List of copper alloys

Short description: Metal alloy with copper as its principal component

Example of a copper alloy object: a Neo-Sumerian foundation figure of Gudea, circa 2100 BC, made in the lost-wax cast method, overall: 17.5 x 4.5 x 7.3 cm, probably from modern-day Iraq, now in the Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio, USA)

Copper alloys are metal alloys that have copper as their principal component. They have high resistance against corrosion. Of the large number of different types, the best known traditional types are bronze, where tin is a significant addition, and brass, using zinc instead. Both of these are imprecise terms. Latten is a further term, mostly used for coins with a very high copper content. Today the term "copper alloy" tends to be substituted for all of these, especially by museums.[1]

Copper deposits are abundant in most parts of the world (globally 70 parts per million), and it has therefore always been a relatively cheap metal. By contrast, tin is relatively rare (2 parts per million), and in Europe and the Mediterranean region, even in prehistoric times, it had to be traded considerable distances and was expensive, sometimes virtually unobtainable. Zinc is even more common at 75 parts per million but is harder to extract from its ores. Bronze with the ideal percentage of tin was therefore expensive, and the proportion of tin was often reduced to save cost. The discovery and exploitation of the Bolivian tin belt in the 19th century made tin far cheaper, although forecasts for future supplies are less positive.

There are as many as 400 different copper and copper alloy compositions loosely grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy, brasses, bronzes, cupronickel, copper-nickel-zinc (nickel silver), leaded copper, and special alloys.

## Contents

* 1 Composition
* 2 Brasses
* 3 Bronzes
* 4 Precious metal alloys
* 5 High temperature copper alloys
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 7.1 Bibliography
* 8 External links

## Composition

The similarity in external appearance of the various alloys, along with the different combinations of elements used when making each alloy, can lead to confusion when categorizing the different compositions. The following table lists the principal alloying element for four of the more common types used in modern industry, along with the name for each type. Historical types, such as those that characterize the Bronze Age, are vaguer, as the mixtures were generally variable.

Classification of copper and its alloys  Family | Principal alloying element | UNS numbers

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Copper alloys, brass | Zinc (Zn) | C1xxxx-C4xxxx,C66400-C69800
Phosphor bronze | Tin (Sn) | C5xxxx
Aluminium bronzes | Aluminium (Al) | C60600-C64200
Silicon bronzes | Silicon (Si) | C64700-C66100
Cupronickel, nickel silvers | Nickel (Ni) | C7xxxx
Mechanical properties of common copper alloys[2] Name  | Nominal composition (percentages)  | Form and condition  | Yield strength (0.2% offset, ksi)  | Tensile strength (ksi)  | Elongation in 2 inches (percent)  | Hardness (Brinell scale)  | Comments

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Copper (ASTM B1, B2, B3, B152, B124, R133)  | Cu 99.9  | Annealed  | 10  | 32  | 45  | 42  | Electrical equipment, roofing, screens
Cold-drawn  | 40  | 45  | 15  | 90
Cold-rolled  | 40  | 46  | 5  | 100
Gilding metal (ASTM B36)  | Cu 95.0, Zn 5.0  | Cold-rolled  | 50  | 56  | 5  | 114  | Coins, bullet jackets
Cartridge brass (ASTM B14, B19, B36, B134, B135)  | Cu 70.0, Zn 30.0  | Cold-rolled  | 63  | 76  | 8  | 155  | Good for cold-working; radiators, hardware, electrical, drawn cartridge cases.
Phosphor bronze (ASTM B103, B139, B159)  | Cu 89.75, Sn 10.0, P 0.25  | Spring temper  | —  | 122  | 4  | 241  | High fatigue-strength and spring qualities
Yellow or High brass (ASTM B36, B134, B135)  | Cu 65.0, Zn 35.0  | Annealed  | 18  | 48  | 60  | 55  | Good corrosion resistance
Cold-drawn  | 55  | 70  | 15  | 115
Cold-rolled (HT)  | 60  | 74  | 10  | 180
Manganese bronze (ASTM 138)  | Cu 58.5, Zn 39.2, Fe 1.0, Sn 1.0, Mn 0.3  | Annealed  | 30  | 60  | 30  | 95  | Forgings
Cold-drawn  | 50  | 80  | 20  | 180
Naval brass (ASTM B21)  | Cu 60.0, Zn 39.25, Sn 0.75  | Annealed  | 22  | 56  | 40  | 90  | Resistance to salt corrosion
Cold-drawn  | 40  | 65  | 35  | 150
Muntz metal (ASTM B111)  | Cu 60.0, Zn 40.0  | Annealed  | 20  | 54  | 45  | 80  | Condenser tubes
Aluminium bronze (ASTM B169 alloy A, B124, B150)  | Cu 92.0, Al 8.0  | Annealed  | 25  | 70  | 60  | 80  | —
Hard  | 65  | 105  | 7  | 210
Beryllium copper (ASTM B194, B196, B197)  | Cu 97.75, Be 2.0, Co or Ni 0.25  | Annealed, solution-treated  | 32  | 70  | 45  | B60 (Rockwell)  | Electrical, valves, pumps, oilfield tools, aerospace landing gears, robotic welding, mold making [3]
Cold-rolled  | 104  | 110  | 5  | B81 (Rockwell)
Free-cutting brass  | Cu 62.0, Zn 35.5, Pb 2.5  | Cold-drawn  | 44  | 70  | 18  | B80 (Rockwell)  | Screws, nuts, gears, keys
Nickel silver (ASTM B122)  | Cu 65.0, Zn 17.0, Ni 18.0  | Annealed  | 25  | 58  | 40  | 70  | Hardware
Cold-rolled  | 70  | 85  | 4  | 170
Nickel silver (ASTM B149)  | Cu 76.5, Ni 12.5, Pb 9.0, Sn 2.0  | Cast  | 18  | 35  | 15  | 55  | Easy to machine; ornaments, plumbing [4]
Cupronickel (ASTM B111, B171)  | Cu 88.35, Ni 10.0, Fe 1.25, Mn 0.4  | Annealed  | 22  | 44  | 45  | –  | Condenser, salt-water pipes
Cold-drawn tube  | 57  | 60  | 15  | –
Cupronickel  | Cu 70.0, Ni 30.0  | Wrought  | –  | –  | –  | –  | Heat-exchange equipment, valves
Ounce metal[5] Copper alloy C83600 (also known as "Red brass" or "composition metal") (ASTM B62)  | Cu 85.0, Zn 5.0, Pb 5.0, Sn 5.0  | Cast  | 17  | 37  | 25  | 60  | —
Gunmetal (known as "red brass" in US)  | Varies Cu 80-90%, Zn <5%, Sn ~10%, +other elements@ <1%  |  |  |  |  |
Mechanical properties of Copper Development Association (CDA) copper alloys[6] Family | CDA | Tensile strength [ksi] | Yield strength [ksi] | Elongation (typ.) [%] | Hardness
[Brinell 10 mm-500 kg] | Machinability [YB = 100]

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Min. | Typ. | Min. | Typ.
Red brass | 833 |  | 32 |  | 10 | 35 | 35 | 35
836 | 30 | 37 | 14 | 17 | 30 | 50–65 | 84
838 | 29 | 35 | 12 | 16 | 25 | 50–60 | 90
Semi-red brass | 844 | 29 | 34 | 13 | 15 | 26 | 50–60 | 90
848 | 25 | 36 | 12 | 14 | 30 | 50–60 | 90
Manganese bronze | 862 | 90 | 95 | 45 | 48 | 20 | 170–195† | 30
863 | 110 | 119 | 60 | 83 | 18 | 225† | 8
865 | 65 | 71 | 25 | 28 | 30 | 130† | 26
Tin bronze | 903 | 40 | 45 | 18 | 21 | 30 | 60–75 | 30
905 | 40 | 45 | 18 | 22 | 25 | 75 | 30
907 | 35 | 44 | 18 | 22 | 20 | 80 | 20
Leaded tin bronze | 922 | 34 | 40 | 16 | 20 | 30 | 60–72 | 42
923 | 36 | 40 | 16 | 20 | 25 | 60–75 | 42
926 | 40 | 44 | 18 | 20 | 30 | 65–80 | 40
927 | 35 | 42 |  | 21 | 20 | 77 | 45
High-leaded tin bronze | 932 | 30 | 35 | 14 | 18 | 20 | 60–70 | 70
934 | 25 | 32 |  | 16 | 20 | 55–65 | 70
935 | 25 | 32 | 12 | 16 | 30 | 55–65 | 70
936 | 33 | 30 | 16 | 21 | 15 | 79-83 | 80
937 | 25 | 35 | 12 | 18 | 20 | 55–70 | 80
938 | 25 | 30 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 50–60 | 80
943 | 21 | 27 |  | 13 | 10 | 42–55 | 80
Aluminium bronze | 952 | 65 | 80 | 25 | 27 | 35 | 110–140† | 50
953 | 65 | 75 | 25 | 27 | 25 | 140† | 55
954 | 75 | 85 | 30 | 35 | 18 | 140–170† | 60
955 | 90 | 100 | 40 | 44 | 12 | 180–200† | 50
958 | 85 | 95 | 35 | 38 | 25 | 150-170† | 50
Silicon bronze | 878 | 80 | 83 | 30 | 37 | 29 | 115 | 40
† Brinell scale with 3000 kg load
Comparison of copper alloy standards[6] Family | CDA | ASTM | SAE | SAE superseded | Federal | Military

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Red brass | 833 |  |  |  |  |
836 | B145-836 | 836 | 40 | QQ-C-390 (B5) | C-2229 Gr2
838 | B145-838 | 838 |  | QQ-C-390 (B4) |
Semi-red brass | 844 | B145-844 |  |  | QQ-C-390 (B2) |
848 | B145-848 |  |  | QQ-C-390 (B1) |
Manganese bronze | 862 | B147-862 | 862 | 430A | QQ-C-390 (C4) | C-2229 Gr9
863 | B147-863 | 863 | 430B | QQ-C-390 (C7) | C-2229 Gr8
865 | B147-865 | 865 | 43 | QQ-C-390 (C3) | C-2229 Gr7
Tin bronze | 903 | B143-903 | 903 | 620 | QQ-C-390 (D5) | C-2229 Gr1
905 | B143-905 | 905 | 62 | QQ-C-390 (D6) |
907 |  | 907 | 65 |  |
Leaded tin bronze | 922 | B143-922 | 922 | 622 | QQ-C-390 (D4) | B-16541
923 | B143-923 | 923 | 621 | QQ-C-390 (D3) | C-15345 Gr10
926 |  | 926 |  |  |
927 |  | 927 | 63 |  |
High-leaded tin bronze | 932 | B144-932 | 932 | 660 | QQ-C-390 (E7) | C-15345 Gr12
934 |  |  |  | QQ-C-390 (E8) | C-22229 Gr3
935 | B144-935 | 935 | 66 | QQ-C-390 (E9) |
937 | B144-937 | 937 | 64 | QQ-C-390 (E10) |
938 | B144-938 | 938 | 67 | QQ-C-390 (E6) |
943 | B144-943 | 943 |  | QQ-C-390 (E1) |
Aluminium bronze | 952 | B148-952 | 952 | 68A | QQ-C-390 (G6) | C-22229 Gr5
953 | B148-953 | 953 | 68B | QQ-C-390 (G7) |
954 | B148-954 | 954 |  | QQ-C-390 (G5) | C-15345 Gr13
955 | B148-955 | 955 |  | QQ-C-390 (G3) | C-22229 Gr8
958 |  |  |  | QQ-C-390 (G8) |
Silicon bronze | 878 | B30 | 878 |  |  |

The following table outlines the chemical composition of various grades of copper alloys.

Chemical composition of copper alloys[6][7] Family | CDA | AMS | UNS | Cu [%] | Sn [%] | Pb [%] | Zn [%] | Ni [%] | Fe [%] | Al [%] | Other [%]

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Red brass | 833 |  | C83300 | 93 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 4 |  |  |  |
|  | C83400[8] | 90 |  |  | 10 |  |  |  |
836 | 4855B | C83600 | 85 | 5 | 5 | 5 |  |  |  |
838 |  | C83800 | 83 | 4 | 6 | 7 |  |  |  |
Semi-red brass | 844 |  | C84400 | 81 | 3 | 7 | 9 |  |  |  |
845 |  | C84500 | 78 | 3 | 7 | 12 |  |  |  |
848 |  | C84800 | 76 | 3 | 6 | 15 |  |  |  |
Manganese bronze |  |  | C86100[9] | 67 | 0.5 |  | 21 |  | 3 | 5 | Mn 4
862† |  | C86200 | 64 |  |  | 26 |  | 3 | 4 | Mn 3
863† | 4862B | C86300 | 63 |  |  | 25 |  | 3 | 6 | Mn 3
865 | 4860A | C86500 | 58 | 0.5 |  | 39.5 |  | 1 | 1 | Mn 0.25
Tin bronze | 903 |  | C90300 | 88 | 8 |  | 4 |  |  |  |
905 | 4845D | C90500 | 88 | 10 | 0.3 max | 2 |  |  |  |
907 |  | C90700 | 89 | 11 | 0.5 max | 0.5 max |  |  |  |
Leaded tin bronze | 922 |  | C92200 | 88 | 6 | 1.5 | 4.5 |  |  |  |
923 |  | C92300 | 87 | 8 | 1 max | 4 |  |  |  |
926 | 4846A | C92600 | 87 | 10 | 1 | 2 |  |  |  |
927 |  | C92700 | 88 | 10 | 2 | 0.7 max |  |  |  |
High-leaded tin bronze | 932 |  | C93200 | 83 | 7 | 7 | 3 |  |  |  |
934 |  | C93400 | 84 | 8 | 8 | 0.7 max |  |  |  |
935 |  | C93500 | 85 | 5 | 9 | 1 | 0.5 max |  |  |
937 | 4842A | C93700 | 80 | 10 | 10 |  | 0.7 max |  |  |
938 |  | C93800 | 78 | 7 | 15 |  | 0.75 max |  |  |
943 | 4840A | C94300 | 70 | 5 | 25 |  | 0.7 max |  |  |
Aluminium bronze | 952 |  | C95200 | 88 |  |  |  |  | 3 | 9 |
953 |  | C95200 | 89 |  |  |  |  | 1 | 10 |
954 | 4870B
4872B | C95400 | 85 |  |  |  |  | 4 | 11 |
|  | C95410[10] | 85 |  |  |  |  | 4 | 11 | Ni 2
955 |  | C95500 | 81 |  |  |  | 4 | 4 | 11 |
|  | C95600[11] | 91 |  |  |  |  |  | 7 | Si 2
|  | C95700[12] | 75 |  |  |  | 2 | 3 | 8 | Mn 12
958 |  | C95800 | 81 |  |  |  | 5 | 4 | 9 | Mn 1
Silicon bronze |  |  | C87200[13] | 89 |  |  |  |  |  |  | Si 4
|  | C87400[14] | 83 |  |  | 14 |  |  |  | Si 3
|  | C87500[15] | 82 |  |  | 14 |  |  |  | Si 4
|  | C87600[16] | 90 |  |  | 5.5 |  |  |  | Si 4.5
878 |  | C87800[17] | 80 |  |  | 14 |  |  |  | Si 4
|  | C87900[18] | 65 |  |  | 34 |  |  |  | Si 1
† Chemical composition may vary to yield mechanical properties

## Brasses

Binary Cu Si phase diagram, the base phase diagram for silicon bronzes Binary Cu Al phase diagram, the base phase diagram for aluminium bronzes, generated using NIMS Open databases https://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/al-elem/alcu/alcu.htm - DOI https://doi.org/10.48505/nims.3060 and Computherm Pandat https://computherm.com/ Binary Cu Sn phase diagram, the base phase diagram for bronzes, generated using NIMS Open databases https://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/cu-elem/cusn/cusn.htm \- DOI https://doi.org/10.48505/nims.3060 and Computherm Pandat https://computherm.com/ Binary Cu Zn phase diagram, the base phase diagram for brasses, generated using NIMS Open database https://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/cu-elem/cu_index.htm Cu-Zn - DOI https://doi.org/10.48505/nims.3060 and Computherm Pandat https://computherm.com/

Main article: Chemistry:Brass

Brass is an alloy of copper with zinc. Brasses are usually yellow in color. The zinc content can vary between few % to about 40%; as long as it is kept under 15%, it does not markedly decrease the corrosion resistance of copper.

Brasses can be sensitive to selective leaching corrosion under certain conditions, when zinc is leached from the alloy (dezincification), leaving behind a spongy copper structure.

* Nordic Gold

## Bronzes

Main article: Chemistry:Bronze

A bronze is an alloy of copper and other metals, most often tin, but also alumnium and silicon.

* Aluminium bronzes are alloys of copper and aluminum. The content of aluminum ranges mostly between 5% and 11%. Iron, nickel, manganese and silicon are sometimes added. They have higher strength and corrosion resistance than other bronzes, especially in marine environments, and have low reactivity to sulfur compounds. Aluminum forms a thin passivation layer on the surface of the metal.
* Bell metal
* Brastil[19][20]
* French bronze is a bronze typical to France in the later 19th century consisted of 91% copper, 2% tin, 6% zinc, and 1% lead.[21] The term "French bronze" was also used for spelter, an alloy which is mainly zinc, but can be finished to resemble real bronze;[citation needed] its composition was typically 5 parts hematite powder to 8 parts lead oxide, formed into a paste with spirits of wine. Variations in tint could be obtained by varying the proportions. The preparation was applied to the article to be bronzed with a soft brush, then polished with a hard brush after it had dried.[22]
* Phosphor bronze
* Nickel bronzes, e.g. nickel silver and cupronickel
* Speculum metal
* UNS C69100

## Precious metal alloys

Copper is often alloyed with precious metals like gold (Au) and silver (Ag).

Name | Cu [%] | Au [%] | Ag [%] | Other [%]

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Auricupride | † | † |  |
Ashtadhatu | † | † | † | Fe†, Hg†, Sn†, Zn†
Billon | † |  | † | Hg†
Chinese silver | 58 |  | 2 | 17.5 Zn, 11.5 Ni,
Corinthian bronze | † | † | † |
CuSil | 28 |  | 72 |
Dymalloy | 20 |  | 80 | C (type I diamond)
Electrum, Green gold | 6-23 | 75-80 | 0-15 | 0-4 Cd
Grey gold | † | † |  | Mn†
Guanín | 25 | 56 | 18 |
Hepatizon | † | trace | trace |
Niello | † | † |  | Pb sulfides†
Panchaloha | † | † | † | Fe†, Sn†, Pb†, Zn†,
Rose, red, and pink gold | 20-50 | 50-75 | 0-5 |
Spangold | 18-19 | 76 |  | 5-6 Al
Shakudō | 90-96 | 4-10 |  |
Shibuichi | 40-77 | 0-1 | 23-60 |
Tibetan silver | † |  | † | Ni†, Sn†
Tumbaga | 3-97 | 3-97 |  |
White gold | † | † |  | Ni†, Zn†

† amount unspecified

## High temperature copper alloys

Copper alloys that are resilient at high temperatures and maintain mechanical properties are used in many applications such as heat exchangers, castings, and rocket engines. Copper alloys typically have very high thermal conductivities compared to other structural alloys which give them an advantage when large heat fluxes are involved, as they are better at dissipating heat.[23][24][25] But copper’s melting point is 1085 Celsius, which is lower than most structural alloys. Therefore, to make use of coppers excellent thermal properties at high temperatures, creep needs to be considered. Creep deformation occurs in materials at relatively high stresses and temperatures. It can dominate as a deformation mechanism in materials above ~0.35 of the melting temperature,[26] so designing against it is critical for high temperature applications.  The working temperatures of high temperature copper alloys are up to 700 Celsius.[24][25] Most of the leading high temperature copper alloys rely on oxide dispersion strengthening (ODS) or precipitation hardening (PH).[23] Some alloys use different methods however, such as alloy, GRCop-84, which takes advantage of intermetallic compounds that form, in its microstructure. These precipitates pin the grains and inhibit grain boundary sliding.[24] The advantage of ODS strengthening is that the oxides will not coarsen during temperature aging while PH alloys will, and the strengthening will be lost.[23] In all cases, the goal of the strengthening mechanisms are to slow down creep deformation, and the various mechanisms that contribute to it such as dislocation glide, dislocation glide, and vacancy diffusion. Some examples of how these strengthening mechanisms work are by increasing the activation energy needed for lattice and grain boundary diffusion, introducing a threshold stress needed to climb or shear particles in matrix, or by pinning grains which inhibits grain boundary sliding.[27][23][25][24] Other factors to be considered at high temperature are oxidation and thermomechanical fatigue which may contribute material degradation.[23][24]

## See also

* Copper-clad steel
* Copper alloys in aquaculture
* Antimicrobial copper-alloy touch surfaces
* Lubaloy C41100

## References

1. ↑ British Museum, "Scope Note" for "copper alloy"
2. ↑ Lyons, William C. and Plisga, Gary J. (eds.) Standard Handbook of Petroleum & Natural Gas Engineering, Elsevier, 2006
3. ↑ National Bronze & Metals | Beryllium Copper
4. ↑ Lewis Brass & Company | Copper Alloy Data
5. ↑ Cast copper alloy C83600 (Ounce Metal)  substech.com
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Industrial Investment Castings - Franklin Bronze, https://www.franklinbronze.com/capabilities/industrial-castings/, retrieved 2009-09-07 .
7. ↑ Brass and Bronze Alloys, http://www.ischumann.com/brass_bronze.html, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
8. ↑ UNS C83400, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C83400&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C83400, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
9. ↑ UNS C86100, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C86100&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C86100, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
10. ↑ UNS C95410, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C95410&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C95410, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
11. ↑ UNS C95600, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C95600&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C95600, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
12. ↑ UNS C95700, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C95700 &show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C95700, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
13. ↑ UNS C87200, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C87200&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C87200, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
14. ↑ UNS C87400, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C87400&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C87400, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
15. ↑ UNS C87500, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C87500&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C87500, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
16. ↑ UNS C87600, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C87600&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C87600, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
17. ↑ UNS C87800, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C87800&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C87800, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
18. ↑ UNS C87900, http://www.efunda.com/materials/alloys/copper/show_copper.cfm?ID=UNS_C87900&show_prop=all&Page_Title=UNS C87900, retrieved 2009-09-08 .
19. ↑ "Doehler-Jarvis Company Collection, MSS-202". https://www.utoledo.edu/library/canaday/HTML_findingaids/MSS-202.html.
20. ↑ Woldman’s Engineering Alloys, 9th Edition 1936, American Society for Metals, ISBN 978-0-87170-691-1
21. ↑ Ripley, George; Dana, Charles Anderson (1861). The New American Cyclopaedia: A Popular Dictionary of General Knowledge. 3. D. Appleton and Co.. p. 729.
22. ↑ Watt, Alexander (1887). Electro-Metallurgy Practically Treated. D. Van Nostrand. pp. 211–212.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Li, G., Thomas, B. G., & Stubbins, J. F. (2000). Modeling Creep and Fatigue of Copper Alloys. Technical Report, Continuous Casting Consortium, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. Available online.
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 Ellis, David L. (2005). GRCop-84: A High-Temperature Copper Alloy for High-Heat-Flux Applications. NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio. NASA/TM-2005-213582. Available at: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20050123582/downloads/20050123582.pdf
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Broyles, C. E.; Arzt, E.; Kraft, R. W. (1996). "Creep Deformation of Dispersion-Strengthened Copper." Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 27 (11): 3539–3547. doi:10.1007/BF02649859.
26. ↑ Creep (deformation).” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, last modified [date you accessed]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creep (deformation)
27. ↑ Marquis, E. A.; Dunand, D. C. (2002). “Model for creep threshold stress in precipitation-strengthened alloys with coherent particles.” Scripta Materialia, 47 (8), 503–508. doi:10.1016/S1359-6462(02)00165-3. Northwestern Scholars+1

### Bibliography

* Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Horton, Holbrook L. (1992). Machinery's Handbook (24 ed.). New York: Industrial Press Inc. p. 501. ISBN 0-8311-2492-X.

## External links

* Corrosion tests and standards: application and interpretation
* Copper Development Association
* [1]
* Copper Binary Phase Diagrams generation code (batch file - http://www.gotrawama.eu/copperNIMS/ramefabio.txt ) using open thermodynamic databases available at NIMS https://cpddb.nims.go.jp/cpddb/periodic.htm and a commercial software, Computherm Pandat, available for free at https://computherm.com/ help for use at https://computherm.com/docs/pandat_manual.pdf Images of the 34 binary phase diagrams are available at http://www.gotrawama.eu/copperNIMS/PNG/

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