Systems thinking

Short description: Examining complex systems as a whole

Depiction of systems thinking about society Complex systems

Topics

Self-organization

Emergence

Collective behaviour

Social dynamics

Collective intelligence
Collective action
Self-organized criticality
Herd mentality
Phase transition
Agent-based modelling
Synchronization
Ant colony optimization
Particle swarm optimization
Swarm behaviour

Collective consciousness

Networks

Scale-free networks

Social network analysis
Small-world networks
Centrality
Motifs
Graph theory
Scaling
Robustness
Systems biology
Dynamic networks

Adaptive networks

Evolution and adaptation

Artificial neural network

Evolutionary computation
Genetic algorithms
Genetic programming
Artificial life
Machine learning
Evolutionary developmental biology
Artificial intelligence
Evolutionary robotics

Evolvability

Pattern formation

Fractals

Reaction–diffusion systems
Partial differential equations
Dissipative structures
Percolation
Cellular automata
Spatial ecology
Self-replication

Geomorphology

Systems theory

Homeostasis

Operationalization
Feedback
Self-reference
Goal-oriented
System dynamics
Sensemaking
Entropy
Cybernetics
Autopoiesis
Information theory

Theory of computation

Nonlinear dynamics

Time series analysis

Ordinary differential equations
Phase space
Attractors
Population dynamics
Chaos
Multistability
Bifurcation

Coupled map lattices

Game theory

Prisoner's dilemma

Rational choice theory
Bounded rationality

Evolutionary game theory

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Systems thinking is a way of making sense of the complexity of the world by looking at it in terms of wholes and relationships rather than by splitting it down into its parts.[1][2] It has been used as a way of exploring and developing effective action in complex contexts,[3] enabling systems change.[4][5] Systems thinking draws on and contributes to systems theory and the system sciences.[6]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Ptolemaic system versus the Copernican system
* 1.2 Feedback control systems
* 1.3 Applications
* 2 Characteristics
* 2.1 Particular systems
* 2.2 Systems far from equilibrium
* 3 Frameworks and methodologies
* 4 See also
* 5 Notes
* 6 References
* 6.1 Sources

## History

### Ptolemaic system versus the Copernican system

The term system is polysemic: Robert Hooke (1674) used it in multiple senses, in his System of the World,[7]: p.24 but also in the sense of the Ptolemaic system versus the Copernican system[8]: 450 of the relation of the planets to the fixed stars[9] which are cataloged in Hipparchus' and Ptolemy's Star catalog.[10] Hooke's claim was answered in magisterial detail by Newton's (1687) Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Book three, The System of the World[11]: Book three (that is, the system of the world is a physical system).[7]

Newton's approach, using dynamical systems continues to this day.[8] In brief, Newton's equations (a system of equations) have methods for their solution.

### Feedback control systems

System output can be controlled with feedback.

By 1824, the Carnot cycle presented an engineering challenge, which was how to maintain the operating temperatures of the hot and cold working fluids of the physical plant.[12] In 1868, James Clerk Maxwell presented a framework for, and a limited solution to, the problem of controlling the rotational speed of a physical plant.[13] Maxwell's solution echoed James Watt's (1784) centrifugal moderator (denoted as element Q) for maintaining (but not enforcing) the constant speed of a physical plant (that is, Q represents a moderator, but not a governor, by Maxwell's definition).[14][lower-alpha 1]

Maxwell's approach, which linearized the equations of motion of the system, produced a tractable method of solution.[14]: 428–429 Norbert Wiener identified this approach as an influence on his studies of cybernetics[lower-alpha 2] during World War II[14] and Wiener even proposed treating some subsystems under investigation as black boxes.[18]: 242 Methods for solutions of the systems of equations then become the subject of study, as in feedback control systems, in stability theory, in constraint satisfaction problems, the unification algorithm, type inference, and so forth.

Systems thinking, born from the visionary contributions of theoretical biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy, computer scientist Jay Forrester, and their contemporaries, reached its zenith in the 1990s with the release of Peter Senge’s seminal work, The Fifth Discipline, a landmark in intellectual exploration.[19]

### Applications

"So, how do we change the structure of systems to produce more of what we want and less of that which is undesirable? ... MIT’s Jay Forrester likes to say that the average manager can ... guess with great accuracy where to look for leverage points—places in the system where a small change could lead to a large shift in behavior".[20]: 146 — Donella Meadows, (2008) Thinking In Systems: A Primer p.145[lower-alpha 3]

## Characteristics

System boundary in context System input and output allows exchange of energy and information across boundary.

> ...What is a system? A system is a set of things ... interconnected in such a way that they produce their own pattern of behavior over time. ... But the system’s response to these forces is characteristic of itself, and that response is seldom simple in the real world

> --Donella Meadows[20]: 2

> [a system] is "an integrated whole even though composed of diverse, interacting, specialized structures and subjunctions"

> --IEEE (1972)[17]: 582

"a system is a collection of things that are interconnected and interdependent from which stuff emerges"[30]

-Walls & Flach (2025) [30]

* Subsystems serve as part of a larger system, but each comprises a system in its own right. Each frequently can be described reductively, with properties obeying its own laws, such as Newton's System of the World, in which entire planets, stars, and their satellites can be treated, sometimes in a scientific way as dynamical systems, entirely mathematically, as demonstrated by Johannes Kepler's equation (1619) for the orbit of Mars before Newton's Principia appeared in 1687.
* Black boxes are subsystems whose operation can be characterized by their inputs and outputs, without regard to further detail.[20]: 87–88 [31]

### Particular systems

* Political systems were recognized as early as the millennia before the common era.[32][33]
* Biological systems were recognized in Aristotle's lagoon ca. 350 BCE.[34][35]
* Economic systems were recognized by 1776.[36]
* Social systems were recognized by the 19th and 20th centuries of the common era.[37][38]
* Radar systems were developed in World War II in subsystem fashion; they were made up of transmitter, receiver, power supply, and signal processing subsystems, to defend against airborne attacks.[39]
* Dynamical systems of ordinary differential equations were shown to exhibit stable behavior given a suitable Lyapunov control function by Aleksandr Lyapunov in 1892.[40]
* Thermodynamic systems were treated as early as the eighteenth century, in which it was discovered that heat could be created without limit, but that for closed systems, laws of thermodynamics could be formulated.[41] Ilya Prigogine (1980) has identified situations in which systems far from equilibrium can exhibit stable behavior;[42] once a Lyapunov function has been identified, future and past can be distinguished, and scientific activity can begin.[41]: 212–213

### Systems far from equilibrium

Living systems are resilient,[25] and are far from equilibrium.[20]: Ch.3 [42] Homeostasis is the analog to equilibrium, for a living system; the concept was described in 1849, and the term was coined in 1926.[43][44]

Resilient systems are self-organizing;[25][lower-alpha 4][20]: Ch.3 [45]

The scope of functional controls is hierarchical, in a resilient system.[25][20]: Ch.3

## Frameworks and methodologies

Frameworks and methodologies for systems thinking include:

* Critical systems heuristics:[46] in particular, there can be twelve boundary categories for the systems when organizing one's thinking and actions.
* Critical systems thinking, including the E P I C approach.
* DSRP, a framework for systems thinking that attempts to generalise all other approaches.
* Ontology engineering of representation, formal naming and definition of categories, and the properties and the relations between concepts, data, and entities.
* Soft systems methodology, including the CATWOE approach and rich pictures.
* Systemic design, for example using the double diamond approach.
* System dynamics of stocks, flows, and internal feedback loops.
* Viable system model: uses 5 subsystems.

## See also

* Chemistry:Biogeochemistry
* Management cybernetics - Application of cybernetics to management and organizations
* Operations research - Discipline concerning the application of advanced analytical methods
* Engineering:Systems engineering - Interdisciplinary field of engineering
* Engineering:Industrial ecology - Study of matter and energy flow in industrial systems

## Notes

1. ↑ A solution to the equations for a dynamical system can be afflicted by instability or oscillation.[15]: 7:33 The Governor: A corrective action against error can solve the dynamical equation by integrating the error.[15]: 29:44 [16]
2. ↑ "cybernetics: see system science.";[17]: 135 "system science: —the systematized knowledge of systems"[17]: 583
3. ↑ Donella Meadows, Thinking In Systems: A Primer[20][21] Overview, in video clips: Chapter 1[22] Chapter 2, part 1[23] Chapter 2, part 2[24] Chapter 3[25] Chapter 4[26] Chapter 5[27] Chapter 6[28] Chapter 7[29]
4. ↑ Abstract: "An inevitable prerequisite for this book, as implied by its title, is a presupposition that systems science is a legitimate field of scientific inquiry. It is self-evident that I, as the author of this book, consider this presupposition valid. Otherwise, clearly, I would not conceive of writing the book in the first place". —George J. Klir, "What Is Systems Science?" from Facets of Systems Science (1991)

## References

1. ↑ Anderson, Virginia, & Johnson, Lauren (1997). Systems Thinking Basics: From Concepts to Causal Loops. Waltham, Mass: Pegasus Comm., Inc.
2. ↑ Magnus Ramage and Karen Shipp. 2009. Systems Thinkers. Springer.
3. ↑ Introduction to Systems thinking. Report of GSE and GORS seminar. Civil Service Live. 3 July 2012. Government Office for Science.
4. ↑ Sarah York, Rea Lavi, Yehudit Judy Dori, and MaryKay Orgill Applications of Systems Thinking in STEM Education J. Chem. Educ. 2019, 96, 12, 2742–2751 Publication Date:May 14, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00261
5. ↑ "School of System Change: Why Systems Change?" (in en). https://schoolofsystemchange.org/systems-change/why-systems-change.
6. ↑ Systemic Thinking 101 Russell L Ackoff From Mechanistic to Systemic thinking, also awal street journal (2016) Systems Thinking Speech by Dr. Russell Ackoff 1:10:57
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Hooke, Robert (1674) An attempt to prove the motion of the earth from observations
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Marchal, J. H. (1975). "On the Concept of a System". Philosophy of Science ([Cambridge University Press, The University of Chicago Press, Philosophy of Science Association]) 42 (4): 448–468. doi:10.1086/288663. ISSN 0031-8248. http://www.jstor.org/stable/187223. Retrieved 2024-05-31. as reprinted in Gerald Midgely (ed.) (2002) Systems thinking vol One
9. ↑ Jon Voisey Universe Today (14 Oct 2022) Scholarly History of Ptolemy’s Star Catalog Index
10. ↑ Jessica Lightfoot Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 57 (2017) 935–9672017 Hipparchus Commentary On Aratus and Eudoxus
11. ↑ Newton, Isaac (1687) Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
12. ↑ Sadi Carnot (1824) Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire
13. ↑ James Clerk Maxwell (1868) On Governors 12 pages
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Otto Mayr (1971) Maxwell and the Origins of Cybernetics Isis, Vol. 62, No. 4 (Winter, 1971), pp. 424-444 (21 pages)
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 The Royal Society of Edinburgh (2016) Celebrating Maxwell's Genius and Legacy: Prof Rodolphe Sepulchre
16. ↑ Karl Johan Åström and Richard M. Murray (2021) Feedback Systems: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers, Second Edition
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 IEEE (1972) Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms
18. ↑ Peter Galison (1994) The Ontology of the Enemy: Norbert Wiener and the Cybernetic Vision Critical Inquiry, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Autumn, 1994), pp. 228–266 (39 pages) JSTOR
19. ↑ Why You Need Systems Thinking Now, By: Bansal, Tima; Birkinshaw, Julian. Harvard Business Review. Sep/Oct2025, Vol. 103 Issue 5, p124-133. 10p.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 Donella Meadows, (2008) Thinking In Systems: A Primer
21. ↑ Donella H. Meadows (1977) A Philosophical Look at System Dynamics 53:18
22. ↑ Ashley Hodgson Thinking in Systems, Key Ideas (Ch. 1)
23. ↑ Ashley Hodgson Thinking in Systems, Ch. 2: Types of System Dynamics 2a
24. ↑ Ashley Hodgson Thinking in Systems, Ch. 2, Part 2: Limiting Factors in Systems 2b
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Ashley Hodgson Thinking in Systems, Ch. 3: Resilience, Self-Organization and Hierarchy 3
26. ↑ Ashley Hodgson Thinking in Systems, Ch. 4: Why Systems Surprise Us 4
27. ↑ Ashley Hodgson Thinking in Systems, Ch. 5: System Traps 5
28. ↑ Ashley Hodgson Thinking in Systems, Ch. 6: Leverage Points in Systems 6
29. ↑ Ashley Hodgson Thinking in Systems, Ch. 7: Living with Systems 7
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Walls & Flach, Adam & John (26 April 2025) (in English). Do systems exist? A conversation (1st ed.). UK: amazon. pp. 1. ISBN 979-8280557635.
31. ↑ Wiener, Norbert; Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, MIT Press, 1961, ISBN 0-262-73009-X, page xi
32. ↑ Aristotle, Politics
33. ↑ JS Maloy (2009) The Aristotelianism of Locke's Politics Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 70, No. 2 (April 2009), pp. 235–257 (23 pages)
34. ↑ Aristotle, History of Animals
35. ↑ Lennox, James (27 July 2011). "Aristotle's Biology". Stanford University. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/.
36. ↑ Adam Smith (1776) The Wealth of Nations Book IV refers to commercial, and mercantile systems, as well as to systems of political enonomy
37. ↑ Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
38. ↑ Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action
39. ↑ MIT Radiation Laboratory, MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, 28 volumes
40. ↑ Richard Pates (2021) What is a Lyapunov function
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Prigogine, Ilya (1980). From Being To Becoming. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-1107-9. https://archive.org/details/frombeingtobecom00ipri. 272 pages.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Glansdorff, P., Prigogine, I. (1971). Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations, London: Wiley-Interscience ISBN 0-471-30280-5
43. ↑ Cannon, W.B. (1932). The Wisdom of the Body. New York: W. W. Norton. pp. 177–201.
44. ↑ Cannon, W. B. (1926). "Physiological regulation of normal states: some tentative postulates concerning biological homeostatics". in A. Pettit (in fr). A Charles Riches amis, ses collègues, ses élèves. Paris: Les Éditions Médicales. p. 91.
45. ↑ H T Odum (25 Nov 1988) Self-Organization, Transformity and Information Science Vol 242, Issue 4882 pp. 1132–1139 as reprinted by Gerald Midgley ed. (2002), Systems Thinking vol 2
46. ↑ Werner Ulrich (1987). "A Brief Introduction to Critical Systems Heuristics (CSH)". https://wulrich.com/downloads/ulrich_2005f.pdf.

### Sources

* Adam Walls & John Flach (2024) "Do systems exist? A conversation: A short discussion on founding concepts behind general systems theory and soft systems.
* Russell L. Ackoff (1968) "General Systems Theory and Systems Research Contrasting Conceptions of Systems Science." in: Views on a General Systems Theory: Proceedings from the Second System Symposium, Mihajlo D. Mesarovic (ed.).
* A.C. Ehresmann, J.-P. Vanbremeersch (1987) Hierarchical evolutive systems: A mathematical model for complex systems" Bulletin of Mathematical Biology Volume 49, Issue 1, Pages 13–50
* NJTA Kramer & J de Smit (1977) Systems thinking: Concepts and Notions, Springer. 148 pages
* A. H. Louie (November 1983) "Categorical system theory" Bulletin of Mathematical Biology volume 45, pages 1047–1072
* DonellaMeadows.org Systems Thinking Resources
* Gerald Midgley (ed.) (2002) Systems Thinking, SAGE Publications. 4 volume set: 1,492 pages List of chapter titles
* Robert Rosen. (1958) “The Representation of Biological Systems from the Standpoint of the Theory of Categories". Bull. math. Biophys. 20, 317–342.
* Peter Senge, (1990) The Fifth Discipline

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