Vitreous china

Short description: Enamel coating applied to porcelain

Vitreous china

Type| enamel
Physical properties
Density (ρ)| 1.83-2.48 g/cm3
Water absorption—over 24 hours| <0.5%
Mechanical properties
Compressive strength (σc)| 400-800 kgf/cm2 (39226.6-78453.2 kPa)
Poisson's ratio (ν)| 0.5
Toilets are a common kind of vitreous china fixture

Vitreous china is an enamel coating applied to ceramics, particularly porcelain, after they have been fired, though the name can also refer to the finished piece as a whole. This coating enhances the tougherness, density, and shine of porcelain, and it is a common choice for items such as toilets and sink basins.[1][2][3]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Uses
* 3 Structure
* 4 Physical properties
* 5 Production
* 6 References

## History

The development of vitreous china's closely follows that of other vitreous materials like glass, owing to the similar production process in terms of the materials needed and preparing and firing such. Because enamel is essentially glass applied to a substrate or surface to cover it, its production differs from that of glass by only a few steps.

The earliest known objects to be covered with a glaze are glazed stones made for jewellery, having been manufactured in Egypt as early as 4000 BC, in Mesopotamia from 5500 to 4000 BC, in Europe from 1400 BC, and in the Indus Valley from 4500 to 3500 BC.[4] The first instance of applying an enamel to a substrate occurred around 3500 BP in Mycenae and Cyprus.[5] The champlevé technique, which involves first placing a glass enamel powder on a substrate and then firing it, was the predecessor technique for applying vitreous china and was used by the Celts from the 1st century BC.[5]

## Uses

Vitreous china is used in a variety of household and sanitaryware items such as basins, toilets, bidets, urinals, and bathtubs.[6] Items that use vitreous china are usually ones that are best when kept clean and sanitary, with which a coating of vitreous china enamel helps. These same vitreous china items also benefit from having stains and spots removed easily due to the nature of their use.

Vitreous china can be occasionally found applied to kitchen countertops and related fixtures.[7] The low occurrence is due to vitreous china's fragility when exposed to blunt force from crockery and other kitchen items. Instead, materials like plastic and steel are more commonly used in kitchen fixture.

Vitreous china can also serve aesthetic purposes. Items applied with a vitreous china enamel for this purpose include plates and other chinaware in china painting, and Fabergé eggs.

## Structure

Vitreous china, like other enamels, is a glass-particulate composite, that consists of glass (50-70 wt%) with non-silicate particles strewn about it that give it different properties.[8] Included in the vitreous enamel mixture is clay, which helps hold it all together and gives the necessary flexibility to form it into shape during firing, quartz which reduces shrinkage, and feldspar, which increases the liquidity of the mixture when fired into its vitreous phase, ensuring low porosity in the final product.[9][10]

After vitrification, vitreous china contains mullite, a crystal which forms as a result of reactions taking place in clay.[11] Not all quartz and feldspar liquify during firing, so some remain as "relict" (its pre-firing powder form) in the final vitrified product.[11]

## Physical properties

The general purpose of applying vitreous china enamel to a ceramic item like a washbasin is to protect it, and it may be used secondarily for aesthetic purposes. In covering their porcelain substrate, vitreous china gives anti-corrosive properties and helps against weathering and heat.[5] Its non-porosity also prevents bacteria from entering the surface of ceramic material, and so keeps it from building up. Its porosity makes it absorb less than 0.5% of water.[12] The porosity of vitreous china can be reduced by increasing its feldspar content.[9]

Vitreous china is translucent, which, along with its protective nature, has made it preserve artefacts such as jewellery and potentially preserve them in the same state for thousands of years.[4]

Viscosity while vitreous china is in its liquid phase during firing depends on its constitutive ratio of glass to other particles- a higher quantity of particles results in higher viscosity.[11] Vitreous china's density post vitrification ranges from 1.83 to 2.48 grams per cubic centimetre.[13] Its Poisson ratio is 0.5.[11] Its flexural strength is 400-800 kgf/cm2.[14]

## Production

In most cases, vitreous china consists of a mix of clay, feldspar, flint and quartz sand.[11] This mix is usually fired once at 1200–1300 °C for most applications, and twice fired for use in crockery with a first firing at 900–950 °C and a second firing at 1200–1250 °C. Crockery is fired twice to reduce its porosity.[9] To make the mix more workable, water is usually added. The firing temperature chosen is important, as vitreous and ceramic bodies are less strong and more porous if under or over fired.[15]

Creep is the unwanted distortion a vitreous body undergoes during firing and is influenced by the substance's rheological properties.[8][11] Such properties depend on the particles in vitreous china's glass mixture, which can vary in type, size (1-50μm), distribution or shape.[11] The amount of mullite in vitreous china, which is determined by the amount of clay in the starting mixture, is the primary determinant for creep rate during firing.[16][11]

## References

1. ↑ Active Interest Media, Inc. (April 1977). Old-House Journal. Active Interest Media, Inc.. p. 39. https://books.google.com/books?id=s0kMqoiOhugC&pg=PA39. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
2. ↑ Philippe Boch; Jean-Claude Nièpce (5 January 2010). Ceramic Materials: Processes, Properties, and Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-470-39454-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=lnN1rcr4unoC&pg=PA117. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
3. ↑ William L. Ventolo (1 May 1995). Your Home Inspection Guide. Dearborn Trade Publishing. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-7931-1336-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=2edigWaeGPUC&pg=PA126. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Angelini, I., Gratuze, B., & Artiolo, G. (2019). Glass and other vitreous materials through history. EMU notes in mineralogy, 20, 87-150.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Rossi, S., Russo, F., & Compagnoni, A. M. (2020). A brief history of porcelain enamel: from artistic enamel to technical enamelling . Scholarly community encyclopedia.
6. ↑ Mani, Venkat. "What is Sanitary ware? Definition & Meaning" (in en-GB). https://ceramicninja.com/what-is-sanitary-ware/.
7. ↑ Halepis, Harriette (20 January 2021). "What is Vitreous China?". https://www.infobloom.com/what-is-vitreous-china.htm.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Bergstrøm, Lennart (2017). "Rheology of Concentrated Suspensions". Surface and Colloid Chemistry in Advanced Ceramics Processing: 193–244. ISBN 9781351412674. https://books.google.com/books?id=7EoPEAAAQBAJ&q=L.+Bergstrøm,+“Rheology+of+Concentrated+Suspensions”.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Bonnet, J.-P., & Gaillard, J.-M. (2007). Silicate Ceramics. In P. Boch, & J.-C. Niepce, Ceramic materials processes, properties and applications (pp. 117-118). London: ISTE.
10. ↑ Cambier, Francis; Leriche, Anne (1996). "Vitrification". Materials Science and Technology—A Comprehensive Treatment 17B: 123–144. doi:10.1002/9783527603978.mst0200. ISBN 9783527603978. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9783527603978.mst0200.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 Porte, F. (2002). Creep of Vitreous China: Influence of Particle Size. Whitewares & materials a collection of papers presented at the 104th annual meeting of the American Ceramic Society and the Whitewares and Materials Division fall meeting, back to the basics, held in conjunction with the ACerS Southeastern Section and the (p. 177). St Louis, Missouri; Asheville, North Carolina: The American Ceramic Society.
12. ↑ "Vitreous China – Sibelco" (in en-US). https://ceramics.sibelcotools.com/sanitaryware/vitreous-china/.
13. ↑ Parveen, Shahnaj; Jahan, Shirin Akter (2010). "Investigation on Physico-Chemical Properties of Vitreous China Sanitary Ware from Local Clays" (in en). Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 45 (4): 387–392. doi:10.3329/bjsir.v45i4.7386. ISSN 2224-7157. https://www.banglajol.info/index.php/BJSIR/article/view/7386.
14. ↑ Matsumoto, Akio & Toshiya Nishikawa, "Vitreous china, method for preparing the vitreous china, and sanitary ware produced therefrom", EP patent 0584977, published 1994-03-02, assigned to Toto Ltd.
15. ↑ Sortwell, H (1923). "The Effect of Variation in Firing on the Physical Properties of Vitreous China Bodies1". Journal of the American Ceramic Society 6 (8): 915–936. doi:10.1111/j.1151-2916.1923.tb17759.x.
16. ↑ Rhanim, H.; Olagnon, C.; Fantozzi, G.; Torrecillas, R. (1997-01-01). "Experimental characterisation of high temperature creep resistance of mullite" (in en). Ceramics International 23 (6): 497–507. doi:10.1016/S0272-8842(96)00061-2. ISSN 0272-8842. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272884296000612.

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Porcelain

China|

| General:|

* Chinese porcelain
* Chinese export porcelain
* Chinese influences on Islamic pottery
* Fonthill Vase (1338)

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Types:|

* Proto-celadon (16th century BCE)
* Celadon (1st century)
* Yue (2nd century)
* Ding (10th century)
* Qingbai (12th century)
* Jingdezhen (11th century on)
* Blue and white (14th century on)
* Blanc de Chine (14th century on)
* Kraak (16th century)
* Swatow (16th century)
* Tianqi (17th century)
* Kangxi (17th century)
* Famille jaune, noire, rose, verte (17th century)
* Canton (18th century)

Ming plate 15th century Jingdezhen kilns JiangxiMeissen hard porcelain vase 1735

Korea|

| General:|

* Korean porcelain

|

Types:|

* Goryeo (10th century)
* Joseon (14th century)

Japan|

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* Japanese porcelain
* Japanese export porcelain

|

Types:|

* Arita
* Imari
* Nabeshima
* Kakiemon
* Kutani
* Hirado

Europe|

| General:|

* List of companies
* French porcelain
* Chinese porcelain in European painting
* Armorial ware

|

Types:|

* Tichelaar (1572)
* Medici (1575)
* Rouen (1673)
* Nevers
* Saint-Cloud (1693)
* Meissen (1710)
* Vienna (1718)
* Rörstrand (1726)
* Chantilly (1730)
* Doccia (1735)
* Vincennes (1740)
* Chelsea (1743)
* Capodimonte (1743)
* Saint Petersburg (1744)
* Mennecy (1745)
* Bow (1747)
* Fürstenberg (1747)
* Nymphenburg (1747)
* Plymouth (1748)
* Villeroy & Boch (1748)
* Worcester (1751)
* Frankenthal (1755)
* Sèvres (1756)
* Derby (1757)
* Ludwigsburg (1758)
* Weesp (1759)
* Wedgwood (1759)
* Berlin (1763)
* Wallendorf (1764)
* Revol (1768)
* Limoges (1771)
* Loosdrechts (1774)
* Copenhagen (1775)
* Clignancourt (1775)
* Dihl & Guérhard (1781)
* Mintons (1793)
* Hutschenreuther (1814)
* Doulton (1815)
* Lichte (1822)
* Herend (1826)
* Bing & Grøndahl (1853)
* Zsolnay (1853)
* Wagner & Apel (1877)
* Rosenthal (1879)
* Porsgrund (1885)
* Augarten (1923)

Technologies|

* Soft-paste porcelain
* Hard-paste porcelain
* Bone china
* Overglaze decoration
* China painting
* Biscuit
* Factory mark

People|

* Chinamen
* Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus
* Johann Friedrich Böttger
* François Xavier d'Entrecolles
* Dmitry Vinogradov

Collections|

* British Museum (London): Asia Department / Percival David Foundation
* The David Collection (Copenhagen)
* Dresden Porcelain Collection (Dresden)
* Gardiner Museum (Toronto)
* Kuskovo State Museum of Ceramics (Moscow)
* Sèvres – Cité de la céramique (Paris)
* Musée des Arts Décoratifs (Paris)
* Palace Museum (Beijing)
* Topkapı Palace (Istanbul)
* Victoria and Albert Museum (London)
* Museum of Royal Worcester (Worcester)
* Walters Art Museum (Baltimore)
* Ludwigsburg Palace (Ludwigsburg)

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