Southern Europe

Short description: Southern region of Europe

The geographical and ethno-cultural borders of southern Europe are the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Balkan Mountains to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.

Southern Europe is a loosely defined region of Europe. It is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is marked by the Mediterranean Sea. Southern Europe is focused on the three peninsulas located in the extreme south of the European continent. These are the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian Peninsula, and the Balkan Peninsula. These peninsulas are separated from the rest of Europe by towering mountain ranges, respectively by the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Balkan Mountains. The location of these three peninsulas in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as their mountainous reliefs, provide them with very different types of climates (mainly subtropical Mediterranean) from the rest of the continent. Moreover, these mountains have acted as a barrier to population movement and cultural exchange, rendering both the climate and cultures distinct from those of the rest of Europe.

Different other methods can be used to define southern Europe, including its political, economic, historical, and cultural attributes.[1][2][3][4][5][6] Culturally, Southern Europe is predominantly Romance-speaking and Roman Catholic. Politically, nine of the southern European countries form the EU Med Group. Southern Europe also loosely corresponds to the European part of the Mediterranean Basin.

Southern Europe has been shaped by a long and complex history rooted in the Mediterranean world. Early civilizations such as the Phoenicians established extensive trade networks that linked the region’s coasts and islands. Ancient Greece and Rome later integrated much of Southern Europe into a shared classical framework constituting the base of European civilization. During the Middle Ages, Southern Europe experienced centuries of political fragmentation and external invasions. The Renaissance and the Age of Discovery expanded Southern Europe’s influence and global connections, in particular to Latin America. From the late modern period onward, however, Southern Europe generally lagged behind northern Europe in industrialization and economic development, remaining more agrarian and subject to political instability. This gap persisted into the 20th century, despite later industrial growth and modernization driven by state intervention and European integration.

## Contents

* 1 Geography
* 2 Climate
* 3 Flora
* 4 History
* 4.1 Early history
* 4.2 Post-Middle Ages
* 4.3 19th to 21st century
* 5 Demographics
* 5.1 Languages
* 5.1.1 Romance languages
* 5.1.2 Slavic languages
* 5.1.3 Other languages
* 5.2 Religion
* 6 Classifications based on political borders
* 6.1 CIA World Factbook
* 6.2 EuroVoc
* 6.3 UN geoscheme classification
* 6.4 European Travel Commission classification
* 7 See also
* 8 Notes
* 9 References

## Geography

Geographically, southern Europe is the southern portion of the European continent. This definition is relative, although largely based on history, culture, climate, and flora, which is shared across the region. Southern Europe is primarily shaped by the Mediterranean Sea, while also encompassing territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Black Sea to the east, as well as inland regions, often mountainous in character. Southern Europe can be subdivided into three geographically separate subregions:[7][8][9]

Satellite image of the Iberian Peninsula

* The westernmost region (Southwest Europe), which consists mainly of the Iberian Peninsula, separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees, a mountain range forming a nearly straight line from the Atlantic Ocean to the western Mediterranean Sea.[10] It also consists of the Balearic Islands. The region is shared by five countries:
* Andorra
* Portugal (mainland)
* Spain (mainland and Balearic Islands)
* Part of France: Cerdagne in the Pyrénées-Orientales[note 1]
* Part of the United Kingdom: Gibraltar[note 2]

of the Italian Peninsula

* The most central region, which consists mainly of the Italian Peninsula,[note 3][note 4] separated from the rest of Europe by the Alps, a mountain range forming an arc from the western Mediterranean Sea to the Adriatic Sea.[13] It also consists of the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and Malta. The region is shared by nine countries:
* Italy[note 5]
* Malta[note 6]
* Monaco[note 7]
* San Marino
* Vatican City
* Part of Croatia: Istria County
* Part of France: Alpes-Maritimes and Corsica[note 8]
* Part of Slovenia: municipalities of Ankaran, Izola, Koper and Piran
* Part of Switzerland: Ticino[note 9]

of the Balkan Peninsula

* The easternmost region (Southeast Europe), a loosely defined region which consists mainly of the Balkans, the peninsula between the Adriatic, Aegean and Black Sea, with the Danube forming part of its northern border, rather than the Balkan Mountains themselves (to the south).[18] It also consists of numerous islands in the Adriatic and in the Aegean Sea (notably Crete). The region is shared by a dozen of countries:
* Albania
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria[note 10]
* Croatia
* Greece[note 11]
* Kosovo
* Montenegro
* North Macedonia
* Serbia[note 12]
* Part of Romania: Northern Dobruja[note 13]
* Part of Slovenia: southernmost part
* Part of Turkey: East Thrace[note 14]

Additionally, several other countries are politically or culturally associated with Southern Europe without being geographically part of it. These include Cyprus (an island south of the Anatolian Peninsula),[note 15] and Moldova (along with the remaining part of Romania, north of the Balkan Peninsula).[note 16] Further east, the coastal regions of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea constitute the southernmost regions of Eastern Europe,[19][note 17] although they fall outside the core definitions of Southern Europe.

Punta de Tarifa, in Spain, constitutes the southernmost point of the European continent. Gavdos, in Greece, is the southernmost European island.[20]

## Climate

European climate. Note the high diversity of Köppen-Geiger climates in the southern regions.

Southern Europe's most emblematic climate is the Mediterranean climate, influenced by the large subtropical semi-permanent centre of high atmospheric pressure found, not in the Mediterranean itself, but in the Atlantic Ocean, the Azores High. The Mediterranean climate covers Portugal, Spain, Italy, the southern coast of France, coastal Croatia, coastal Slovenia, southern Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, and Greece, as well as the Mediterranean islands. Those areas of Mediterranean climate present similar vegetation and landscapes throughout, including dry hills, small plains, pine forests, and olive trees.

Cooler climates can be found in certain parts of southern European countries, for example, within the mountain ranges of Spain and Italy. Additionally, the north coast of Spain experiences a wetter Atlantic climate. In the highest regions of the Alps, which border southern Europe, even an ice cap climate can be found.[note 18]

Some parts of southern Europe have humid subtropical climates with warm and wet summers, unlike typical Mediterranean climates. This climate is mainly found in Italy and Croatia around the Adriatic Sea in cities such as Venice and Trieste, but also further north, near the Alpine foothills, in cities such as Como and Lugano.

The high mountains of the Alps and the Pyrenees act as a significant climatic barrier. An example is the Sirocco, a hot wind that originates in the heart of the Sahara and blows over Italy as far as the interior of the Alpine arc (the Po Valley), where it is prevented from spreading to the rest of Europe. Conversely, the Alps and the Pyrenees protect the Italian and Iberian peninsulas from the rain and icy winds coming from southern France, such as the Mistral and the Tramontane. When the Mistral and the Tramontane are blowing, they provoke an upwelling phenomenon along the French coast: surface waters are pushed offshore, allowing deeper, cooler waters to rise to the surface near the shore. Consequently, water temperatures along the French coast remain very cool even in summer and are not representative of the rest of the Mediterranean.[21][22][23] This same kind of phenomenon takes place between the two slopes of the Balkan mountain range.

## Flora

Distribution map of Olea europaea s.l. (olive tree)

Southern Europe's flora is mainly characterized by Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub, but also temperate broadleaf and mixed forests. The Mediterranean and Submediterranean climate regions in Europe are found in much of southern Europe, mainly Portugal, Spain, Italy, Malta, Albania, Greece, Cyprus and all the mediterranean islands, but also in southeast France and the Balkan Mediterranean coast.[24][25]

In the Mediterranean coastal areas, olive groves, maquis shrubland, and steppes are very common. At higher elevations, or latitudes, they are replaced by chestnut and (often coppiced) mixed forests.[26][27]

* Beech forest in the Aurunci Mountains, Italy

* Sweet chestnut in the Sierra Real of Istán, Spain

* Stone pines in Doñana National Park, Spain

* Oak savanna of Alentejo, Portugal (Q. suber and Q. rotundifolia)

* Aleppo pine forest, Croatia

* Temperate pine forests of Monte Cimone, Italy

* Dry olive groove, Crete

## History

### Early history

Roman Empire. In yellow the south-west of Europe, and in violet the south-east. Eastern Roman Empire mainly focused on southern Europe.

The Phoenicians originally expanded from Canaan ports, dominating trade in the Mediterranean by the 8th century BC. Carthage was founded in 814 BC, and the Carthaginians by 700 BC had firmly established strongholds in Sicily and Sardinia (both regions in present day Italy), which created conflicts of interest with Etruria. Its colonies later reached the Western Mediterranean, such as Cádiz in Spain and most notably Carthage in North Africa, and even the Atlantic Ocean. The civilisation spread across the Mediterranean between 1500 BC and 300 BC.[28]

The period known as classical antiquity began with the rise of the city-states of Ancient Greece. Greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of Alexander the Great, spreading throughout Asia. The Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean Basin in a vast empire based on Roman law and Roman legions. It promoted trade, tolerance, and Greek culture. By 300 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western Roman Empire based in Rome, and the Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople. The attacks of the Goths led to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, a date that traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the Middle Ages. During the Middle Ages, the Eastern Roman Empire survived though modern historians refer to the state as the Byzantine Empire. In Western Europe, Germanic peoples moved into positions of power in the remnants of the former Western Roman Empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own.

The period known as the Crusades, a series of religiously-motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the Levant back into Christian rule, began. Several Crusader states were founded in the eastern Mediterranean, but they were all short-lived. The Crusaders would have a profound impact on many parts of Europe. Their sack of Constantinople in 1204 brought an abrupt end to the Byzantine Empire. Though it would later be re-established, it would never recover its former glory. The Crusaders would establish trade routes that would develop into the Silk Road and open the way for the merchant republics of Genoa and Venice to become major economic powers. The Reconquista, a related movement, worked to reconquer Iberia for Christendom. The late Middle Ages represented a period of upheaval in Europe. The epidemic known as the Black Death and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted. Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many of the states of Europe at war for much of the period. In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire, a Turkish state originating in Anatolia, encroached steadily on former Byzantine lands, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453.

### Post-Middle Ages

Beginning roughly in the 12th century in Florence, and later spreading through Europe with the development of the printing press, a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology, with the Arabic texts and thought[29] bringing about rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge. The Catholic reconquest of Portugal and Spain led to a series of oceanic explorations resulting in the Age of Discovery that established direct links with Africa, the Americas, and Asia. During this period, Iberian forces engaged in a worldwide struggle with Islamic societies; the battlefronts in this Ibero-Islamic World War stretched from the Mediterranean into the Indian Ocean, finally involving the islands of Southeast Asia (see also: Indo-Mediterranean).[30] Eventually this ecumenical conflict ended when new players—England, Holland and France—replaced Spain and Portugal as the main agents of European imperialism in the mid-17th century.

European overseas expansion led to the rise of colonial empires, producing the Columbian Exchange.[31] Most of the Americas inherited two of Southern Europe’s main languages: Spanish and Portuguese. The combination of resource inflows from the New World and the Industrial Revolution of Great Britain, allowed a new economy based on manufacturing instead of subsistence agriculture.[32] The period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Balkan nations began to regain independence from the Ottoman Empire. Italy unified into a nation state. The capture of Rome in 1870 ended the Papal temporal power.

Ottomans controlled most of the Mediterranean Sea for centuries.

### 19th to 21st century

Mountainous terrain and fragmented coastlines hindered Southern Europe’s industrialization. During the 19th century, countries such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece remained predominantly agrarian, with industrial growth concentrated in only a few urban regions (notably northern Italy and Catalonia). Political instability in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balkans, along with the influence of organized crime in Italy, further undermined economic development throughout much of the 20th century.[33][34]

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was precipitated by the rise of nationalism in Southeastern Europe as the Great Powers took up sides. The Allies defeated the Central Powers in 1918. During the Paris Peace Conference the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, especially the Treaty of Versailles. The Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, and along with Mussolini's Italy sought to gain control of the continent by the Second World War. Following the Allied victory in the Second World War, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain. The countries in Eastern and Southeastern Europe were dominated by the Soviet Union and became communist states. The major non-communist southern European countries joined a US-led military alliance (NATO) and formed the European Economic Community amongst themselves. The countries in the Soviet sphere of influence joined the military alliance known as the Warsaw Pact and the economic bloc called Comecon. Yugoslavia was neutral. The common attribute of the eastern countries is that all of them have experiences with socialism, but nevertheless, the beginning of the 1990s was just roughly the same. For some of them becoming independent was the major challenge, while others needed to face with poverty and deep dictatorship also Economically, parallel with the political changes, and the democratic transition, – as a rule of law states – the previous command economies were transformed via the legislation into market economies, and set up or renewed the major macroeconomic factors: budgetary rules, national audit, national currency, central bank. Generally, they shortly encountered the following problems: high inflation, high unemployment, low economic growth and high government debt. By 2000 these economies were stabilized, and sooner or later between 2004 and 2013 some of them joined the European Union, and Slovenia introduced the euro.[35]

Italy became a major industrialized country again because of its post-war economic miracle. The European Union (EU) involved the division of powers; tax, health and education handled by the nation states, and the EU had charge of market rules, competition, legal standards and environmentalism. The Soviet economic and political system collapsed, leading to the end of communism in the satellite countries in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself in 1991. The European Union expanded to subsequently include many of the formerly communist European countries – Romania and Bulgaria (2007) and Croatia (2013).[36]

The Gotthard, a major and direct transport axis between northern and Southern Europe, was completed in 2016 with the Gotthard Base Tunnel.[37] The Gotthard inscribes itself in a long history of transit across the Alps, which saw them progressively changing from an obstacle to a corridor between the North Sea and the Mediterranean Sea.[38]

## Demographics

Population pyramid of southern Europe in 2023 (UN geoscheme classification)

### Languages

#### Romance languages

#### Slavic languages

Slavic Languages are spoken in several countries on the Balkans. Bulgarian language (Български език) is spoken in Bulgaria (България). Bosnian-Serbian-Croatian is spoken in Kosovo, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Italy (in Molise). Slovenian is spoken in Slovenia, Italy (in Friuli-Venezia Giulia) and Croatia (in Istria) and Macedonian is spoken in North Macedonia.

#### Other languages

Albanian is spoken in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Greece, Serbia, Croatia and Italy (particularly by the Arbëreshë people in southern Italy).

### Religion

The predominant religion in southern Europe is Christianity. Christianity spread throughout southern Europe during the Roman Empire, and Christianity was adopted as the official religion of the Roman Empire in the year 380 AD. The historic break of the Church into the western half, based in Rome, and the eastern half, based in Constantinople, has caused different denominations of Christianity to be prominent in different parts of Europe.[39] Christians in the western half of southern Europe such as Portugal, Spain and Italy, are generally Roman Catholic. Christians in the eastern half of southern Europe such as Greece, Serbia and North Macedonia are generally Eastern Orthodox. Islam is widely practiced in Albania, Bosnia, Kosovo and Turkey and Northern Cyprus. Muslims are a significant minority in several countries of southern Europe such as Greece, Italy, Spain.[40] Judaism was practiced widely throughout the European continent within the Roman Empire from the 2nd century.

## Classifications based on political borders

### CIA World Factbook

Subregions of Europe based on the CIA World Factbook:

Northern Europe

Western Europe

Central Europe

Southwest Europe

Southern Europe

Southeast Europe

Eastern Europe

In the CIA World Factbook, the description of each country includes information about "Location" under the heading "Geography", where the country is classified into a region. The following countries are included in their classification "southern Europe":[41]

* Greece
* Holy See (Vatican City)
* Italy
* Malta
* San Marino

In addition, Andorra, Gibraltar, Portugal and Spain are classified as "Southwestern Europe", while Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and Turkey (the part west of the Bosporus) are described as located in "Southeastern Europe".

### EuroVoc

European regions according to EuroVoc:

Northern Europe

Western Europe

Southern Europe

Central and Eastern Europe

EuroVoc is a multilingual thesaurus maintained by the Publications Office of the European Union, giving definitions of terms for official use. In the definition of "southern Europe", the following countries are included:[42]

* Cyprus
* Greece
* Holy See
* Italy
* Malta
* Portugal
* San Marino
* Spain
* Turkey

### UN geoscheme classification

Subregions of Europe by the United Nations geoscheme:

Eastern Europe

Northern Europe

Southern Europe

Western Europe

Transcaucasia

The United Nations geoscheme is a system devised by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD), which divides the countries of the world into regional and subregional groups, based on the M49 coding classification. The partition is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories.[43]

In the UN geoscheme, the following countries are classified as southern Europe:[43]

* Albania
* Andorra
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Croatia
* Greece
* Italy
* Malta
* Montenegro
* North Macedonia
* Portugal
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Vatican City

as well as the dependent territory:

* Gibraltar

### European Travel Commission classification

European Travel Commission divides the European region on the basis of Tourism Decision Metrics (TDM) model. Countries which belong to the southern/Mediterranean Europe in this classification are:[44]

Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Malta, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey.

## See also

| Wikimedia Commons has media related to Southern Europe.

|

* Central and Eastern Europe
* Central Europe
* Eastern Europe
* EU Med Group
* EuroVoc#Southern Europe
* Mediterranean Basin
* Northern Europe
* Northwestern Europe
* Southeast Europe
* Western Europe

## Notes

1. ↑ Located in the Ebro Basin of the Iberian Peninsula. France as a whole is usually defined as a Western European country.
2. ↑ A British Overseas Territory.
3. ↑ If the smaller Apennine Peninsula (bordered by the Apennines) is considered, then the region excludes most of Northern Italy and the southern slopes of the Alps
4. ↑ Most of the Italian Peninsula is on the Eurasian Plate, while some parts such as Apulia are on the Adriatic Plate. Pantelleria, the Pelagie Islands, and some parts of Sicily are located on the African Plate, near the boundary between the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate.[11][12]
5. ↑ The United Nations geoscheme includes Italy as a whole in southern Europe, although its northernmost regions are sometimes associated with Central Europe.[14]
6. ↑ Malta is located about halfway between mainland Europe and Africa.[15] In geology, the Maltese Islands is located on the African Plate.[11] The island group lies approx. 200 km south of the boundary between the African Plate and the Eurasian Plate.[12] In political geography, Malta is considered a European country. The United Nations geoscheme includes Malta in Southern Europe.
7. ↑ Sometimes included. The United Nations geoscheme includes Monaco in Western Europe.
8. ↑ The United Nations geoscheme includes France as a whole in Western Europe.
9. ↑ Located in the Po Basin on the south side of the Alps.[16][17] Switzerland as a whole is usually considered a Western or Central European country.
10. ↑ Often included. The United Nations geoscheme includes Bulgaria in Eastern Europe.
11. ↑ Some Greek offshore islands near Asia Minor are considered parts of Asia in physical geography.
12. ↑ Excepting the province of Vojvodina
13. ↑ Sometimes included. The United Nations geoscheme includes Romania in Eastern Europe.
14. ↑ The European part of Turkey.
15. ↑ Geographically a part of Asia, considered a European country in political geography.[11] The United Nations geoscheme includes Cyprus in Western Asia.
16. ↑ Occasionally included. The United Nations geoscheme includes Moldova in Eastern Europe.
17. ↑ At latitudes similar to those of central and northern Italy
18. ↑ The highest mountain of Italy is Mont Blanc (4,810 m)

## References

1. ↑ Trudy Ring; Noelle Watson; Paul Schellinger (5 November 2013). Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-134-25965-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=fYH7AQAAQBAJ.
2. ↑ José María Magone; Magone, José María Magone (2003). The Politics of Southern Europe: Integration Into the European Union. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 292–. ISBN 978-0-275-97787-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=KOj2BwVxczUC&pg=PA292.
3. ↑ Europe, Southern: Italy, Cyprus, Greece, European Turkey: Selected References. Air University Library. 1992. https://books.google.com/books?id=IZgyAQAAIAAJ.
4. ↑ Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Anthropology, Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spence. Retrieved 10 October 2015.
5. ↑ Which Countries Make Up Southern Europe? WorldAtlas
6. ↑ "Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 - Chapter 30. Southern Europe". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2000. https://www.fao.org/3/Y1997e/y1997e0z.htm.
7. ↑ Robert E. Dickinson (1969). The Makers of Modern Geography. Routledge Library Editions: Social and Cultural Geography. p. 16. ISBN 9781317907336. https://books.google.com/books?id=1yXJBQAAQBAJ. "Other German writers of this period [such as August Zeune] also believed that geographical study should have its basis in natural rather than in political units. [...] He divided Europe into its major divisions. Southern Europe falls into three units — the Pyrenean, Alpine, and Balkan peninsulas."
8. ↑ Connolly, Sean (2000). 3-dimensional Earth. Barnes & Noble Books. pp. 20. https://www.google.com/books/edition/3_dimensional_Earth/vM-PudEOSEIC. "Southern Europe, bordering the Mediterranean, is mainly mountainous and dry. Great mountain ranges, including the Pyrenees, Alps, and Balkans, separate this southern region from the rest of the continent."
9. ↑ "Europe: Physical Geography". National Geographic Society. 4 January 2012. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/europe-physical-geography/. "Europe's main peninsulas are the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan, located in southern Europe"
10. ↑ de Juana, Eduardo; Garcia, Ernest (2015). The Birds of the Iberian Peninsula. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 10. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Birds_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula/BgIzBgAAQBAJ. "The Pyrenees provide a clear boundary, and a significant biological barrier, between the Peninsula and the rest of Europe. They run for over 450km southeastwards from the Basque coastlands at the southeastern corner of the Bay of Biscay [Atlantic] across Navarra and Aragón to approach the Mediterranean in Catalonia."
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Taylor Combaluzier. "African & Arabian Tectonic Plates". McGill University, Montréal. https://africa-arabia-plate.weebly.com/.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Galea, Pauline (2007). "Seismic history of the Maltese Islands and considerations on seismic risk: Earthquakes in Malta". Annals of Geophysics 50 (6): 725–740. http://www.annalsofgeophysics.eu/index.php/annals/article/viewFile/3053/3096. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
13. ↑ Europa Publications (2002). Western Europe 2003. Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 357. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Western_Europe_2003/M9QYndAPmuQC. "Mainland Italy comprises a long peninsula, which stretches from the Alps, along the borders with France to the north-west, Switzerland and Austria to the north and Slovenia to the north-east, south into the Mediterranean Sea."
14. ↑ Jordan, Peter (2005). "Großgliederung Europas nach kulturräumlichen Kriterien". Europa Regional (Leipzig: Leibniz-Institut für Länderkunde (IfL)) 13 (4): 162–173. http://www.stagn.de/DE/1_Der_StAGN/Publikationen/StAGN_GGEuropa/grosseu_node.html. Retrieved 29 January 2026.
15. ↑ Leonard, Albert Leonard (2020). Mediterranean Wines of Place. Lockwood Press. pp. 79. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Mediterranean_Wines_of_Place/i1HcDwAAQBAJ.
16. ↑ James Redfern (1971). A Lexical Study of Raeto-Romance and Contiguous Italian Dialect Areas. Mouton Publishers. p. 38. ISBN 9783110824841. https://books.google.com/books?id=m5RsDwAAQBAJ. "The canton of the Ticino marks the geographic descent from high Alps to plain and is, therefore, a land of climatic as well as linguistic transition, where heat and abundant moisture favor almonds, figs, and all the fruits common to southern Europe, except the olive."
17. ↑ OECD (2002). OECD Territorial Reviews: Switzerland 2002. OECD Publishing. p. 80. ISBN 9789264160651. https://books.google.com/books?id=soDWAgAAQBAJ. "The Regio Insubrica spreads over three Italian provinces (Verbano-Cusio Ossola, Varese, Como) and the Swiss canton of Ticino. The national border cuts across a culturally and geographically homogenous territory. The region is peripheral for both countries, but it is an essential pole of communication between Northern and Southern Europe."
18. ↑ Španiel, Stanislav; Rešetnik, Ivana (2022). "Plant phylogeography of the Balkan Peninsula: spatiotemporal patterns and processes". Plant Systematics and Evolution 308 (5). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363919402_Plant_phylogeography_of_the_Balkan_Peninsula_spatiotemporal_patterns_and_processes. "The Balkan Peninsula is circumscribed by the Adriatic, Ionian, Cretan, Aegean, Marmara and Black Seas, whereas its northern continental boundaries follow the Soča-Sava-Danube river line".
19. ↑ Doronichev, Vladimir B. (2019). Environment, Culture and Subsistence of Humans in the Caucasus between 40,000 and 10,000 Years Ago. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. xv. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Environment_Culture_and_Subsistence_of_H/e_XIDwAAQBAJ.
20. ↑ Andriotis, Konstantinos (2018). Degrowth in Tourism: Conceptual, Theoretical and Philosophical Issues. CABI. pp. 131. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Degrowth_in_Tourism/llloDwAAQBAJ.
21. ↑ "Mediterranean sea-surface temperature". ESA. 2012. https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Videos/2012/07/Mediterranean_sea-surface_temperature.
22. ↑ Barale, Vittorio (January 2011). "Fig. 3.a: Sea surface temperature of the Mediterranean Sea (water masses and physical processes)." (in en). The coastal dimension of maritime spatial planning. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/a-Sea-surface-temperature-of-the-Mediterranean-Sea-water-masses-and-physical_fig3_290100465.
23. ↑ "2010-2019 SST in the Mediterranean". eo science for society. 2019-06-24. https://eo4society.esa.int/2019/06/24/2010-2019-sst-in-the-mediterranean/.
24. ↑ "Mediterranean Basin". Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/mediterranean-basin.
25. ↑ Wolfgang Frey and Rainer Lösch; Lehrbuch der Geobotanik. Pflanze und Vegetation in Raum und Zeit. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, München 2004
26. ↑ Stefano Mazzoleni (2004). Recent Dynamics of the Mediterranean Vegetation and Landscape. John Wiley & Sons. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-470-09370-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=s88vzd9PwkkC. "In the coastal areas, the olive groves are tightly interwoven with low maquis, garrigue and steppe, which have been widely grazed and, consequently, burned. On the other hand, low mountains and inland hills have chestnut and mixed deciduous coppiced woods. The actual boundaries between these two different vegetation landscapes can be found at different altitudes according to local climatic conditions; higher (about 1000m asl) in the eastern and southern areas, and lower and close to the sea in the central and northern basin."
27. ↑ Pezzi, Giovanna (2010). ""Castanea sativa woods" in the Northern Apennines: A phytosociological analysis along ecological gradients". Acta Horticulturae 866 (866): 81-87. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284808672_Castanea_sativa_woods_in_the_Northern_Apennines_A_phytosociological_analysis_along_ecological_gradients. "Castanea sativa woods, one of the most widespread habitats of southern Europe...".
28. ↑ "Phoenicia". World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/phoenicia/. Retrieved 2017-08-09.
29. ↑ e.g. Averroes written in the 12th century, which was mentioned in Divine Comedy IV:144 around 1320 AD
30. ↑ Truxillo, Charles A.. By the Sword and the Cross: The Historical Evolution of the Catholic World Monarchy in Spain and the New World, 1492-1825.
31. ↑ Richard J. Mayne. "history of Europe:: The Middle Ages". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-58260/history-of-Europe. Retrieved 18 April 2009.
32. ↑ Steven Kreis (11 October 2006). "The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England". Historyguide.org. http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html.
33. ↑ Leontidou, Lila (1990). The Mediterranean City in Transition: Social Change and Urban Development. Cambridge University Press. pp. 90. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Mediterranean_City_in_Transition/KzHvqQei6zkC. "The Southern European NICs, Portugal, Greece and Spain, were for a long period the poorest areas of capitalist Europe. Apart from slow or arrested industrialization, they offered services as tourist resorts and were financed to a large extent by emigrants' remittances. They were isolated from all major European organizations sensitive about the presence of competitive politics until their authoritarian regimes were brought down by varying forces during the mid-1970s."
34. ↑ Magone, José (2003). The Politics of Southern Europe: Integration Into the European Union. ABC-CLIO. pp. 224. https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Politics_of_Southern_Europe/ElDeEAAAQBAJ. "In spite of that, the Sicilian Mafia, the Reggio-Calabrian N'Dranghetta, the Neapolitan Camorra or rather Camorre, and the Sacra Corona Unita in Puglia are still successful in undermining the state authority."
35. ↑ Vértesy, László (2018). "Macroeconomic Legal Trends in the EU11 Countries". Public Governance, Administration and Finances Law Review 3\. No. 1. 2018. https://www.dialogcampus.hu/users/default/dialogcampus/uploads/elektronikus_konyvek/pga2018_01_09_vertesy.pdf.
36. ↑ "From 6 to 27 members". 6 December 2016. https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/policy/from-6-to-27-members_en.
37. ↑ Sarah Baxter (2017). History of the World in 500 Railway Journeys. The Quarto Group. p. 357. ISBN 9781781319383. https://books.google.com/books?id=9pAFEAAAQBAJ. "The first Gotthard Tunnel, a 9-mile (14 km) engineering marvel of its time, was dug between 1872 and 1882; 199 men died in the process. Running between the Swiss villages of Göschenen and Airolo, it was the first modern railway link between northern and southern Europe, and it is still used today."
38. ↑ World Bank (2018). The WEB of Transport Corridors in South Asia. World Bank Publications. p. 186. ISBN 9781464812163. https://books.google.com/books?id=JHZqDwAAQBAJ. "The Rhine-Alpine Corridor is a north-south corridor extending from the North Sea ports of Rotterdam and Antwerp to the Mediterranean port of Genoa in northern Italy. The corridor is a primary artery for transporting goods in Europe."
39. ↑ Chazan, Robert (2006). The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom: 1000-1500. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. xi. ISBN 9780521616645. https://books.google.com/books?id=JxJQ_98I3R0C. Retrieved 26 January 2018.
40. ↑ Conrad Hackett (29 November 2017), "5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe", Pew Research Center, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/
41. ↑ CIA. "The World Factbook". https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/.
42. ↑ Publications Office of the European Union. "7206 Europe". https://publications.europa.eu/en/web/eu-vocabularies/th-concept-scheme/-/resource/eurovoc/100277?target=Browse.
43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 "Methodology". https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/.
44. ↑ "European Tourism 2014 – Trends & Prospects - Quarterly Report (Q2/2014)". July 2014. p. 5. https://etc-corporate.org/uploads/reports/ETC-July2014-TrendsandOutlook_Public-version2.pdf.

Template:Europe topics (small)

* v
* t
* e

Earth's primary regions

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Africa

Central Africa|

* Guinea region
* Gulf of Guinea
* Cape Lopez
* Mayombe
* Igboland
* Mbaise
* Pool Malebo
* Congo Basin
* Chad Basin
* Cameroonian Highlands forests
* Congolian rainforests
* Ouaddaï highlands
* Ennedi Plateau

East Africa|

* African Great Lakes
* Albertine Rift
* East African Rift
* Great Rift Valley
* Gregory Rift
* Rift Valley lakes
* Virunga Mountains
* Kavirondo
* Zanj
* East African montane forests
* Eastern Arc Mountains
* Serengeti
* Horn of Africa
* Afar Triangle
* Al-Habash
* Barbara
* Danakil Alps
* Danakil Desert
* Ethiopian Highlands
* Dahlak Archipelago
* Hanish Islands
* Gulf of Aden
* Gulf of Tadjoura
* Red Sea
* Indian Ocean islands
* Comoro Islands
* Lamu Archipelago
* Zanzibar Archipelago
* Swahili coast

North Africa|

* Eastern Desert
* Maghreb
* Ancient Libya
* Atlas Mountains
* Barbary Coast
* Bashmur
* Gibraltar Arc
* Ifriqiya
* Nile Valley
* Nile Delta
* Cataracts of the Nile
* Darfur
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Lower Egypt
* Lower Nubia
* Middle Egypt
* Nile Delta
* Nuba Mountains
* Nubia
* The Sudans
* Upper Egypt
* Tibesti Mountains
* Western Sahara

West Africa|

* Pepper Coast
* Gold Coast
* Slave Coast
* Ivory Coast
* Cape Palmas
* Cape Mesurado
* Guinea region
* Guinean Forests of West Africa
* Upper Guinean forests
* Lower Guinean forests
* Guinean forest-savanna mosaic
* Guinea Highlands
* Gulf of Guinea
* Niger Basin
* Dahomey Gap
* Niger Delta
* Inner Niger Delta
* Yorubaland

Southern Africa|

* Madagascar
* Central Highlands (Madagascar)
* Northern Highlands
* Rhodesia
* North
* South
* Thembuland
* Succulent Karoo
* Nama Karoo
* Bushveld
* Maputaland
* Highveld
* Fynbos
* Cape Floristic Region
* Skeleton Coast
* Kalahari Desert
* Okavango Delta
* Cape Peninsula
* False Bay
* Hydra Bay

Macro-regions|

* Aethiopia
* Afromontane
* Arab world
* Commonwealth realm
* Equatorial Africa
* Françafrique
* Greater Middle East
* Guineo-Congolian region
* Islands of Africa
* List of countries where Arabic is an official language
* Mediterranean Basin
* MENA
* MENASA
* Middle East
* Miombo woodlands
* Mittelafrika
* Negroland
* Northeast Africa
* Portuguese-speaking African countries
* Sahara
* Sahel
* Sub-Saharan Africa
* Sudan (region)
* Sudanian Savanna
* East Sudanian Savanna
* Tropical Africa
* Zambezian region

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Asia

Central|

* Greater Middle East
* Aral Sea
* Aralkum Desert
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Sea of Galilee
* Tartary
* Transoxiana
* Turan
* Greater Khorasan
* Ariana
* Arachosia
* Khwarazm
* Sistan
* Kazakhstania
* Kazakh Steppe
* Betpak-Dala
* Eurasian Steppe
* Asian Steppe
* Kazakh Steppe
* Pontic–Caspian steppe
* Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
* Wild Fields
* Yedisan
* Muravsky Trail
* Ural
* Ural Mountains
* Volga region
* Idel-Ural
* Pryazovia
* Bjarmaland
* Kuban
* Zalesye
* Ingria
* Novorossiya
* Gornaya Shoriya
* Tulgas
* Iranian Plateau
* Altai Mountains
* Pamir Mountains
* Tian Shan
* Badakhshan
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Mount Imeon
* Mongolian Plateau
* Western Regions
* Taklamakan Desert
* Karakoram
* Trans-Karakoram Tract
* Siachen Glacier

North|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Inner Asia
* Northeast
* Ural
* Ural Mountains
* Far East
* Russian Far East
* Okhotsk-Manchurian taiga
* Beringia
* Chukchi Peninsula
* Kamchatka Peninsula
* Extreme North
* Tartary
* Siberia
* Baikalia (Lake Baikal)
* Baraba steppe
* Khatanga Gulf
* Transbaikal
* West
* Amur Basin
* Yenisei Gulf
* Yenisei Basin
* Sikhote-Alin
* Kolyma
* Bering Strait
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific

East|

* Orient
* Japanese archipelago
* Northeastern Japan Arc
* Sakhalin Island Arc
* Korean Peninsula
* Gobi Desert
* Taklamakan Desert
* Greater Khingan
* Mongolian Plateau
* Inner Asia
* Inner Mongolia
* Outer Mongolia
* China proper
* Manchuria
* Outer Manchuria
* Inner Manchuria
* Northeast China Plain
* Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
* North China Plain
* Yan Mountains
* Kunlun Mountains
* Liaodong Peninsula
* High-mountain Asia
* Himalayas
* Tibetan Plateau
* Tibet
* Karakoram
* Tarim Basin
* Sichuan Basin
* Northern Silk Road
* Hexi Corridor
* Nanzhong
* Lingnan
* Liangguang
* Jiangnan
* Jianghuai
* Guanzhong
* Huizhou
* Wu
* Jiaozhou
* Zhongyuan
* Shaannan
* Ordos Loop
* Loess Plateau
* Shaanbei
* Hamgyong Mountains
* Central Mountain Range
* Japanese Alps
* Suzuka Mountains
* Leizhou Peninsula
* Gulf of Tonkin
* Yangtze River
* Yangtze River Delta
* Yellow River
* Pearl River Delta
* Yenisei Basin
* Altai Mountains
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Far East
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

West|

* Greater Middle East
* MENA
* MENASA
* Middle East
* Red Sea
* Hanish Islands
* Caspian Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Zagros Mountains
* Elam
* Persian Gulf
* Pirate Coast
* Strait of Hormuz
* Greater and Lesser Tunbs
* Al-Faw Peninsula
* Gulf of Oman
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Gulf of Aden
* Balochistan
* Arabian Peninsula
* Najd
* Al-Yamama
* Hejaz
* Tihamah
* Eastern Arabia
* South Arabia
* Hadhramaut
* Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
* Al-Sharat
* Tigris–Euphrates
* Mesopotamia
* Upper Mesopotamia
* Lower Mesopotamia
* Sawad
* Nineveh plains
* Akkad (region)
* Babylonia
* Canaan
* Aram
* Aram-Naharaim
* Eber-Nari
* Suhum
* Eastern Mediterranean
* Mashriq
* Kurdistan
* Levant
* Southern Levant
* Transjordan
* Jordan Rift Valley
* Levantine Sea
* Holy Land
* Palestine
* Land of Israel
* Golan Heights
* Hula Valley
* Galilee
* Gilead
* Judea
* Samaria
* Arabah
* Anti-Lebanon Mountains
* Sinai Peninsula
* Arabian Desert
* Syrian Desert
* Fertile Crescent
* Azerbaijan
* Syria
* Hauran
* Iranian Plateau
* Dasht-e Kavir
* Armenian Highlands
* Caucasus
* Caucasus Mountains
* Greater Caucasus
* Lesser Caucasus
* North Caucasus
* South Caucasus
* Shirvan
* Kur-Araz Lowland
* Lankaran Lowland
* Alborz
* Absheron Peninsula
* Kartli
* Anatolia
* Taurus Mountains
* Aeolis
* Paphlagonia
* Phasiane
* Isauria
* Ionia
* Bithynia
* Cilicia
* Cappadocia
* Caria
* Corduene
* Chaldia
* Doris
* Lycaonia
* Lycia
* Lydia
* Galatia
* Pisidia
* Pontus
* Mysia
* Arzawa
* Speri
* Sophene
* Biga Peninsula
* Troad
* Tuwana
* Alpide belt

South|

* Orient
* Greater India
* Indian subcontinent
* Himalayas
* Hindu Kush
* Bactria
* Carnatic region
* Tamilakam
* Western Ghats
* Eastern Ghats
* Ganges Basin
* Ganges Delta
* Guzgan
* Pashtunistan
* Punjab
* Balochistan
* Gedrosia
* Makran
* Marathwada
* Kashmir
* Kashmir Valley
* Pir Panjal Range
* Thar Desert
* Indus Valley
* Indus River Delta
* Indus Valley Desert
* Indo-Gangetic Plain
* Eastern Coastal Plains
* Kalinga
* Western Coastal Plains
* Meghalaya subtropical forests
* MENASA
* Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests
* Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows
* Doab
* Bagar tract
* Great Rann of Kutch
* Little Rann of Kutch
* Deccan Plateau
* Coromandel Coast
* Konkan
* False Divi Point
* Hindi Belt
* Ladakh
* Aksai Chin
* Gilgit-Baltistan
* Baltistan
* Shigar Valley
* High-mountain Asia
* Karakoram
* Saltoro Mountains
* Siachen Glacier
* Bengal
* Bay of Bengal
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Halar
* Gulf of Mannar
* Trans-Karakoram Tract
* Wakhan Corridor
* Wakhjir Pass
* Lakshadweep
* Laccadive Islands
* Amindivi Islands
* Paropamisadae
* Andaman and Nicobar Islands
* Andaman Islands
* Nicobar Islands
* Maldive Islands
* Alpide belt
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

Southeast|

* Orient
* Sundaland
* Mainland
* Indochina
* Malay Peninsula
* Northern Triangle temperate forests
* Maritime
* Peninsular Malaysia
* Sunda Islands
* Greater Sunda Islands
* Lesser Sunda Islands
* Indonesian Archipelago
* Wallacea
* Timor
* Philippine Archipelago
* Luzon
* Visayas
* Mindanao
* Leyte Gulf
* Gulf of Thailand
* East Indies
* Nanyang
* Alpide belt
* Far East
* Ring of Fire
* Asia-Pacific
* Tropical Asia

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Europe

North|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Nordic
* Northwestern
* Scandinavia
* Scandinavian Peninsula
* Fennoscandia
* Baltoscandia
* Jutland
* Gotland
* Sápmi
* Ingria
* West Nordic
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Iceland
* Faroe Islands
* British Isles

East|

* Danubian countries
* Prussia
* Galicia
* Volhynia
* Wallachia
* Transylvania
* Moldavia
* Bukovina
* Bessarabia
* Livonia
* Ruthenia
* Carpathian Ruthenia
* Donbass
* Sloboda Ukraine
* Sambia Peninsula
* Amber Coast
* Curonian Spit
* Izyum Trail
* Lithuania Minor
* Nemunas Delta
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Vyborg Bay
* Karelia
* East Karelia
* Karelian Isthmus
* Lokhaniemi
* Southeastern
* Crimea
* Epirus
* Rumelia
* Balkans
* Aegean Sea
* Aegean Islands
* Attica
* Boeotia
* Opuntian Locris
* Phocis
* Megaris
* Peloponnese
* Chalkidiki
* Aetolia
* Gulf of Chania
* North Caucasus
* Greater Caucasus
* Kabardia
* Istria
* European Russia
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Taman Peninsula
* Southern Russia
* Kola Peninsula

Central|

* North European Plain
* Baltic
* Baltic Sea
* Alpine states
* Alpide belt
* Visegrád Group
* Rhineland
* Eastphalia
* Westphalia
* Prussia
* Lusatia
* Bohemia
* Moravia
* Silesia
* Czech Silesia
* Pomerania
* Pomerelia
* Kashubia
* Bukovina
* Istria
* Transdanubia
* Polesia
* Germania
* Germania Slavica

West|

* Benelux
* Low Countries
* Northwest
* British Isles
* English Channel
* Channel Islands
* Cotentin Peninsula
* Doggerland
* Upper Rhine Plain
* Upper Rhine
* Gaul
* Gascony
* Normandy
* Brittany
* Septimania
* Batavia
* Gulf of Lion
* Iberia
* Al-Andalus
* Baetic System
* Pyrenees
* Alpide belt

South|

* Po Valley (Padania)
* Italian Peninsula
* Tuscan Archipelago
* Insular Italy
* Aegadian Islands
* Occitania
* Iberia
* Al-Andalus
* Baetic System
* Gibraltar Arc
* Southeastern
* Mediterranean
* Alpide belt

* Germanic
* Romance
* Celtic
* Slavic countries
* European Plain
* Eurasian Steppe
* Pontic–Caspian steppe
* Wild Fields
* Pannonian Basin
* Great Hungarian Plain
* Little Hungarian Plain
* Eastern Slovak Lowland

* v
* t
* e

Regions of North America

North
(Canada)|

| Eastern|

* Central Canada
* Atlantic Canada
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* Great Lakes region

|

Western|

* Pacific Northwest
* Prairie Pothole Region

Northern|

* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Greenland

* Canadian Prairies
* The Maritimes
* French Canada
* English Canada
* Acadia
* Acadian Peninsula
* Quebec City–Windsor Corridor
* Peace River Country
* Cypress Hills
* Palliser's Triangle
* Canadian Shield
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Kodiak Island
* Newfoundland (island)
* Vancouver Island
* Gulf Islands
* Strait of Georgia
* Labrador Peninsula
* Gaspé Peninsula
* Avalon Peninsula
* Bay de Verde Peninsula
* Brodeur Peninsula
* Melville Peninsula
* Bruce Peninsula
* Banks Peninsula (Nunavut)
* Cook Peninsula
* Gulf of Boothia
* Georgian Bay
* Hudson Bay
* James Bay

North
(United States)|

| Arctic|

* Aleutian Arc
* Aleutian Range
* Alaska Peninsula
* Aleutian Islands
* Arctic
* Arctic Circle
* Bering Strait
* Gulf of Alaska

|

Eastern|

* East Coast
* Northeast
* Atlantic Northeast
* The Maritimes
* New England
* Mid-Atlantic
* Commonwealth
* Southeast

Western|

* West Coast
* Mountain states
* Intermountain West
* Great Basin
* Basin and Range Province
* Northwestern United States
* Inland Northwest
* Pacific Northwest
* Southwest
* Old Southwest
* Four Corners

Central|

* Great Lakes
* Tallgrass prairie
* Midwest
* Upper Midwest
* South Central
* Gulf Coast

Southern|

* Deep South
* Old South
* Upland South
* Santa Fe de Nuevo México

* Pacific Coast Ranges
* Oregon Trail
* Mormon Corridor
* Calumet Region
* Llano Estacado
* Third Coast
* Backcountry
* Trans-Mississippi
* Great North Woods
* Great Plains
* Interior Plains
* Great Basin
* Great Basin Desert
* Acadia
* Ozarks
* Ark-La-Tex
* Waxhaws
* Siouxland
* Twin Tiers
* Driftless Area
* Palouse
* Piedmont
* Atlantic coastal plain
* Outer Lands
* Black Dirt Region
* Blackstone Valley
* Piney Woods
* Rocky Mountains
* Mojave Desert
* The Dakotas
* The Carolinas
* Shawnee Hills
* San Fernando Valley
* Tornado Alley
* North Coast
* Lost Coast
* Emerald Triangle
* San Francisco Bay Area
* San Francisco Bay
* North Bay
* East Bay
* Silicon Valley
* Interior Alaska-Yukon lowland taiga
* Gulf of Mexico
* Lower Colorado River Valley
* Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
* Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta
* Colville Delta
* Arkansas Delta
* Mobile–Tensaw River Delta
* Mississippi Delta
* Mississippi River Delta
* Columbia River Estuary
* Great Basin
* High Desert
* Monterey Peninsula
* Upper Peninsula of Michigan
* Lower Peninsula of Michigan
* Virginia Peninsula
* Keweenaw Peninsula
* Middle Peninsula
* Delmarva Peninsula
* Alaska Peninsula
* Kenai Peninsula
* Niagara Peninsula
* "Belt" regions
* Bible Belt
* Black Belt
* Corn Belt
* Cotton Belt
* Frost Belt
* Rice Belt
* Rust Belt
* Sun Belt
* Snow Belt

Middle|

| Northern|

* Basin and Range Province
* Baja California Peninsula
* Gulf of California
* Colorado River Delta
* Gulf of Mexico

|

Southern|

* Soconusco
* Tierra Caliente
* La Mixteca
* La Huasteca
* Bajío
* Valley of Mexico
* Mezquital Valley
* Sierra Madre de Oaxaca
* Yucatán Peninsula
* Gulf of Mexico

Central|

* Northern Triangle of Central America
* Western Caribbean Zone
* Isthmus of Panama
* Gulf of Panama
* Pearl Islands
* Azuero Peninsula
* Mosquito Coast

Caribbean|

* Antilles
* Greater Antilles
* Lesser Antilles
* Leeward
* Leeward Antilles
* Windward
* Lucayan Archipelago
* Southern Caribbean
* West Indies

* Aridoamerica
* Mesoamerica
* Oasisamerica
* Anglo
* Latin
* French
* Hispanic
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Regions of Oceania

Australia|

| Australian Capital Territory|

* Australian Capital Territory

|

New South Wales|

* Central Coast
* Central Tablelands
* Central Western Slopes
* Greater Western Sydney
* Hunter
* Mid North Coast
* Northern Rivers
* North West Slopes
* Northern Tablelands
* Riverina
* South Coast
* South West Slopes
* Southern Tablelands
* Western Plains

Northern Territory|

* Arnhem Land
* Barkly Tableland
* Central Australia
* Darwin
* Katherine

Queensland|

* Central West
* Central
* Darling Downs
* Far North
* Gulf Country
* North
* South East
* South West
* Wide Bay–Burnett

South Australia|

* Adelaide Hills
* Barossa Light and Lower North
* Eastern Adelaide
* Eyre Western
* Far North
* Fleurieu and Kangaroo Island
* Limestone Coast
* Murray and Mallee
* Northern Adelaide
* Southern Adelaide
* Western Adelaide
* Yorke and Mid North

Tasmania|

* Central Highlands
* East Coast
* Midlands
* North East
* North West
* Northern
* South West
* Southern
* West Coast

Victoria|

* Barwon South West
* Gippsland
* Grampians
* Greater Melbourne
* Hume
* Loddon Mallee

Western Australia|

* Gascoyne
* Goldfields-Esperance
* Great Southern
* Kimberley
* Mid West
* Peel
* Pilbara
* South West
* Wheatbelt

Melanesia|

* Islands Region
* Bismarck Archipelago
* Solomon Islands
* North Solomon Islands
* Solomon Islands
* Fiji
* New Caledonia
* New Guinea
* Bonis Peninsula
* Papuan Peninsula
* Huon Peninsula
* Huon Gulf
* Bird's Head Peninsula
* Gazelle Peninsula
* Vanuatu

Micronesia|

* Caroline Islands
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Palau
* Kiribati
* Mariana Islands
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Marshall Islands
* Nauru
* Wake Island

Polynesia|

* Easter Island
* Hawaiian Islands
* Cook Islands
* French Polynesia
* Austral Islands
* Gambier Islands
* Mangareva Islands
* Marquesas Islands
* Society Islands
* Tuamotus
* Kermadec Islands
* New Zealand
* South Island
* North Island
* Niue
* Pitcairn Islands
* Samoan Islands
* American Samoa
* Independent State of Samoa
* Tokelau
* Tonga
* Tuvalu

* Asia-Pacific
* Ring of Fire

* v
* t
* e

Regions of South America

East|

* Amazon basin
* Atlantic Forest
* Caatinga
* Cerrado

North|

* Caribbean South America
* West Indies
* Los Llanos
* The Guianas
* Amazon basin
* Amazon rainforest
* Gulf of Paria
* Paria Peninsula
* Paraguaná Peninsula
* Orinoco Delta

South|

* Tierra del Fuego
* Patagonia
* Pampas
* Pantanal
* Gran Chaco
* Chiquitano dry forests
* Valdes Peninsula
* Triple Frontier
* Río de la Plata
* Río de la Plata Basin

West|

* Andes
* Tropical Andes
* Wet Andes
* Dry Andes
* Pariacaca mountain range
* Altiplano
* Atacama Desert

* Latin
* Hispanic
* Bolivarian
* American Cordillera
* Ring of Fire
* LAC

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Polar regions of Earth

Antarctic|

* Antarctic Peninsula
* East Antarctica
* West Antarctica
* Eklund Islands
* Ecozone
* Extreme points
* Islands

Arctic|

* Arctic Alaska
* British Arctic Territories
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Finnmark
* Greenland
* Northern Canada
* Northwest Territories
* Nunavik
* Nunavut
* Russian Arctic
* Sakha
* Sápmi
* Yukon
* North American Arctic

* v
* t
* e

Earth's Borders of the oceans

Arctic Ocean|

* Amundsen Gulf
* Barents Sea
* Beaufort Sea
* Chukchi Sea
* East Siberian Sea
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Boothia
* Kara Sea
* Laptev Sea
* Lincoln Sea
* Prince Gustav Adolf Sea
* Pechora Sea
* Queen Victoria Sea
* Wandel Sea
* White Sea

Atlantic Ocean|

* Adriatic Sea
* Aegean Sea
* Alboran Sea
* Archipelago Sea
* Argentine Sea
* Baffin Bay
* Balearic Sea
* Baltic Sea
* Bay of Biscay
* Bay of Bothnia
* Bay of Campeche
* Bay of Fundy
* Black Sea
* Bothnian Sea
* Caribbean Sea
* Celtic Sea
* English Channel
* Foxe Basin
* Greenland Sea
* Gulf of Bothnia
* Gulf of Finland
* Gulf of Lion
* Gulf of Guinea
* Gulf of Maine
* Gulf of Mexico
* Gulf of Saint Lawrence
* Gulf of Sidra
* Gulf of Venezuela
* Hudson Bay
* Ionian Sea
* Irish Sea
* Irminger Sea
* James Bay
* Labrador Sea
* Levantine Sea
* Libyan Sea
* Ligurian Sea
* Marmara Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Myrtoan Sea
* North Sea
* Norwegian Sea
* Sargasso Sea
* Sea of Åland
* Sea of Azov
* Sea of Crete
* Sea of the Hebrides
* Thracian Sea
* Tyrrhenian Sea
* Wadden Sea

Indian Ocean|

* Andaman Sea
* Arabian Sea
* Bali Sea
* Bay of Bengal
* Flores Sea
* Great Australian Bight
* Gulf of Aden
* Gulf of Aqaba
* Gulf of Khambhat
* Gulf of Kutch
* Gulf of Oman
* Gulf of Suez
* Java Sea
* Laccadive Sea
* Mozambique Channel
* Persian Gulf
* Red Sea
* Timor Sea

Pacific Ocean|

* Arafura Sea
* Banda Sea
* Bering Sea
* Bismarck Sea
* Bohai Sea
* Bohol Sea
* Camotes Sea
* Celebes Sea
* Chilean Sea
* Coral Sea
* East China Sea
* Gulf of Alaska
* Gulf of Anadyr
* Gulf of California
* Gulf of Carpentaria
* Gulf of Fonseca
* Gulf of Panama
* Gulf of Thailand
* Gulf of Tonkin
* Halmahera Sea
* Koro Sea
* Mar de Grau
* Molucca Sea
* Moro Gulf
* Philippine Sea
* Salish Sea
* Savu Sea
* Sea of Japan
* Sea of Okhotsk
* Seram Sea
* Seto Inland Sea
* Shantar Sea
* Sibuyan Sea
* Solomon Sea
* South China Sea
* Sulu Sea
* Tasman Sea
* Visayan Sea
* Yellow Sea

Southern Ocean|

* Amundsen Sea
* Bellingshausen Sea
* Cooperation Sea
* Cosmonauts Sea
* Davis Sea
* D'Urville Sea
* King Haakon VII Sea
* Lazarev Sea
* Mawson Sea
* Riiser-Larsen Sea
* Ross Sea
* Scotia Sea
* Somov Sea
* Weddell Sea

Endorheic basins|

* Aral Sea
* Caspian Sea
* Dead Sea
* Salton Sea

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern Europe. Read more

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