Fluoride

Fluoride (/ˈflʊəraɪd, ˈflɔːr-/)[1] is an inorganic, monatomic anion of fluorine, with the chemical formula F− (also written [F]−), whose salts are typically white or colorless. Fluoride salts typically have distinctive bitter tastes and are odorless. Its salts and minerals are important chemical reagents and industrial chemicals, mainly used in the production of hydrogen fluoride for fluorocarbons. Fluoride is classified as a weak base, since it only partially associates in solution, but concentrated fluoride is corrosive and can attack the skin.

Fluoride is the simplest fluorine anion. In terms of charge and size, the fluoride ion resembles the hydroxide ion. Fluoride ions occur on Earth in several minerals, particularly fluorite, but are present only in trace quantities in bodies of water in nature.

## Contents

* 1 Nomenclature
* 2 Occurrence
* 2.1 In water
* 2.2 In plants
* 3 Chemical properties
* 3.1 Basicity
* 3.2 Structure of fluoride salts
* 3.3 Inorganic chemistry
* 3.4 Naked fluoride
* 3.5 Biochemistry
* 4 Applications
* 4.1 Organofluorine chemistry
* 4.2 Production of metals and their compounds
* 4.3 Cavity prevention
* 4.4 Laboratory reagent
* 5 Dietary recommendations
* 6 Estimated daily intake
* 7 Safety
* 7.1 Ingestion
* 7.1.1 Hazard maps for fluoride in groundwater
* 7.1.2 Neurodevelopmental effects
* 7.2 Topical
* 8 Other derivatives
* 9 See also
* 10 References
* 11 External links

## Nomenclature

Fluorides include compounds that contain ionic fluoride and those in which fluoride does not dissociate. The nomenclature does not distinguish these situations. For example, sulfur hexafluoride and carbon tetrafluoride are not sources of fluoride ions under ordinary conditions.

The systematic name fluoride, the valid IUPAC name, is determined according to the additive nomenclature. However, the name fluoride is also used in compositional IUPAC nomenclature which does not take the nature of bonding involved into account.

## Occurrence

Fluorite crystals

### In water

Fluoride is naturally present in groundwater, fresh and saltwater sources, as well as in rainwater, particularly in urban areas exposed to air pollution.[2] Seawater fluoride levels are usually in the range of 0.86 to 1.4 mg/L, and average 1.1 mg/L[3] (milligrams per litre). For comparison, chloride concentration in seawater is about 19 g/L. The low concentration of fluoride reflects the insolubility of the alkaline earth fluorides, e.g., CaF2.

Concentrations in fresh water vary more significantly. Surface water such as rivers or lakes generally contains between 0.01 and 0.3 mg/L.[4] Groundwater (well water) concentrations vary even more, depending on the presence of local fluoride-containing minerals. For example, natural levels of under 0.05 mg/L have been detected in parts of Canada but up to 8 mg/L in parts of China; in general levels rarely exceed 10 mg/L.[5]

* In parts of Asia the groundwater can contain dangerously high levels of fluoride, leading to serious health problems.[6]
* Worldwide, 50 million people receive water from water supplies that naturally have close to the "optimal level".[7]
* In other locations the level of fluoride is very low, sometimes leading to fluoridation of public water supplies to bring the level to around 0.7–1.2 ppm.
* Mining can increase local fluoride levels.[8]

Fluoride can be present in rain, with its concentration increasing significantly upon exposure to volcanic activity[9] or atmospheric pollution derived from burning fossil fuels or other sorts of industry,[10][11] particularly aluminium smelters.[12]

### In plants

All vegetation contains some fluoride, which is absorbed from soil and water.[5] Some plants concentrate fluoride from their environment more than others. All tea leaves contain fluoride; however, mature leaves contain as much as 10 to 20 times the fluoride levels of young leaves from the same plant.[13][14][15]

## Chemical properties

### Basicity

Fluoride can act as a base. It can combine with a proton ( H+):

\+ H+
→ HF

This neutralization reaction forms hydrogen fluoride (HF), the conjugate acid of fluoride.

In aqueous solution, fluoride has a pKb value of 10.8. It is therefore a weak base, and tends to remain as the fluoride ion rather than generating a substantial amount of hydrogen fluoride. That is, the following equilibrium favours the left-hand side in water:

\+ H
2O ⇌ HF + HO−

However, upon prolonged contact with moisture, soluble fluoride salts will decompose to their respective hydroxides or oxides, as the hydrogen fluoride escapes. Fluoride is distinct in this regard among the halides. The identity of the solvent can have a dramatic effect on the equilibrium shifting it to the right-hand side, greatly increasing the rate of decomposition.

### Structure of fluoride salts

Salts containing fluoride are numerous and adopt myriad structures. Typically the fluoride anion is surrounded by four or six cations, as is typical for other halides. Sodium fluoride and sodium chloride adopt the same structure. For compounds containing more than one fluoride per cation, the structures often deviate from those of the chlorides, as illustrated by the main fluoride mineral fluorite (CaF2) where the Ca2+ ions are surrounded by eight F− centers. In CaCl2, each Ca2+ ion is surrounded by six Cl− centers. The difluorides of the transition metals often adopt the rutile structure whereas the dichlorides have cadmium chloride structures.

### Inorganic chemistry

Upon treatment with a standard acid, fluoride salts convert to hydrogen fluoride and metal salts. With very strong acids, it can be doubly protonated to give H2F+. Oxidation of fluoride gives fluorine. Solutions of inorganic fluorides in water contain F− and bifluoride HF−2.[16] Few inorganic fluorides are soluble in water without undergoing significant hydrolysis. In terms of its reactivity, fluoride differs significantly from chloride and other halides, and is more strongly solvated in protic solvents due to its smaller radius/charge ratio. Its closest chemical relative is hydroxide, since both have similar geometries.

### Naked fluoride

Most fluoride salts dissolve to give the bifluoride (HF−2) anion. Sources of true F− anions are rare because the highly basic fluoride anion abstracts protons from many, even adventitious, sources. Relative unsolvated fluoride, which does exist in aprotic solvents, is called "naked". Naked fluoride is a strong Lewis base,[17] and a powerful nucleophile. Some quaternary ammonium salts of naked fluoride include tetramethylammonium fluoride and tetrabutylammonium fluoride.[18] Cobaltocenium fluoride is another example.[19] However, they all lack structural characterization in aprotic solvents. Because of their high basicity, many so-called naked fluoride sources are in fact bifluoride salts. In late 2016 imidazolium fluoride was synthesized that is the closest approximation of a thermodynamically stable and structurally characterized example of a "naked" fluoride source in an aprotic solvent (acetonitrile).[20] The sterically demanding imidazolium cation stabilizes the discrete anions and protects them from polymerization.[21][22]

### Biochemistry

At physiological pHs, hydrogen fluoride is usually fully ionised to fluoride. In biochemistry, fluoride and hydrogen fluoride are equivalent. Fluorine, in the form of fluoride, is considered to be a micronutrient for human health, necessary to prevent dental cavities, and to promote healthy bone growth.[23] The tea plant (Camellia sinensis L.) is a known accumulator of fluorine compounds, released upon forming infusions such as the common beverage. The fluorine compounds decompose into products including fluoride ions. Fluoride is the most bioavailable form of fluorine, and as such, tea is potentially a vehicle for fluoride dosing.[24] Approximately, 50% of absorbed fluoride is excreted renally with a twenty-four-hour period. The remainder can be retained in the oral cavity, and lower digestive tract. Fasting dramatically increases the rate of fluoride absorption to near 100%, from a 60% to 80% when taken with food.[24] Per a 2013 study, it was found that consumption of one litre of tea a day, can potentially supply the daily recommended intake of 4 mg per day. Some lower quality brands can supply up to a 120% of this amount. Fasting can increase this to 150%. The study indicates that tea drinking communities are at an increased risk of dental and skeletal fluorosis, in the case where water fluoridation is in effect.[24] Fluoride ion in low doses in the mouth reduces tooth decay.[25] For this reason, it is used in toothpaste and water fluoridation. At much higher doses and frequent exposure, fluoride causes health complications and can be toxic.

## Applications

Fluoride salts and hydrofluoric acid are the main fluorides of industrial value.

### Organofluorine chemistry

Main article: Chemistry:Organofluorine chemistry

Organofluorine compounds are pervasive. Many drugs, many polymers, refrigerants, and many inorganic compounds are made from fluoride-containing reagents. Often fluorides are converted to hydrogen fluoride, which is a major reagent and precursor to reagents. Hydrofluoric acid and its anhydrous form, hydrogen fluoride, are particularly important.[26]

### Production of metals and their compounds

The main uses of fluoride, in terms of volume, are in the production of cryolite, Na3AlF6. It is used in aluminium smelting. Formerly, it was mined, but now it is derived from hydrogen fluoride. Fluorite is used on a large scale to separate slag in steel-making. Mined fluorite (CaF2) is a commodity chemical used in steel-making. Uranium hexafluoride is employed in the purification of uranium isotopes.

### Cavity prevention

Main articles: Medicine:Fluoride therapy and Water fluoridation

Sodium fluoride sold in tablets for cavity prevention.

Fluoride-containing compounds, such as sodium fluoride or sodium monofluorophosphate are used in topical and systemic fluoride therapy for preventing tooth decay. They are used for water fluoridation and in many products associated with oral hygiene.[27] Originally, sodium fluoride was used to fluoridate water; hexafluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6) and its salt sodium hexafluorosilicate (Na2SiF6) are more commonly used additives, especially in the United States. The fluoridation of water is known to prevent tooth decay[28][29] and is considered by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to be "one of 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century".[30][31] In some countries where large, centralized water systems are uncommon, fluoride is delivered to the populace by fluoridating table salt. Despite medical consensus as to its safety, fluoridation of water has its critics (see Water fluoridation controversy).[32] Fluoridated toothpaste is in common use. Meta-analysis show the efficacy of 500 ppm fluoride in toothpastes.[33][34] However, no beneficial effect can be detected when more than one fluoride source is used for daily oral care.[35][need quotation to verify]

### Laboratory reagent

Fluoride salts are commonly used in biological assay processing to inhibit the activity of phosphatases, such as serine/threonine phosphatases.[36] Fluoride mimics the nucleophilic hydroxide ion in these enzymes' active sites.[37] Beryllium fluoride and aluminium fluoride are also used as phosphatase inhibitors, since these compounds are structural mimics of the phosphate group and can act as analogues of the transition state of the reaction.[38][39]

## Dietary recommendations

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for some minerals in 1997. Where there was not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) was used instead. AIs are typically matched to actual average consumption, with the assumption that there appears to be a need, and that need is met by what people consume. The current AI for women 19 years and older is 3.0 mg/day (includes pregnancy and lactation). The AI for men is 4.0 mg/day. The AI for children ages 1–18 increases from 0.7 to 3.0 mg/day. The major known risk of fluoride deficiency appears to be an increased risk of bacteria-caused tooth cavities. As for safety, the IOM sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of fluoride the UL is 10 mg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).[40]

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For women ages 18 and older the AI is set at 2.9 mg/day (including pregnancy and lactation). For men, the value is 3.4 mg/day. For children ages 1–17 years, the AIs increase with age from 0.6 to 3.2 mg/day. These AIs are comparable to the U.S. AIs.[41] The EFSA reviewed safety evidence and set an adult UL at 7.0 mg/day (lower for children).[42]

For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount of a vitamin or mineral in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). Although there is information to set Adequate Intake, fluoride does not have a Daily Value and is not required to be shown on food labels.[43]

## Estimated daily intake

Daily intakes of fluoride can vary significantly according to the various sources of exposure. Values ranging from 0.46 to 3.6–5.4 mg/day have been reported in several studies (IPCS, 1984).[23] In areas where water is fluoridated this can be expected to be a significant source of fluoride, however fluoride is also naturally present in virtually all foods and beverages at a wide range of concentrations.[44] The maximum safe daily consumption of fluoride is 10 mg/day for an adult (U.S.) or 7 mg/day (European Union).[40][42]

The upper limit of fluoride intake from all sources (fluoridated water, food, beverages, fluoride dental products and dietary fluoride supplements) is set at 0.10 mg/kg/day for infants, toddlers, and children through to 8 years old. For older children and adults, who are no longer at risk for dental fluorosis, the upper limit of fluoride is set at 10 mg/day regardless of weight.[45]

Examples of fluoride content  Food/Drink | Fluoride
(mg per 1000g/ppm) | Portion | Fluoride
(mg per portion)

|
|
|

Black tea (brewed) | 3.73 | Cup of 8 US fl oz (240 mL) | 0.884
Raisins, seedless | 2.34 | Small box, 43 g (1.5 oz) | 0.101
Table wine | 1.53 | Bottle, 750 mL (26 imp fl oz) | 1.150
Municipal tap-water,
(Fluoridated) | 0.81 | Recommended daily intake,
3 litres (0.79 US gal) | 2.433
Baked potatoes, Russet | 0.45 | Medium potato, 140 g (0.31 lb) | 0.078
Lamb | 0.32 | Chop, 170 g (6.0 oz) | 0.054
Carrots | 0.03 | 1 large carrot, 72 g (2.5 oz) | 0.002
Source: Data taken from United States Department of Agriculture, National Nutrient Database [46]

## Safety

Main article: Medicine:Fluoride toxicity

### Ingestion

According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Dietary Reference Intakes, which is the "highest level of daily nutrient intake that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects" specify 10 mg/day for most people, corresponding to 10 L of fluoridated water with no risk. For young children the values are smaller, ranging from 0.7 mg/d to 2.2 mg/d for infants.[47] Water and food sources of fluoride include community water fluoridation, seafood, tea, and gelatin.[48]

Soluble fluoride salts, of which sodium fluoride is the most common, are toxic, and have resulted in both accidental and self-inflicted deaths from acute poisoning.[26] The lethal dose for most adult humans is estimated at 5 to 10 g (which is equivalent to 32 to 64 mg elemental fluoride per kg body weight).[49][50][51] A case of a fatal poisoning of an adult with 4 grams of sodium fluoride is documented,[52] and a dose of 120 g sodium fluoride has been survived.[53] For sodium fluorosilicate (Na2SiF6), the median lethal dose (LD50) orally in rats is 125 mg/kg, corresponding to 12.5 g for a 100 kg adult.[54]

Treatment may involve oral administration of dilute calcium hydroxide or calcium chloride to prevent further absorption, and injection of calcium gluconate to increase the calcium levels in the blood.[52] Hydrogen fluoride is more dangerous than salts such as NaF because it is corrosive and volatile, and can result in fatal exposure through inhalation or upon contact with the skin; calcium gluconate gel is the usual antidote.[55]

In the higher doses used to treat osteoporosis, sodium fluoride can cause pain in the legs and incomplete stress fractures when the doses are too high; it also irritates the stomach, sometimes so severely as to cause ulcers. Slow-release and enteric-coated versions of sodium fluoride do not have gastric side effects in any significant way, and have milder and less frequent complications in the bones.[56] In the lower doses used for water fluoridation, the only clear adverse effect is dental fluorosis, which can alter the appearance of children's teeth during tooth development; this is mostly mild and is unlikely to represent any real effect on aesthetic appearance or on public health.[57] Fluoride was known to enhance bone mineral density at the lumbar spine, but it was not effective for vertebral fractures and provoked more nonvertebral fractures.[58] In areas that have naturally occurring high levels of fluoride in groundwater which is used for drinking water, both dental and skeletal fluorosis can be prevalent and severe.[59]

#### Hazard maps for fluoride in groundwater

Around one-third of the human population drinks water from groundwater resources. Of this, about 10%, approximately 300 million people, obtain water from groundwater resources that are heavily contaminated with arsenic or fluoride.[60] These trace elements derive mainly from minerals.[61] Maps locating potential problematic wells are available.[62]

#### Neurodevelopmental effects

Under the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), recent systematic reviews have evaluated the toxicology of fluoride exposure on the developing brain. In 2024, a monograph by the National Toxicology Program concluded with moderate confidence that higher levels of fluoride exposure (e.g., drinking water exceeding the World Health Organization's guideline of 1.5 milligrams per litre) are associated with lower IQ in children.[63] The companion review, a dose-response meta-analysis, was published in JAMA Pediatrics in 2025.[64] Seventy-four studies were evaluated; among the eleven involving urinary fluoride measurements rated for low risk of bias, data indicated a decrease of 1.14 IQ points for each milligram per litre increase of fluoride concentration in urine. There was uncertainty in the dose-response relationship between fluoride exposure and childhood IQ when fluoride exposure was estimated by drinking water alone at levels lower than 1.5 milligrams per litre.[64]

The NIEHS papers were noted for highlighting the need for additional high-quality research on the subject matter, especially on the topic of municipal water fluoridation.[64][65] The reports were also met with criticism regarding their methodology and troubled peer review process.[66][67][68][69]

Assessments in Europe, Australia, and Canada concluded that fluoridation of drinking water at levels below 1.5 milligrams per litre had no certain effects on cognitive neurodevelopment in children.[70][71][72]

### Topical

Concentrated fluoride solutions are corrosive.[73] Gloves made of nitrile rubber are worn when handling fluoride compounds. The hazards of solutions of fluoride salts depend on the concentration. In the presence of strong acids, fluoride salts release hydrogen fluoride, which is corrosive, especially toward glass.[26]

## Other derivatives

Organic and inorganic anions are produced from fluoride, including:

* Bifluoride, used as an etchant for glass[74]
* Tetrafluoroberyllate
* Hexafluoroplatinate
* Tetrafluoroborate used in organometallic synthesis
* Hexafluorophosphate used as an electrolyte in commercial secondary batteries.
* Trifluoromethanesulfonate

## See also

* Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances
* Fluorine-19 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
* Fluoride deficiency
* Fluoride selective electrode
* Fluoride therapy
* Sodium monofluorophosphate

## References

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2. ↑ "Public Health Statement for Fluorides, Hydrogen Fluoride, and Fluorine". ATSDR. September 2003. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=210&tid=38.
3. ↑ "Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Fluoride". Government of British Columbia. http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/BCguidelines/fluoride/fluoridetoo-01.html.
4. ↑ Liteplo, R.; Gomes, R.; Howe, P.; Malcolm, Heath (2002). FLUORIDES - Environmental Health Criteria 227: 1st draft. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-157227-9. http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc227.htm#1.4.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Fluoride in Drinking-water Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality" (in en). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/fluoride.pdf.
6. ↑ Yadav, Krishna Kumar; Kumar, Sandeep; Pham, Quoc Bao; Gupta, Neha; Rezania, Shahabaldin; Kamyab, Hesam; Yadav, Shalini; Vymazal, Jan et al. (October 2019). "Fluoride contamination, health problems and remediation methods in Asian groundwater: A comprehensive review". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 182. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.06.045. PMID 31254856. Bibcode: 2019EcoES.18209362Y.
7. ↑ Tiemann, Mary (April 5, 2013). "Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Review of Fluoridation and Regulation Issues". Congressional Research Service. p. 3. https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33280.pdf.
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12. ↑ Arnesen, A.K.M.; Abrahamsen, G.; Sandvik, G.; Krogstad, T. (February 1995). "Aluminium-smelters and fluoride pollution of soil and soil solution in Norway". Science of the Total Environment 163 (1–3): 39–53. doi:10.1016/0048-9697(95)04479-K. Bibcode: 1995ScTEn.163...39A.
13. ↑ "Aluminium and fluoride contents of tea, with emphasis on brick tea and their health implications". Toxicology Letters 137 (1–2): 111–20. 2003. doi:10.1016/S0378-4274(02)00385-5. PMID 12505437.
14. ↑ "Assessment of fluoride concentration and daily intake by human from tea and herbal infusions". Food Chem. Toxicol. 46 (3): 1055–61. 2008. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.10.039. PMID 18078704.
15. ↑ "Black tea--helpful or harmful? A review of the evidence". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 61 (1): 3–18. 2007. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602489. PMID 16855537.
16. ↑ Wiberg; Holleman, A.F. (2001). Inorganic chemistry (1st English ed., [edited] by Nils Wiberg. ed.). San Diego, Calif. : Berlin: Academic Press, W. de Gruyter.. ISBN 978-0-12-352651-9.
17. ↑ Schwesinger, Reinhard; Link, Reinhard; Wenzl, Peter; Kossek, Sebastian (2005). "Anhydrous Phosphazenium Fluorides as Sources for Extremely Reactive Fluoride Ions in Solution". Chemistry: A European Journal 12 (2): 438–45. doi:10.1002/chem.200500838. PMID 16196062.
18. ↑ Haoran Sun; Stephen G. DiMagno (2005). "Anhydrous Tetrabutylammonium Fluoride". Journal of the American Chemical Society 127 (7): 2050–1. doi:10.1021/ja0440497. PMID 15713075.
19. ↑ Bennett, Brian K.; Harrison, Roger G.; Richmond, Thomas G. (1994). "Cobaltocenium Fluoride: A Novel Source of "Naked" Fluoride Formed by Carbon-Fluorine Bond Activation in a Saturated Perfluorocarbon". Journal of the American Chemical Society 116 (24): 11165–11166. doi:10.1021/ja00103a045.
20. ↑ Alič, B.; Tavčar, G. (2016). "Reaction of N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) with different HF sources and ratios – A free fluoride reagent based on imidazolium fluoride". J. Fluorine Chem. 192: 141–146. doi:10.1016/j.jfluchem.2016.11.004.
21. ↑ Alič, B.; Tramšek, M.; Kokalj, A.; Tavčar, G. (2017). "Discrete GeF5– Anion Structurally Characterized with a Readily Synthesized Imidazolium Based Naked Fluoride Reagent". Inorg. Chem. 56 (16): 10070–10077. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.7b01606. PMID 28792216.
22. ↑ Zupanek, Ž.; Tramšek, M.; Kokalj, A.; Tavčar, G. (2018). "Reactivity of VOF3 with N-Heterocyclic Carbene and Imidazolium Fluoride: Analysis of Ligand–VOF3 Bonding with Evidence of a Minute π Back-Donation of Fluoride". Inorg. Chem. 57 (21): 13866–13879. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b02377. PMID 30353729.
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24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Chan, Laura; Mehra, Aradhana; Saikat, Sohel; Lynch, Paul (May 2013). "Human exposure assessment of fluoride from tea (Camellia sinensis L.): A UK based issue?". Food Research International 51 (2): 564–570. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2013.01.025.
25. ↑ "Fluoride Free Toothpaste – Fluoride (Finally!) Explained". 2016-06-27. http://oradyne.net/fluoride-free-toothpaste/.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Aigueperse, Jean; Mollard, Paul; Devilliers, Didier; Chemla, Marius; Faron, Robert; Romano, René; Cuer, Jean Pierre (2000). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_307. ISBN 978-3-527-30673-2.
27. ↑ McDonagh M. S.; Whiting P. F.; Wilson P. M.; Sutton A. J.; Chestnutt I.; Cooper J.; Misso K.; Bradley M. et al. (2000). "Systematic review of water fluoridation". British Medical Journal 321 (7265): 855–859. doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7265.855. PMID 11021861.
28. ↑ "Effectiveness of fluoride in preventing caries in adults". J. Dent. Res. 86 (5): 410–5. 2007. doi:10.1177/154405910708600504. PMID 17452559.
29. ↑ Winston A. E.; Bhaskar S. N. (1 November 1998). "Caries prevention in the 21st century". J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 129 (11): 1579–87. doi:10.14219/jada.archive.1998.0104. PMID 9818575. http://jada.ada.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9818575.
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32. ↑ Newbrun E (1996). "The fluoridation war: a scientific dispute or a religious argument?". Journal of Public Health Dentistry 56 (5 Spec No): 246–52. doi:10.1111/j.1752-7325.1996.tb02447.x. PMID 9034969.
33. ↑ Walsh, Tanya; Worthington, Helen V.; Glenny, Anne-Marie; Marinho, Valeria Cc; Jeroncic, Ana (March 4, 2019). "Fluoride toothpastes of different concentrations for preventing dental caries". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3 (3). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007868.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 30829399.
34. ↑ "Remineralization of initial carious lesions in deciduous enamel after application of dentifrices of different fluoride concentrations" (in de). https://www.springermedizin.de/remineralization-of-initial-carious-lesions-in-deciduous-enamel-/8679072.
35. ↑ Hausen, H.; Kärkkäinen, S.; Seppä, L. (February 2000). "Application of the high-risk strategy to control dental caries". Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology 28 (1): 26–34. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0528.2000.280104.x. ISSN 0301-5661. PMID 10634681.
36. ↑ "Properties of a phosphoprotein phosphatase from bovine heart with activity on glycogen synthase, phosphorylase, and histone". J. Biol. Chem. 249 (20): 6459–67. 1974. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)42179-0. PMID 4370977.
37. ↑ "Crystal structures of a purple acid phosphatase, representing different steps of this enzyme's catalytic cycle". BMC Struct. Biol. 8: 6. 2008. doi:10.1186/1472-6807-8-6. PMID 18234116.
38. ↑ "Structural characterization of the reaction pathway in phosphoserine phosphatase: crystallographic "snapshots" of intermediate states". J. Mol. Biol. 319 (2): 421–31. 2002. doi:10.1016/S0022-2836(02)00324-8. PMID 12051918.
39. ↑ "BeF(3)(-) acts as a phosphate analog in proteins phosphorylated on aspartate: structure of a BeF(3)(-) complex with phosphoserine phosphatase". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (15): 8525–30. 2001. doi:10.1073/pnas.131213698. PMID 11438683. Bibcode: 2001PNAS...98.8525C.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Institute of Medicine (1997). "Fluoride". Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and Fluoride. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. pp. 288–313. doi:10.17226/5776. ISBN 978-0-309-06403-3. https://www.nap.edu/read/5776/chapter/10.
41. ↑ "Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies". 2017. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/assets/DRV_Summary_tables_jan_17.pdf.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals, European Food Safety Authority, 2006, http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/efsa_rep/blobserver_assets/ndatolerableuil.pdf
43. ↑ "Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. FR page 33982.". https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2016-05-27/pdf/2016-11867.pdf.
44. ↑ "Nutrient Lists". Agricultural Research Service United States Department of Agriculture. http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/nutrients/report?nutrient1=313&nutrient2=&nutrient3=&fg=&max=25&subset=0&offset=0&sort=c&totCount=563&measureby=g.
45. ↑ Levy, Steven M.; Guha-Chowdhury, Nupur (1999). "Total Fluoride Intake and Implications for Dietary Fluoride Supplementation". Journal of Public Health Dentistry 59 (4): 211–223. doi:10.1111/j.1752-7325.1999.tb03272.x. PMID 10682326.
46. ↑ "Food Composition Databases: Food Search: Fluoride". Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/nutrients/report/nutrientsfrm?max=25&offset=0&totCount=0&nutrient1=313&nutrient2=&subset=0&sort=c&measureby=g.
47. ↑ "Dietary Reference Intakes: EAR, RDA, AI, Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges, and UL". United States Department of Agriculture. http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/dietary-guidance/dietary-reference-intakes/dri-tables-and-application-reports.
48. ↑ "Fluoride in diet". U.S. National Library of Medicine. https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002420.htm.
49. ↑ Gosselin, RE; Smith RP; Hodge HC (1984). Clinical toxicology of commercial products. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins. pp. III–185–93. ISBN 978-0-683-03632-9.
50. ↑ Baselt, RC (2008). Disposition of toxic drugs and chemicals in man. Foster City (CA): Biomedical Publications. pp. 636–40. ISBN 978-0-9626523-7-0. https://archive.org/details/dispositionoftox0000base_v7n5/page/636/mode/2up.
51. ↑ IPCS (2002). Environmental health criteria 227 (Fluoride). Geneva: International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization. p. 100. ISBN 978-92-4-157227-9.
52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Rabinowitch, IM (1945). "Acute Fluoride Poisoning". Canadian Medical Association Journal 52 (4): 345–9. PMID 20323400.
53. ↑ "Acute sodium fluoride poisoning". JAMA 222 (7): 816–7. 1972. doi:10.1001/jama.1972.03210070046014. PMID 4677934.
54. ↑ The Merck Index, 12th edition, Merck & Co., Inc., 1996
55. ↑ "Fatality due to acute fluoride poisoning following dermal contact with hydrofluoric acid in a palynology laboratory". Ann. Occup. Hyg. 40 (6): 705–710. 1996. doi:10.1016/S0003-4878(96)00010-5. PMID 8958774.
56. ↑ "Prevention and management of osteoporosis: consensus statements from the Scientific Advisory Board of the Osteoporosis Society of Canada. 7. Fluoride therapy for osteoporosis". CMAJ 155 (7): 949–54. 1996. PMID 8837545.
57. ↑ National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia) (2007). A systematic review of the efficacy and safety of fluoridation. ISBN 978-1-86496-415-8. http://nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/Eh41_Flouridation_PART_A.pdf. Retrieved 2010-02-21. Summary: Yeung CA (2008). "A systematic review of the efficacy and safety of fluoridation". Evid.-Based Dent. 9 (2): 39–43. doi:10.1038/sj.ebd.6400578. PMID 18584000.
58. ↑ Haguenauer, D; Welch, V; Shea, B; Tugwell, P; Adachi, JD; Wells, G (2000). "Fluoride for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporotic fractures: a meta-analysis.". Osteoporosis International 11 (9): 727–38. doi:10.1007/s001980070051. PMID 11148800.
59. ↑ World Health Organization (2004). "Fluoride in drinking-water". https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/en/fluoride.pdf.
60. ↑ Eawag (2015) Geogenic Contamination Handbook – Addressing Arsenic and Fluoride in Drinking Water. C.A. Johnson, A. Bretzler (Eds.), Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland. (download: www.eawag.ch/en/research/humanwelfare/drinkingwater/wrq/geogenic-contamination-handbook/)
61. ↑ Rodríguez-Lado, L.; Sun, G.; Berg, M.; Zhang, Q.; Xue, H.; Zheng, Q.; Johnson, C.A. (2013). "Groundwater arsenic contamination throughout China". Science 341 (6148): 866–868. doi:10.1126/science.1237484. PMID 23970694. Bibcode: 2013Sci...341..866R. https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/eawag/islandora/object/eawag:7346.
62. ↑ Groundwater Assessment Platform
63. ↑ National Toxicology Program (2024). ﻿State of the Science Concerning Fluoride Exposure and Neurodevelopment and Cognition: A Systematic Review﻿ (Report). National Institutes of Health. https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/sites/default/files/2024-08/fluoride_final_508.pdf.
64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 "Fluoride Exposure and Children's IQ Scores: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". JAMA Pediatrics. 2025. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2024.5542. PMID 39761023.
65. ↑ Lanphear, Bruce P.; Besten, Pamela Den; Till, Christine (2025-03-01). "Time to Reassess Systemic Fluoride Exposure, Again" (in en). JAMA Pediatrics 179 (3). doi:10.1001/jamapediatric. ISSN 2168-6203. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2828429.
66. ↑ Levy, Steven M. (2025-03-01). "Caution Needed in Interpreting the Evidence Base on Fluoride and IQ" (in en). JAMA Pediatrics 179 (3). doi:10.1001/jamapediatric. ISSN 2168-6203. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/article-abstract/2828430.
67. ↑ Steier, Jess (2024-09-05). "The truth behind that viral study on fluoride and IQ" (in en-US). https://www.statnews.com/2024/09/05/fluoride-water-child-iq-study-national-toxicology-program/.
68. ↑ Miller, Naseem S. (2025-01-29). "How to read this study: A meta-analysis on the impact of fluoride on IQ scores" (in en-US). https://journalistsresource.org/home/how-to-read-this-study-a-meta-analysis-fluoride-childrens-iq/.
69. ↑ "National Toxicology Program releases fluoride exposure monograph" (in en). https://adanews.ada.org/ada-news/2024/august/national-toxicology-program-releases-fluoride-exposure-monograph/.
70. ↑ "Fluoride safety: updated intake levels for all ages". European Food Safety Authority. 22 July 2025. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/news/fluoride-safety-updated-intake-levels-all-ages.
71. ↑ "Early Childhood Exposures to Fluorides and Cognitive Neurodevelopment: A Population-Based Longitudinal Study". Journal of Dental Research 104 (3): 243–250. March 2025. doi:10.1177/00220345241299352. PMID 39692252.
72. ↑ "Expert panel meeting on the health effects of fluoride in drinking water: Summary report". Health Canada, Government of Canada. 9 June 2023. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/environmental-workplace-health/reports-publications/water-quality/expert-panel-meeting-effects-fluoride-drinking-summary.html.
73. ↑ "Effect of fluoride concentration and pH on corrosion behavior of titanium for dental use". Journal of Dental Research 78 (9): 1568–72. 1999. doi:10.1177/00220345990780091201. PMID 10512392.
74. ↑ "Ammonium bifluoride in the glass industry - Chimex Ltd". http://www.eng.chimko.com/item29/.

## External links

* "Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Review of Fluoridation and Regulation Issues", Congressional Research Service
* U.S. government site for checking status of local water fluoridation

* v
* t
* e

Salts and covalent derivatives of the fluoride ion

HF |  |  |  | He

|
|
|
|

LiF | BeF2 | BF
BF3
B2F4 | CF4
other compounds | NF3
FN3
N2F2
N2F4
NF5§  | F2O
F2O2
other compounds | F2 | Ne
NaF | MgF2 | AlF
AlF3 | SiF4 | P2F4
PF3
PF5 | S2F2
SF2
SF4
SF6 | ClF
ClF3
ClF5 | Ar
KF | CaF
CaF2 | ScF3 | TiF2
TiF3
TiF4 | VF2
VF3
VF4
VF5 | CrF2
CrF3
CrF4
CrF5
CrF6§  | MnF2 | FeF2
FeF3 | CoF2
CoF3 | NiF2 | CuF
CuF2 | ZnF2 | GaF2
GaF3 | GeF2
GeF4 | AsF3
AsF5 | Se2F2
SeF4
SeF6 | BrF
BrF3
BrF5 | KrF2
RbF | SrF
SrF2 | YF3 | ZrF3
ZrF4 | NbF4
NbF5 | MoF2
MoF3
MoF4
MoF5
MoF6 | TcF4
TcF6 | RuF3
RuF5
RuF6 | RhF3
RhF5
RhF6 | PdF2 | AgF | CdF2 | InF
InF2
InF3 | SnF2
SnF4 | SbF3
SbF5 | Te3F2
TeF4
TeF6 | IF
IF3</br>IF5</br>IF7 | XeF2
XeF4
XeF6
CsF | BaF2 |  | HfF4 | TaF5 | WF2
WF3
WF4
WF5
WF6 | Re3F9
ReF4
ReF5
ReF6
ReF7 | OsF4
OsF5
OsF6 | IrF2
IrF3
IrF4
IrF5
IrF6 | PtF2
PtF4
PtF5
PtF6 | AuF
AuF3
Au2F10
AuF5•F2 | Hg2F2
HgF2
HgF4 | TlF | PbF2
PbF4 | BiF3
BiF5 | PoF2
PoF4
PoF6 | AtF  | RnF2
FrF | RaF2 |  | Rf  | Db  | Sg  | Bh  | Hs  | Mt  | Ds  | Rg  | Cn  | Nh  | Fl  | Mc  | Lv  | Ts  | Og
| ↓  |  |
LaF3 | CeF3
CeF4 | PrF3 | NdF2,
NdF3 | PmF3 | SmF2,
SmF3 | EuF2,
EuF3 | GdF3 | TbF3 | DyF2,
DyF3 | HoF3 | ErF3 | TmF2
TmF3 | YbF2
YbF3 | LuF3
AcF3 | ThF4 | PaF5 | UF3
UF4
UF5
UF6 | NpF4
NpF6 | PuF3
PuF6 | AmF2
AmF3 | CmF3 | BkF3 | CfF3 | EsF3 | Fm  | Md  | No  | LrF3

§ means the substance has not been made.

Template:Monatomic anion compounds

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