Organic fertilizer

Short description: Fertilizer developed from natural processes

A cement reservoir containing cow manure mixed with water. This is common in rural Hainan Province, China. Note the bucket on a stick that the farmer uses to apply the mixture. Liming soilBone meal and meat meal can be added to soil to stimulate root growth and to release phosphorus.

Organic fertilizers are fertilizers that are naturally produced.[1] Fertilizers are materials that can be added to soil or plants, in order to provide nutrients and sustain growth. Typical organic fertilizers include all animal waste including meat processing waste, manure, slurry, and guano; plus plant based fertilizers such as compost; and biosolids.[2] Inorganic "organic fertilizers" include minerals and ash. Organic refers to the Principles of Organic Agriculture, which determines whether a fertilizer can be used for commercial organic agriculture, not whether the fertilizer consists of organic compounds. Different countries have different criteria on how organic certifications are awarded.[3]

## Contents

* 1 Examples and sources
* 1.1 Minerals
* 1.2 Animal sources
* 1.3 Plant
* 1.3.1 Peat
* 1.4 Human waste
* 2 Farming application
* 3 Comparison
* 3.1 Bulk density
* 3.2 Soil biology
* 3.3 Consistency
* 4 See also
* 5 See also
* 6 References

## Examples and sources

The main organic fertilizers are, peat, animal wastes, plant wastes from agriculture, and treated sewage sludge.[4][5]

### Minerals

Minerals can be mined from fossil products of animal activity, such as greensand (anaerobic marine deposits), some limestones (fossil shell deposits),[6] and some rock phosphates (fossil guano).[7] Adding limestone or “liming” a soil is a way to raise pH.[8] By raising the pH of a soil, microbial growth can be stimulated, which in turn increases biological processes, enabling nutrients to flow more freely through the soil.[9] When nutrients flow freely they are more accessible to plants and therefore can increase plant health and mass. If the soil is already pH balanced, liming the soil, would be ineffective.

* Rock phosphate
* Raw Langbeinite
* Rockdust
* Unprocessed natural potassium sulfate

### Animal sources

Animal sourced materials include both animal manures and residues from the slaughter of animals.[2]

Manures are derived from milk-producing dairy animals, egg-producing poultry, and animals raised for meat and hide production, or sport and recreation. Manure is an abundant resource with estimations for cattle manure in the US alone reaching two billion tons annually,[10] and one hen has the potential to produce a cubic foot of manure every six months.[11] By adding manure to crops it adds nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium and calcium.[12] While also increasing soil stability by increasing organic material, increasing water infiltration, it can add bacteria diversity and over time reduce the impacts of soil erosion.[12]

However, there is organic manure and non-organic manure. In order for manure to be considered organic it must come from organic livestock or certified organic growers.[13] If organic manure is not available, they are permitted to use non-organic manure as long as the animals have room to roam, are not kept in the dark, and growers abstain from using genetically modified feeds.[13]

Fresh manure, right from the stall, can cause issues because it can be too high in ammonia, or contain bacteria from the animal's gut. This can have an adverse effect on plants as the ammonia can burn the roots and microbes from the animal's gut can harm the microorganisms in the soil, killing them, or contaminate produce, such as E. coli and salmonella.[14] There is also a risk of introducing weeds, as seeds can pass through the gut of an animal relatively unharmed, or there can be seeds in the bedding of the livestock, which is often mixed in with the manure. Therefore, manure is required to be composted which will ideally kill any seeds or pathogens and reduce the ammonia content.[10]

A large commercial compost operation

Chicken litter, which consists of chicken manure and bedding, is an organic fertilizer that has been proposed to be superior for conditioning soil for harvest to synthetic fertilizers.[15] It contains similar minerals to other manures, while also having trace amounts of copper, zinc, magnesium, boron, and chloride.[14] Depending on the type of chicken litter obtained, it may contain bird remains. This type of chicken litter should not be spread on crops, and can pose a risk to grazing livestock due to botulism, a disease caused by bacteria within decaying birds.[14]

Horse manure contains the perfect balance of Carbon to Nitrogen for composting (30:1) and is a traditional garden soil amendment. However, careful organic sourcing is critical because feed (and bedding materials) from fields treated with the picolinic acid family of herbicides including aminopyralid, clopyralid, and picloram (marketed in the US as Milestone and Grazon-) can pass through a horse's digestive tract, remaining unchanged in manure and compost piles for long periods. These chemicals commonly affect potatoes, tomatoes, and beans, causing deformed plants and poor or non-existent yields. Also, horse de-wormers like Ivermectin can be detected in manure at levels harmful to beneficial insects and organisms for up to 45 days. Tainted compost can not only kill plants and beneficial organisms, but can create liability issues for owners.[16]

Bat guano has been used as a fertilizer for thousands of years, most prominently by the Incans, who valued bats and their guano so much, the penalty for killing a bat was death. Bat guano is high in elements such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. Guano typically contains about 10% nitrogen, which helps plants keep a healthy and vibrant green color and promotes rapid growth. Guano compared to manufactured fertilizers is safe to use inside and outside of the house, large gardens or small plants, and does not leach from the soil but rather remains and continues to slowly feed the plants and enhance the soil. Guano is also rich in bio-remediation microbes which helps to clean unnatural toxins from the soil that can prevent plant growth and cause rapid decay.[17]

Urine, from humans as well as animals, is a fertilizer: urea in urine is a nitrogen compound, and urine also contains phosphorus and potassium.[18][19][20][21] Human urine typically has about 3 times as much nitrogen as potassium, and more than 20 times as much nitrogen as phosphorus.[22][23] The amount of potassium in urine is variable, and depends on the amount of potassium in the person's diet.[22][24] While animal urine, as from cattle and pigs, is widely used on farmer's fields, human urine other than as part of sewage sludge is not currently allowed to be used in any[clarification needed] commercial agricultural operations. However, there are ongoing studies that have shown that aging urine in closed containers for 12–16 months eliminates 99% of harmful bacteria, due to increasing urea content and therefore pH.[18]

Animal by-products. When any animal is butchered, only about 40% to 60% of the live animal is converted to market product, with the remaining 40% to 60% classed as by-products. These by-products of animal slaughter, mostly inedible—blood, bone, feathers, hides, hoofs, horns, -- can be refined into agricultural fertilizers including blood meal, bone meal[4] fish meal, and feather meal.

Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer

* Blood meal
* Bone meal[25]
* Fish emulsion[26]
* Fish meal
* Manure
* Wood chips/sawdust[27]
* PROM

### Plant

Processed organic fertilizers include compost, liquid plant manures, humic acid, grain meal, amino acids, and seaweed extracts. Other examples are natural enzyme-digested proteins. Decomposing crop residue (green manure) from prior years is another source of fertility.

Compost provides little in the means of nutrients to plants, but it does provide soil stability through increasing organic matter. Compost does help microorganisms proliferate which in turn breaks down decaying plant material into substantial bio-available nutrients for plant to easily assimilate.[28] Compost does not need to be fully plant-based: it is often made with a mix of carbon-rich plant waste and nitrogen-rich animal waste including human excreta as a means to remove pathogens and odor from the latter.[29]

Grain meals can be made of corn gluten, alfalfa, cottonseed, or soybean. Most supply nitrogen and potassium, but soybean meal provides nitrogen and phosphorus.[28] When initially spread they can cause an increase in ammonia within the soil and burn seeds, it is recommended to use these after plants have developed, to ensure crop success.

Other ARS studies have found that algae used to capture nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields can not only prevent water contamination of these nutrients, but also can be used as an organic fertilizer. ARS scientists originally developed the "algal turf scrubber" to reduce nutrient runoff and increase quality of water flowing into streams, rivers, and lakes. They found that this nutrient-rich algae, once dried, can be applied to cucumber and corn seedlings and result in growth comparable to that seen using synthetic fertilizers.[30]

Ash produced by plant combustion is also an important K fertilizer.[31]

#### Peat

Peat, or turf, is plant material that is only partially decomposed. It is a source of organic matter. Soil with higher levels of organic matter are less likely to compact, which improves the soil aeration and water drainage, as well as assists in supporting soil microbial health.[32][12] It is sometimes credited as being the most widely use organic fertilizer and by volume is the top organic amendment.

### Human waste

Main articles: Chemistry:Biosolids and Reuse of human excreta

Sewage sludge, also known as biosolids, is effluent that has been treated, blended, composted, and sometimes dried until deemed biologically safe. As a fertilizer it is most commonly used on non-agricultural crops such as in silviculture or in soil remediation. Use of bio-solids in agricultural production is less common, and the National Organic Program of the USDA (NOP) has ruled that biosolids are not permitted in organic food production in the U.S.; while biologic in origin (vs mineral), sludge is unacceptable due to toxic metal accumulation, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other factors.[33]

Decomposing animal manure is an organic fertilizer source

## Farming application

In non-organic farming, a compromise between the use of artificial and organic fertilizers is common , often using inorganic fertilizers supplemented with the application of organics that are readily available such as the return of crop residues or the application of manure.

Cover crops are also grown to enrich soil as a green manure through nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere;[34] as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)[35] content of soils.

Fertilizer trees aid organic farming by bringing nutrients from the depths of the soil, and by assisting in the regulation of water usage.[36]

Leguminous cover crops or fertilizer trees are also grown to enrich soil as a green manure through nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere;[37] as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)[38] content of soils.

## Comparison

### Bulk density

In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizers are both more diluted and also much less readily available to plants. This may be however desired as a form of slow-release fertilizer containing insoluble nitrogen. By their nature, organic fertilizers increase physical and biological nutrient storage mechanisms in soils, mitigating risks of over-fertilization. Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically much lower than mineral (inorganic) fertilizers.[39][40] A University of North Carolina study found that potential mineralizable nitrogen (PMN) in the soil was 182–285% higher in organic mulched systems than in the synthetics control.[41]

There do exist 'fast-release' organic fertilizers with a risk of fertilizer burn. These include uncomposted animal manures, fish emulsion, blood meal, and urine. Composting converts nitrogen in these sources into more stable forms (with some loss).[42]

### Soil biology

Organic fertilizers have been known to improve biodiversity (soil life) and long-term productivity of soil,[43][44] and may prove a large depository for excess carbon dioxide.[45][46][47]

Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil organisms by providing organic matter and micronutrients for organismal relationships such as fungal mycorrhiza,[48] (which aid plants in absorbing nutrients), and can drastically reduce external inputs of pesticides, energy and fertilizer, at the cost of decreased yield.[49]

### Consistency

Organic fertilizers from composts and other sources can be quite variable from one batch to the next.[50] Without batch testing, amounts of applied nutrient cannot be precisely known. Nevertheless, one or more studies have shown they are at least as effective as chemical fertilizers over longer periods of use.[51]

## See also

* Biosecurity
* Compost
* Controlled release fertiliser
* Cover crop
* Fertilizer
* Food additive
* Grasscycling
* Manure
* Vermicompost

## See also

* Seaweed fertilizer
* Biofertilizer
* Organic hydroponic solutions
* Reuse of excreta

## References

1. ↑ Christians, Nick E.; Patton, Aaron J.; Law, Quincy D. (2016-11-21) (in en). Fundamentals of Turfgrass Management, Fifth Edition. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. doi:10.1002/9781119308867. ISBN 978-1-119-30886-7. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/9781119308867.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Guertal, E. A.; Green, B. D. (2012). "Evaluation of organic fertilizer sources for south-eastern (USA) turfgrass maintenance" (in en). Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section B 62 (sup1): 130–138. doi:10.1080/09064710.2012.683201. ISSN 0906-4710. Bibcode: 2012AcASB..62S.130G.
3. ↑ "How Does USDA Assess Organic Equivalency with other Countries? | Agricultural Marketing Service". https://www.ams.usda.gov/services/organic-certification/international-trade/how-does-usda-assess-organic-equivalency-other-countries.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Heinrich Dittmar, Manfred Drach, Ralf Vosskamp, Martin E. Trenkel, Reinhold Gutser, Günter Steffens "Fertilizers, 2. Types" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2009, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. doi:10.1002/14356007.n10_n01
5. ↑ "Nitrogen-Phosphorus-Potassium Values of Organic Fertilizers". https://extension.oregonstate.edu/node/139446/printable/print.
6. ↑ Barker, Allen V. (2012). "Plant Growth in Response to Phosphorus Fertilizers in Acidic Soil Amended with Limestone or Organic Matter" (in en). Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 43 (13): 1800–1810. doi:10.1080/00103624.2012.684829. ISSN 0010-3624. Bibcode: 2012CSSPA..43.1800B. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00103624.2012.684829.
7. ↑ Hillel, Daniel (2008), "Soil Fertility and Plant Nutrition" (in en), Soil in the Environment (Elsevier): pp. 151–162, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-348536-6.50016-2, ISBN 978-0-12-348536-6, https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780123485366500162, retrieved 2021-04-08
8. ↑ Barker, Allen V. (2012). "Plant Growth in Response to Phosphorus Fertilizers in Acidic Soil Amended with Limestone or Organic Matter" (in en). Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 43 (13): 1800–1810. doi:10.1080/00103624.2012.684829. ISSN 0010-3624. Bibcode: 2012CSSPA..43.1800B. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00103624.2012.684829.
9. ↑ Ahmad, Waqar; Singh, Balwant; Dijkstra, Feike A.; Dalal, R.C. (2013). "Inorganic and organic carbon dynamics in a limed acid soil are mediated by plants" (in en). Soil Biology and Biochemistry 57: 549–555. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2012.10.013. Bibcode: 2013SBiBi..57..549A. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0038071712003926.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "The Poop on Manure" (in en). 24 January 2021. https://www.westcoastseeds.com/blogs/garden-wisdom/poop-manure.
11. ↑ "Using Chicken Manure Safely in Home Gardens and Landscapes" (in en-us). https://extension.unr.edu/publication.aspx?PubID=3028.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 "Manure and Nutrient Management - Beef Cattle Research Council". http://www.beefresearch.ca/research-topic.cfm.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "How do the Regenerative Organic Standards compare to the Canadian Organic Standards?" (in en-US). http://magazine.cog.ca/article/how-do-the-regenerative-organic-standards-compare-to-the-canadian-organic-standards/.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "Best practice guidelines for using poultry litter on pastures" (in en). https://www.thepoultrysite.com/articles/best-practice-guidelines-for-using-poultry-litter-on-pastures-1.
15. ↑ "Researchers Study Value of Chicken Litter in Cotton Production". 23 July 2010. https://www.ars.usda.gov/news-events/news/research-news/2010/researchers-study-value-of-chicken-litter-in-cotton-production/.
16. ↑ "The Worm Farmer's Handbook: Mid- to Large-Scale Vermicomposting for Farms, Businesses, Municipalities, Schools, and Institutions". https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329488189.
17. ↑ "GUANO: BATS' GIFT to GARDENERS" (in en-US). https://www.batcon.org/article/guano-bats-gift-to-gardeners/.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Urine fertilizer: 'Aging' effectively protects against transfer of antibiotic resistance" (in en). https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/01/200122080500.htm.
19. ↑ "Yes wee can: study gives green light to use urine as crop fertiliser" (in en). 2020-01-22. http://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/jan/22/study-gives-green-light-to-use-of-urine-as-crop-fertiliser.
20. ↑ "Can Human Urine Replace Chemical Fertilizers?" (in en-US). 2014-01-13. https://modernfarmer.com/2014/01/human-pee-proven-fertilizer-future/.
21. ↑ Brown, Sally; scientist, ContributorSoil; chef; swimmer (2017-01-16). "Pee for Plants" (in en). https://www.huffpost.com/entry/pee-for-plants_b_14204270.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Potassium - Urine" (in en). https://www.ucsfhealth.org/Medical Tests/003600.
23. ↑ "Phosphate in Urine" (in en-US). https://myhealth.alberta.ca:443/Health/pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=hw202342.
24. ↑ Mente, Andrew; Irvine, E. Jan; Honey, R. John D'A; Logan, Alexander G. (April 2009). "Urinary potassium is a clinically useful test to detect a poor quality diet". The Journal of Nutrition 139 (4): 743–749. doi:10.3945/jn.108.098319. ISSN 1541-6100. PMID 19211830.
25. ↑ "Phosphorus Fertilizers for Organic Farming Systems". CO State Extension. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/00569.html.
26. ↑ "Maintaining Soil Fertility in an Organic Fruit and Vegetable Crops System". University of MN Extension. http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/M1191.html.
27. ↑ "Organic Materials as *Nitrogen Fertilizers". CO State Extension. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/crops/00546.html.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Plant-Based Fertilizers for Organic Gardens" (in en). https://www.dummies.com/home-garden/gardening/organic-gardening/plant-based-fertilizers-for-organic-gardens/.
29. ↑ Robert, Graves (February 2000). "Composting". pp. 2–22. https://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/ftpref/wntsc/AWM/neh637c2.pdf.
30. ↑ "Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine". USDA Agricultural Research Service. 7 May 2010. https://agresearchmag.ars.usda.gov/2010/may/algae.
31. ↑ "Managing Potassium for Organic Crop Production". CO State Extension. http://ucanr.org/sites/nm/files/76654.pdf.
32. ↑ Saito, B.; Seckler, M. M. (2014). "Alkaline extraction of humic substances from peat applied to organic-mineral fertilizer production". Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering 31 (3): 675–682. doi:10.1590/0104-6632.20140313s00002512. ISSN 0104-6632.
33. ↑ "Organic Farming | Agriculture | US EPA". Epa.gov. http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/torg.html.
34. ↑ Gaw, HZ (2011-10-03). "Isolation and Study of Cultures of Chinese Vetch Nodule Bacteria". J Bacteriol 48 (4): 483–9. doi:10.1128/JB.48.4.483-489.1944. PMID 16560855. PMC 373994. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=373994&pageindex=6#page. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
35. ↑ Uphoff, Norman; Ball, Andrew S.; Fernandes, Erick; Herren, Hans; Husson, Olivier; Laing, Mark; Palm, Cheryl; Pretty, Jules et al. (3 March 2006). Biological approaches to sustainable soil systems. CRC Press. ISBN 9781420017113. https://books.google.com/books?id=XO3pio5Opy8C&q=phosphorus+addition+fava+bean&pg=PA564. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
36. ↑ Langford, Kate (August 31, 2011). "Surviving drought through agroforestry". World Agroforestry Centre. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/newsroom/highlights/surviving-drought-through-agroforestry.
37. ↑ "Isolation and Study of Cultures of Chinese Vetch Nodule Bacteria". Pubmedcentral.nih.gov. 6 July 2010. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=373994&pageindex=6#page.
38. ↑ Uphoff, Norman Thomas (2006). Biological approaches to sustainable .... CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-57444-583-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=XO3pio5Opy8C&q=phosphorus+addition+fava+bean&pg=PA564. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
39. ↑ "Acta Horticulturae". Actahort.org. http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=644_20.
40. ↑ "AZ Master Gardener Manual: Organic Fetilizers". Ag.arizona.edu. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/organic.html.
41. ↑ Tu, Cong; Ristaino, Jean B.; Hu, Shuijin (2006). "Soil microbial biomass and activity in organic tomato farming systems: Effects of organic inputs and straw mulching". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38 (2): 247–255. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.05.002. Bibcode: 2006SBiBi..38..247T. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TC7-4GDBRNX-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=1e3f29ab6806e11cc63cd648dcb5a13d. Retrieved 2012-01-09.
42. ↑ Fitzgerald, T. (2009). "Organic fertilizers". Washington State University. http://spokane-county.wsu.edu/spokane/eastside/Fact Sheets/C180 Organic Fertilizers 09.pdf.
43. ↑ Enwall, Karin; Laurent Philippot,2 and Sara Hallin1 (December 2005). "Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization". Applied and Environmental Microbiology (American Society for Microbiology) 71 (2): 8335–8343. doi:10.1128/AEM.71.12.8335-8343.2005. PMID 16332820. PMC 1317341. Bibcode: 2005ApEnM..71.8335E. http://aem.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/71/12/8335. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
44. ↑ Birkhofera, Klaus; T. Martijn Bezemerb, c, d, Jaap Bloeme, Michael Bonkowskia, Søren Christensenf, David Duboisg, Fleming Ekelundf, Andreas Fließbachh, Lucie Gunstg, Katarina Hedlundi, Paul Mäderh, Juha Mikolaj, Christophe Robink, Heikki Setäläj, Fabienne Tatin-Frouxk, Wim H. Van der Puttenb, c and Stefan Scheua (September 2008). "Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 40 (9): 2297–2308. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.05.007. Bibcode: 2008SBiBi..40.2297B. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TC7-4SR67X8-1&_user=10&_coverDate=09/30/2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1189586172&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=835b56d01da86058b98352b95f68d2d8. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
45. ↑ Lal, R. (2004). "Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security". Science 304 (5677): 1623–7. doi:10.1126/science.1097396. PMID 15192216. Bibcode: 2004Sci...304.1623L. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;304/5677/1623.
46. ↑ Rees, Eifion (3 July 2009). "Change farming to cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent". The Ecologist. http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/280491/change_farming_to_cut_co2_emissions_by_25_per_cent.html.
47. ↑ Fliessbach, A.; P Maeder(2), A Diop(3), LWM Luttikholt(1), N Scialabba(4), U Niggli(2), Paul Hepperly(3), T LaSalle(3) (2009). "ClimateChange: GlobalRisks,ChallengesandDecisions". P24.17 Mitigation and adaptation strategies – organic agriculture. IOPConf. Series: EarthandEnvironmentalScience6(2009)242025: IOP Publishing. http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1755-1315/6/24/.../ees9_6_242025.pdf.
48. ↑ PIMENTEL, David; PAUL HEPPERLY, JAMES HANSON, DAVID DOUDS, and RITA SEIDEL (July 2005). "Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems". BioScience 55 (7): 573. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0573:EEAECO2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0006-3568.
49. ↑ Mäder, Paul; Andreas Fliebach,,1 David Dubois,2 Lucie Gunst,2 Padruot Fried,2 Urs Niggli1 (31 May 2002). "Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming". Science 296 (5573): 1694–1697. doi:10.1126/science.1071148. PMID 12040197. Bibcode: 2002Sci...296.1694M. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5573/1694. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
50. ↑ "Crazy about Compost". http://www.msuorganicfarm.com/Compost.pdf.
51. ↑ "CSA". Md1.csa.com. http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=0002290EN&q=http://www.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection;=TRD&recid;=0002290EN&uid=789131166&setcookie=yes.

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Plant nutrition / Fertilizer

Imbalances|

* Boron deficiency
* Calcium deficiency
* Iron deficiency
* Magnesium deficiency
* Manganese deficiency
* Molybdenum deficiency
* Nitrogen deficiency
* Phosphorus deficiency
* Potassium deficiency
* Zinc deficiency
* Micronutrient deficiency
* Chlorosis
* Fertilizer burn

Assimilation|

* Nitrogen assimilation
* Phosphorus assimilation
* Sulfur assimilation
* Microbial assistance
* Photorespiration

Methods|

* Fertigation
* Fertilizer tree
* Green manure
* Hoagland solution
* Hydroponic dosers
* Living mulch
* Nutrient budgeting
* Nutrient management
* Organic fertilizer
* Plant tissue test

Miscellaneous|

* Soil fertility
* Nutrient pollution
* Soil pH
* Agrobiology

Related concepts|

* Algal nutrient solutions

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