ykQ7RW. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
34. ↑ Alloway, Bryan J.; Jackson, Andrew P. (March 1991). "The behaviour of heavy metals in sewage sludge-amended soils". Science of the Total Environment 100: 151–76. doi:10.1016/0048-9697(91)90377-Q. https://z-library.sk/book/52026337/13effa. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
35. ↑ Dumontet, Stefano; Dinel, Henri; Baloda, Suraj B. (24 April 2012). "Pathogen reduction in sewage sludge by composting and other biological treatments: a review". Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 16 (4): 409–30. doi:10.1080/01448765.1999.9755243. https://z-library.sk/book/53758814/833687. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
36. ↑ Lü, Huixiong; Chen, Xiao-Hong; Mo, Ce-Hui; Huang, Yu-Hong; He, Min-Ying; Li, Yan-Wen; Feng, Nai-Xian; Katsoyiannis, Athanasios et al. (May 2021). "Occurrence and dissipation mechanism of organic pollutants during the composting of sewage sludge: a critical review". Bioresource Technology 328. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2021.124847. https://archive.org/details/lu-et-al.-2021. Retrieved 30 January 2026.
37. ↑ Smith, Stephen R. (January 2009). "A critical review of the bioavailability and impacts of heavy metals in municipal solid waste composts compared to sewage sludge". Environment International 35 (1): 142–56. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2008.06.009. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222219291. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
38. ↑ Cooper, Jerry; Dobson, Hans (September 2007). "The benefits of pesticides to mankind and the environment". Crop Protection 26 (9): 1337–48. doi:10.1016/j.cropro.2007.03.022. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222969719. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
39. ↑ Mostafalou, Sara; Abdollahi, Mohammad (8 October 2016). "Pesticides: an update of human exposure and toxicity". Archives of Toxicology 91 (2): 549–99. doi:10.1007/s00204-016-1849-x. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308945180. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
40. ↑ DeLorenzo, Marie E.; Scott, Geoffrey I.; Ross, Philippe E. (1 January 2001). "Toxicity of pesticides to aquatic microorganisms: a review". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 20 (1): 84–98. doi:10.1002/etc.5620200108. https://z-library.sk/book/32651239/5708fe. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
41. ↑ Borke, Jesse (4 August 2025). "Pesticides". Bethesda, Maryland: National Library of Medicine. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002430.htm.
42. ↑ "Pesticides". Phoenix, Arizona: American College of Medical Toxicology. https://www.acmt.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/FAQ_Pesticide.pdf.
43. ↑ Melander, Bo; Holst, Niels; Grundy, Andrea C.; Kempenaar, Corné; Riemens, Marleen M.; Verschwele, Arnd; Hansson, David (2 September 2009). "Weed occurrence on pavements in five North European towns". Weed Research 49 (5): 516–25. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3180.2009.00713.x. https://www.academia.edu/74278444. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
44. ↑ Torstensson, Lennart (February 2001). "Use of herbicides on railway tracks in Sweden". Pesticide Outlook 12 (1): 16–21. doi:10.1039/b100802l. https://z-library.sk/book/63112104/9544c2. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
45. ↑ Grossmann, Klaus (February 2010). "Auxin herbicides: current status of mechanism and mode of action". Pest Management Science 66 (2): 113–20. doi:10.1002/ps.1860. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26889628. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
46. ↑ Amrhein, Nikolaus; Schab, Joachim; Steinrücken, Hans Christian (July 1980). "The mode of action of the herbicide glyphosate". Naturwissenschaften 67: 356–7. doi:10.1007/BF01106593. https://z-library.sk/book/38109741/dfb328. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
47. ↑ Singh, Baljinder; Singh, Kashmir (27 August 2014). "Microbial degradation of herbicides". Critical Reviews in Microbiology 42 (2): 245–61. doi:10.3109/1040841X.2014.929564. https://www.academia.edu/16343222. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
48. ↑ Birnbaum, Linda S. (1994). "The mechanism of dioxin toxicity: relationship to risk assessment". Environmental Health Perspectives 102 (Suppl. 9): 157–67. doi:10.1289/ehp.94102s9157. https://www.academia.edu/146686591. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
49. ↑ Utyasheva, Leah; Amarasinghe, Prabath; Eddleston, Michael (24 September 2025). "Paraquat at 63–the story of a controversial herbicide and its regulations: it is time to put people and public health first when regulating paraquat". BMC Public Health 25. doi:10.1186/s12889-025-23830-w.
50. ↑ Borke, Jesse (7 January 2025). "Paraquat poisoning". Bethesda, Maryland: National Library of Medicine. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/007834.htm.
51. ↑ Donaher, Sarah E.; Van den Hurk, Peter (16 November 2023). "Ecotoxicology of the herbicide paraquat: effects on wildlife and knowledge gaps". Ecotoxicology 32 (5): 1187–99. doi:10.1007/s10646-023-02714-y. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375695633. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
52. ↑ Huang, Yaohua; Zhan, Hui; Bhatt, Pankaj; Chen, Shaohua (2 August 2019). "Paraquat degradation from contaminated environments: current achievements and perspectives". Frontiers in Microbiology 10. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.01754.
53. ↑ Mohammadi, Keyhan; Sani, Mahmood Alizadeh; Safaei, Payam; Rahmani, Jamal; Molaee-Aghaee, Ebrahim; Jafari, Seid Mahdi (27 August 2021). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impacts of glyphosate on the reproductive hormones". Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29 (41): 62030–41. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-16145-x. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354177077. Retrieved 2 February 2026.
54. ↑ Clapp, Jennifer (March 2021). "Explaining growing glyphosate use: the political economy of herbicide-dependent agriculture". Global Environmental Change 67 (6). doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102239. https://uwaterloo.ca/scholar/sites/ca.scholar/files/jclapp/files/explaining_growing_glyphosate_use_2021.pdf. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
55. ↑ De Lima, Caitano P. F. (1987). "Insect pests and postharvest problems in the tropics". Insect Science and its Application 8 (4–5–6): 673–6. doi:10.1017/S1742758400022773. https://z-library.sk/book/70921598/4f6b8f. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
56. ↑ Roark, Ruric Creegan (May 1935). "Insecticides and fungicides". Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 27 (5): 530–2. doi:10.1021/IE50305A009. https://z-library.sk/book/47822675/742e75. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
57. ↑ Perry, Albert S.; Yamamoto, Izuru; Ishaaya, Isaac; Perry, Rika (1998). "Botanical insecticides". Insecticides in agriculture and environment: retrospects and prospects. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag. pp. 78–91. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-03656-3_13. ISBN 978-3-662-03656-3. https://archive.org/details/perry-et-al.-1998. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
58. ↑ Tomizawa, Motohiro; Casida, John E. (February 2005). "Neonicotinoid insecticide toxicology: mechanisms of selective action". Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 45: 247–68. doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.095930. PMID 15822177. https://z-library.sk/book/43831161/040e6b. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
59. ↑ Lal, Rup; Saxena, D. M. (March 1982). "Accumulation, metabolism, and effects of organochlorine insecticides on microorganisms". Microbiological Reviews 46 (1): 95–127. doi:10.1128/MMBR.46.1.95-127.1982. https://journals.asm.org/doi/pdf/10.1128/mr.46.1.95-127.1982. Retrieved 3 February 2026.
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61. ↑ Gómez-Ramírez, Pilar; Pérez-García, Juan Manuel; León-Ortega, Mario; Martínez, José Enrique; Calvo, José Francisco; Sánchez-Zapata, José Antonio; Botella, Francisco; María-Mojica, Pedro et al. (September 2019). "Spatiotemporal variations of organochlorine pesticides in an apex predator: influence of government regulations and farming practices". Environmental Research 176. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2019.108543. https://ulula.es/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/7_2019-GOMEZ-RAMIREZ-Spatiotemporal-variations-of-organochlorine-pesticides-in-an-apex-predator.pdf. Retrieved 4 February 2026.
62. ↑ Davies, T. G. Emyr; O'Reilly, Andrias O.; Field, Linda M.; Wallace, Bonnie A.; Williamson, Martin S. (November 2008). "Knockdown resistance to DDT and pyrethroids: from target-site mutations to molecular modelling". Pest Management Science 64 (11): 1126–30. doi:10.1002/ps.1617. https://z-library.sk/book/ojLd7wpnjL. Retrieved 16 February 2026.
63. ↑ Voldner, Eva C.; Li, Yi-Fan (15 January 1995). "Global usage of selected persistent organochlorines". Science of the Total Environment 160–161: 201–10. doi:10.1016/0048-9697(95)04357-7. https://archive.org/details/voldner-li-1995. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
64. ↑ Turuzov, Vladimir; Rakitzky, Valery; Tomatis, Lorenzo (February 2002). "Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT): ubiquity, persistence, and risks". Environmental Health Perspectives 1110 (2): 125–8. doi:10.1289/ehp.02110125. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/instance/1240724/pdf/ehp0110-000125.pdf. Retrieved 4 February 2026.
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66. ↑ Peel, David A. (27 March 1975). "Organochlorine residues in Antarctic snow". Nature 254 (5498): 324–5. doi:10.1038/254324a0. https://z-library.sk/book/42557399/abf8ae. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
67. ↑ Bowman, Malcolm C.; Acree, Fred Jr; Corbett, M. K. (1 May 1960). "Solubility of carbon-14 DDT in water". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 8 (5): 406–8. doi:10.1021/jf60111a020. https://z-library.sk/book/61952270/660654. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
68. ↑ Dale, William E.; Miles, James W.; Gaixes, Thomas B. (1 November 1970). "Quantitative method for determination of DDT and DDT metabolites in blood serum". Journal of AOAC International 53 (6): 1287–92. doi:10.1093/jaoac/53.6.1287. https://z-library.sk/book/114241945/d3e87b. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
69. ↑ Van Wendel de Joode, Berna; Wesseling, Katharina; Kromhout, Hans; Monge, Patricia; Garcia, Marco; Mergler, Donna (31 March 2001). "Chronic nervous-system effects of long-term occupational exposure to DDT". The Lancet 357 (9261): 1014–6. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04249-5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12039670. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
70. ↑ Jaga, Kushik (January 2000). "What are the implications of the interaction between DDT and estrogen receptors in the body?". Medical Hypotheses 54 (1): 18–25. doi:10.1054/mehy.1998.0811. https://z-library.sk/book/50516671/e00dc1. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
71. ↑ Bitman, Joel; Cecil, Helene C.; Fries, George F. (May 1970). "DDT-induced inhibition of avian shell gland carbonic anhydrase: a mechanism for thin eggshells". Science 168 (3931): 594–6. doi:10.1126/science.168.3931.594. https://z-library.sk/book/61556093/347e54. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
72. ↑ Ehrlich, Paul R.; Dobkin, David S.; Wheye, Darryl. "DDT and birds". https://web.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/DDT_and_Birds.html.
73. ↑ Holden, A. V. (September 1962). "A study of the absorption of 14C-labelled DDT from water by fish". Annals of Applied Biology 50 (3): 467–77. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1962.tb06042.x. https://z-library.sk/book/47111653/52fb1f. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
74. ↑ Acree, Fred Jr; Berosa, Morton; Bowman, Malcolm C. (July–August 1963). "Codistillation of DDT with water". Agricultural and Food Chemistry 11 (4): 278–80. https://cdn.toxicdocs.org/Qv/Qvw98LL1KoKn84kGqyoe1b55/Qvw98LL1KoKn84kGqyoe1b55.pdf. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
75. ↑ Tarzwell, Clarence M. (11 April 1947). "Effects of DDT mosquito larviciding on wildlife. I. The effects on surface organisms of the routine hand application of DDT larvicides for mosquito control". Public Health Reports 62 (15): 525–54. doi:10.2307/4586091. https://z-library.sk/book/84325287/c8227e. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
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77. ↑ Trojanowska, Monika; Stankiewicz, Z.; Szucki, Bohdan; Pomorska, K.; Majewska, B. (July 1972). "DDT and DDE content of human tissues". Forensic Science 1 (2): 239–43. doi:10.1016/0300-9432(72)90047-7. https://z-library.sk/book/40469609/e98857. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
78. ↑ Kushik, Jaga; Chandrabhan, Dharmani (2003). "Global surveillance of DDT and DDE levels in human tissues". International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 16 (1): 7–20. https://web.archive.org/web/20170809153432id_/http://www.imp.lodz.pl/upload/oficyna/artykuly/pdf/full/Jaga1-01-03.pdf. Retrieved 5 February 2026.
79. ↑ Mansouri, Ahlem; Cregut, Mickaël; Abbes, Chiraz; Durand, Marie-José; Landoulsi, Ahmed; Thouand, Gérald (3 September 2016). "The environmental issues of DDT pollution and bioremediation: a multidisciplinary review". Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology 181 (1): 309–39. doi:10.1007/s12010-016-2214-5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307621968. Retrieved 6 February 2026.
80. ↑ "DDT: a brief history and status" (in en). 11 September 2025. https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/ddt-brief-history-and-status.
81. ↑ Benke, Geza M.; Cheever, K. L.; Mirer, Franklin E.; Murphy, Sheldon D. (April 1974). "Comparative toxicity, anticholinesterase action and metabolism of methyl parathion and parathion in sunfish and mice". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 28 (1): 97–109. doi:10.1016/0041-008X(74)90135-5. https://z-library.sk/book/51989433/af4bae. Retrieved 6 February 2026.
82. ↑ Garcia, Stephanie; Abu-Quare, Aqel; Meeker-O'Connell, Winifred; Borton, Anita; Abou-Donia, Mohamed (7 January 2011). "Methyl parathion: a review of health effects". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B 6 (2): 185–210. doi:10.1080/10937400306471. https://z-library.sk/book/65081872/d61cda. Retrieved 6 February 2026.
83. ↑ Wilson, Jewell D.; Llados, Fernando T.; Singh, Mona; Sutton, Cheryl A.; Sutton, William R.; Nakatsugawa, Tsutomu; Benson, Amy (September 2003). "Toxicological profile for malathion". Atlanta, Georgia. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp154.pdf.
84. ↑ Tsai, Yi-Hua; Lein, Pamela J. (June 2021). "Mechanisms of organophosphate neurotoxicity". Current Opinion in Toxicology 26 (2): 49–60. doi:10.1016/j.cotox.2021.04.002. PMC 8302047. https://www.academia.edu/114049913. Retrieved 6 February 2026.
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86. ↑ Matsuda, Kazuhiko; Kanaoka, Satoshi; Akamatsu, Miki; Sattelle, David B. (July 2009). "Diverse actions and target-site selectivity of neonicotinoids: structural insights". Molecular Pharmacology 76 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1124/mol.109.055186. PMC 2701451. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24234502. Retrieved 16 February 2026.
87. ↑ Paoli, Marco; Giurfa, Martin (October 2024). "Pesticides and pollinator brain: how do neonicotinoids affect the central nervous system of bees?". European Journal of Neuroscience 60 (8): 5927–48. doi:10.1111/ejn.16536.
88. ↑ Cloyd, Raymond A.; Bethke, James A. (January 2011). "Impact of neonicotinoid insecticides on natural enemies in greenhouse and interiorscape environments". Pest Management Science 67 (1): 3–9. https://z-library.sk/book/37135187/ba1e4b. Retrieved 6 February 2026.
89. ↑ Baines, Danica; Wilton, Emily; Pawluk, Abbe; De Gorter, Michael; Chomistek, Nora (8 September 2017). "Neonicotinoids act like endocrine disrupting chemicals in newly-emerged bees and winter bees". Scientific Reports 7. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-10489-6.
90. ↑ Watanabe, Myrna E. (26 August 1994). "Pollination worries rise as honey bees decline". Science 265 (5176): 1170. https://z-library.sk/book/54799428/7ab19a. Retrieved 6 February 2026.
91. ↑ Klingelhöfer, Doris; Braun, Markus; Brüggmann, Dörthe; Groneberg, David A. (October 2022). "Neonicotinoids: a critical assessment of the global research landscape of the most extensively used insecticide". Environmental Research 213. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2022.113727. https://archive.org/details/klingelhofer-et-al.-2022. Retrieved 6 February 2026.
92. ↑ Pang, Shimei; Lin, Ziqiu; Zhang, Wenping; Mishra, Sandhya; Bhatt, Pankaj; Chen, Shaohua (19 May 2020). "Insights into the microbial degradation and biochemical mechanisms of neonicotinoids". Frontiers in Microbiology 11. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2020.00868.
93. ↑ Rodríguez-Seijo, Andrés; Fernández-Calviño, David; Arias-Estévez, Manuel; Arenas-Lago, Danierl (7 June 2024). "Effects of military training, warfare and civilian ammunition debris on the soil organisms: an ecotoxicological review". Biology and Fertility of Soils 60 (6): 813–44. doi:10.1007/s00374-024-01835-8.
94. ↑ Broomandi, Parya; Guney, Mert; Kim, Jong Ryeol; Karaca, Ferhat (29 October 2020). "Soil contamination in areas impacted by military activities: a critical review". Sustainability 12 (21). doi:10.3390/su12219002.
95. ↑ Bellamy, Christopher (4 June 1996). "Sixty secret mustard gas sites uncovered". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/sixty-secret-mustard-gas-sites-uncovered-1335343.html.
96. ↑ "Britain's 'Anthrax Island'". BBC News. 25 July 2001. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/1457035.stm.
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## Further reading

* Panagos, Panos; Van Liedekerke, Marc; Yigini, Yusuf; Montanarella, Luca (16 June 2013). "Contaminated sites in Europe: review of the current situation based on data collected through a European network". Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2013: 1–11. doi:10.1155/2013/158764. PMID 23843802.

## External links

* Portal for soil and water management in Europe Independent information gateway originally funded by the European Commission for topics related to soil and water, including contaminated land, soil and water management.
* European Soil Portal: Soil Contamination At EU-level, the issue of contaminated sites (local contamination) and contaminated land (diffuse contamination) has been considered by: European Soil Data Centre (ESDAC).
* Article on soil contamination in China
* Arsenic in groundwater Book on arsenic in groundwater by IAH's Netherlands Chapter and the Netherlands Hydrological Society

* v
* t
* e

Topics in soil science

Main fields|

* Pedology
* Edaphology
* Soil biology
* Soil microbiology
* Soil zoology
* Soil ecology
* Soil physics
* Soil mechanics
* Soil chemistry
* Environmental soil science
* Agricultural soil science

Soil topics|

* Soil
* Pedosphere
* Soil morphology
* Pedodiversity
* Pedogenesis
* Soil erosion
* Soil contamination
* Soil retrogression and degradation
* Soil compaction
* Soil compaction (agriculture)
* Soil salinity
* Alkali soil
* Soil pH
* Soil acidification
* Soil health
* Soil life
* Soil biodiversity
* Soil quality
* Soil value
* Soil fertility
* Soil resilience
* Soil color
* Soil texture
* Soil structure
* Pore space in soil
* Pore water pressure
* Soil crust
* Soil horizon
* Soil biomantle
* Soil carbon
* Soil gas
* Soil respiration
* Soil organic matter
* Soil moisture
* Soil water (retention)

Soil type|

* v
* t
* e

Soil classification

USDA soil taxonomy|

* Alfisols
* Andisols
* Aridisols
* Entisols
* Gelisols
* Histosols
* Inceptisols
* Mollisols
* Oxisols
* Spodosols
* Ultisols
* Vertisols

World Reference Base
for Soil Resources (1998–)|

* Acrisols
* Alisols
* Andosols
* Anthrosols
* Arenosols
* Calcisols
* Cambisols
* Chernozem
* Cryosols
* Durisols
* Ferralsols
* Fluvisols
* Gleysols
* Gypsisols
* Histosol
* Kastanozems
* Leptosols
* Lixisols
* Luvisols
* Nitisols
* Phaeozems
* Planosols
* Plinthosols
* Podzols
* Regosols
* Retisols
* Solonchaks
* Solonetz
* Stagnosol
* Technosols
* Umbrisols
* Vertisols

Other systems|

* FAO soil classification (1974–98)
* Unified Soil Classification System
* AASHTO Soil Classification System
* Référentiel pédologique (French classification system)
* Canadian system of soil classification
* Australian Soil Classification
* Polish Soil Classification
* 1938 USDA soil taxonomy
* List of U.S. state soils
* List of vineyard soil types

Non-systematic soil types|

* Sand
* Silt
* Clay
* Loam
* Topsoil
* Subsoil
* Soil crust
* Claypan
* Hardpan
* Gypcrust
* Caliche
* Parent material
* Pedosphere
* Laimosphere
* Rhizosphere
* Bulk soil
* Alkali soil
* Bay mud
* Blue goo
* Brickearth
* Brown earth
* Calcareous grassland
* Dark earth
* Dry quicksand
* Eluvium
* Expansive clay
* Fill dirt
* Fuller's earth
* Hydrophobic soil
* Loess
* Lunar soil
* Martian soil
* Mud
* Muskeg
* Paleosol
* Peat
* Pedalfer
* Pedocal
* Podzol
* Prime farmland
* Serpentine soil
* Spodic soil
* Subaqueous soil
* Terra preta
* Terra rossa (soil)
* Tropical peat
* Yedoma

Types of soil

Applications|

* Soil conservation
* Soil management
* Soil guideline value
* Soil survey
* Soil test
* Soil governance
* Soil value
* Soil salinity control
* Erosion control
* Soil policy (Victoria, Australia)
* Agroecology
* Liming (soil)

Related fields|

* Geology
* Geochemistry
* Petrology
* Geomorphology
* Geotechnical engineering
* Hydrology
* Hydrogeology
* Biogeography
* Earth materials
* Archaeology
* Agricultural science
* Agrology

Societies, Initiatives|

* Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated
* Canadian Society of Soil Science
* Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (India)
* German Soil Science Society
* Indian Institute of Soil Science
* International Union of Soil Sciences
* International Year of Soil
* National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists (USA)
* OPAL Soil Centre (UK)
* Soil Science Society of Poland
* Soil and Water Conservation Society (USA)
* Soil Science Society of America
* World Congress of Soil Science

Scientific journals|

* Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B
* Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
* Plant and Soil
* Pochvovedenie
* Soil Research
* Soil Science Society of America Journal

See also|

* Land use
* Land conversion
* Land management
* Vegetation
* Infiltration (hydrology)
* Groundwater
* Crust (geology)
* Impervious surface/Surface runoff

* Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil
* Category soil
* Category soil science
* Index of soil-related articles
* List of soil scientists

* v
* t
* e

Pollution

Air pollution|

* Acid rain
* Air quality index
* Atmospheric dispersion modeling
* Chlorofluorocarbon
* Indoor air quality
* Global dimming
* Global distillation
* Global warming
* Ozone depletion
* Atmospheric particulate matter
* Smog

Water pollution|

* Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products
* Environmental impact of shipping
* Environmental monitoring
* Eutrophication
* Freshwater environmental quality parameters
* Groundwater pollution
* Hypoxia
* Marine debris
* Marine pollution
* Nutrient pollution
* Ocean acidification
* Oil spill
* Septic tank
* Surface runoff
* Thermal pollution
* Turbidity
* Urban runoff
* Wastewater
* Water quality
* Water stagnation
* Waterborne diseases

Soil contamination|

* Bioremediation
* Electrical resistance heating
* Herbicide
* Open defecation
* Pesticide
* Phytoremediation
* Soil Guideline Values (SGVs)

Radioactive contamination|

* Actinides in the environment
* Bioremediation of radioactive waste
* Environmental radioactivity
* Fission product
* Nuclear fallout
* Plutonium in the environment
* Radiation poisoning
* Radium in the environment
* Uranium in the environment

Other types of pollution|

* Land degradation
* Light pollution
* Pollution from nanomaterials
* Noise pollution
* Radio spectrum pollution
* Urban heat island
* Visual pollution

Pollution response|

* Cleaner production
* Industrial ecology
* Pollutant release and transfer register
* Polluter pays principle
* Pollution control
* Pollution prevention
* Waste minimization
* Zero waste

Inter-government treaties|

* Basel Convention
* CLRTAP
* Kyoto Protocol
* MARPOL Convention
* Montreal Protocol
* OSPAR
* Rotterdam Convention
* Stockholm Convention

Major organizations|

* Basel Action Network
* Central Pollution Control Board (India)
* DEFRA
* Environment Agency (England)
* Scottish Environment Protection Agency
* U.S. EPA
* European Environment Agency
* Greenpeace

* v
* t
* e

Environmental science

Main fields|

* Atmospheric sciences
* Biogeochemistry
* Ecology
* Environmental chemistry
* Geosciences
* Hydrology
* Limnology
* Oceanography
* Soil science

Related fields|

* Biology
* Chemistry
* green
* Ecological economics
* Environmental design
* Environmental economics
* Environmental engineering
* Environmental health
* epidemiology
* Environmental studies
* Environmental toxicology
* Geodesy
* Physics
* Sustainability science
* Systems ecology
* Urban ecology

Applications|

* Energy conservation
* Environmental technology
* Natural resource management
* Pollution control
* Recycling
* Remediation
* Renewable energy
* Road ecology
* Sewage treatment
* Urban metabolism
* Water purification
* Waste management

Lists|

* Degrees
* Journals
* Research institutes
* Glossary

See also|

* Human impact on the environment
* Sustainability

* Category
* scientists
* Commons
* Environment portal
* WikiProject

* v
* t
* e

Public health

General|

* Auxology
* Biological hazard
* Chief Medical Officer
* Cultural competence
* Deviance
* Environmental health
* Euthenics
* Genomics
* Globalization and disease
* Health economics
* Health literacy
* Health policy
* Health system
* Health care reform
* Public health law
* Maternal health
* Medical anthropology
* Medical sociology
* Mental health
* Pharmaceutical policy
* Public health intervention
* Public health laboratory
* Reproductive health
* Social psychology
* Sociology of health and illness

Preventive healthcare|

* Behavior change
* Theories
* Family planning
* Health promotion
* Human nutrition
* Preventive nutrition
* Hygiene
* Food safety
* Hand washing
* Infection control
* Oral hygiene
* Occupational safety and health
* Human factors and ergonomics
* Hygiene
* Injury prevention
* Medicine
* Nursing
* Patient safety
* Organization
* Pharmacovigilance
* Safe sex
* Sanitation
* Emergency
* Fecal–oral transmission
* Open defecation
* Sanitary sewer
* Waterborne diseases
* Smoking cessation
* Vaccination
* Vector control

Population health|

* Biostatistics
* Child mortality
* Community health
* Epidemiology
* Global health
* Health impact assessment
* Health system
* Infant mortality
* Open-source healthcare software
* Public health informatics
* Social determinants of health
* Health equity
* Race and health
* Social medicine

Biological and
epidemiological statistics|

* Case–control study
* Randomized controlled trial
* Relative risk
* Statistical hypothesis testing
* Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
* Regression analysis
* ROC curve
* Student's t-test
* Z-test
* Statistical software

Infectious and epidemic
disease prevention|

* Asymptomatic carrier
* Epidemics
* List
* Notifiable diseases
* List
* Public health surveillance
* Disease surveillance
* Quarantine
* Sexually transmitted infection
* Tropical disease
* Vaccine trial

Food hygiene and
safety management|

* Food
* Additive
* Chemistry
* Engineering
* Microbiology
* Processing
* Safety
* Safety scandals
* Genetically modified food
* Good agricultural practice
* Good manufacturing practice
* HACCP
* ISO 22000

Health behavioral
sciences|

* Diffusion of innovations
* Health belief model
* Health communication
* Health psychology
* Positive deviance
* PRECEDE-PROCEED model
* Social cognitive theory
* Social norms approach
* Theory of planned behavior
* Transtheoretical model

Organizations,
education
and history|

| Organizations|

* Europe
* Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
* Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
* India
* Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
* U.S.
* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
* City and county health departments
* Council on Education for Public Health
* Public Health Service
* World Health Organization
* World Toilet Organization

|

Education|

* Health education
* Higher education
* Bachelor of Science in Public Health
* Doctor of Public Health
* Professional degrees of public health
* Schools of public health

History|

* Sara Josephine Baker
* Samuel Jay Crumbine
* Carl Rogers Darnall
* Joseph Lister
* Margaret Sanger
* John Snow
* Typhoid Mary
* Germ theory of disease
* Social hygiene movement

* Category
* Commons
* WikiProject

* v
* t
* e

Natural resources

Air|

| Pollution / quality|

* Ambient standards (USA)
* Index
* Indoor
* developing nations
* Law
* Clean Air Act (USA)
* Ozone depletion

|

Emissions|

* Airshed
* Trading
* Deforestation (REDD)

Energy|

* Law
* Resources
* Fossil fuels (peak oil)
* Geothermal
* Hydro
* tidal
* wave
* Nuclear
* Solar
* sunlight
* shade
* Wind

Land|

* Arable
* peak farmland
* Degradation
* Law
* property
* Management
* habitat conservation
* Minerals
* mining
* law
* sand
* peak
* rights
* Soil
* conservation
* fertility
* health
* resilience
* Use
* planning
* reserve

Life|

* Biodiversity
* Bioprospecting
* Biosphere
* Bushfood
* Bushmeat
* Fisheries
* law
* management
* Food
* Forests
* genetic resources
* law
* management
* Game
* law
* Gene bank
* Herbalist plants
* Marine conservation
* Non-timber forest products
* Rangeland
* Seed bank
* Wildlife
* conservation
* management
* Wood

Water|

| Types / location|

* Aquifer
* storage and recovery
* Drinking
* Fresh
* Groundwater
* pollution
* recharge
* remediation
* Hydrosphere
* Ice
* bergs
* glacial
* polar
* Irrigation
* huerta
* Rain
* harvesting
* Stormwater
* Surface water
* Wastewater
* reclaimed

|

Aspects|

* Desalination
* Floods
* Law
* Leaching
* Sanitation
* Conflict
* Conservation
* Peak water
* Pollution
* Privatization
* Quality
* Right
* Resources
* management
* policy

Related|

* Commons
* enclosure
* global
* land
* tragedy of
* Economics
* ecological
* land
* Ecosystem services
* Exploitation
* overexploitation
* Earth Overshoot Day
* Management
* adaptive
* Natural capital
* accounting
* Nature reserve
* Systems ecology
* Urban ecology
* Wilderness

Resource|

* Common-pool
* Conflict (perpetuation)
* Curse
* Depletion
* Extraction
* Nationalism
* Renewable / Non-renewable

* Category

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