Zinc oxide

Short description: White powder insoluble in water

"Chinese white" redirects here. For other uses, see China white (disambiguation).

Zinc oxide

Names
Other names

Zinc white, calamine, philosopher's wool, Chinese white, flowers of zinc, zinca

Identifiers

CAS Number

* 1314-13-2 Y

3D model (JSmol)

* Interactive image

ChEBI |

* CHEBI:36560 Y

ChEMBL |

* ChEMBL3988900 Y

ChemSpider |

* 14122 Y

DrugBank |

* DB09321

EC Number |

* 215-222-5

Gmelin Reference

| 13738
KEGG |

* C12570

PubChem CID

* 14806

RTECS number |

* ZH4810000

UNII |

* SOI2LOH54Z Y

UN number | 3077

InChI

* InChI=1S/O.Zn Y

Key: XLOMVQKBTHCTTD-UHFFFAOYSA-N Y

SMILES

* [Zn]=O

Properties

Chemical formula

| ZnO
Molar mass | 81.406 g/mol[1]
Appearance  | White solid[1]
Odor | Odorless
Density | 5.6 g/cm3[1]
Melting point |  1,974 °C (3,585 °F; 2,247 K) (decomposes)[1][7]
Boiling point |  2,360 °C (4,280 °F; 2,630 K) (decomposes)

Solubility in water

| 0.0004% (17.8°C)[2]
Band gap | 3.2 eV (direct)[3]
Electron mobility | 180 cm2/(V·s)[3]

Magnetic susceptibility (χ)

| −27.2·10−6 cm3/mol[4]
Thermal conductivity | 0.6 W/(cm·K)[5]

Refractive index (nD)

| n1=2.013, n2=2.029[6]
Structure[8]

Crystal structure

| Wurtzite

Space group

| C6v4-P63mc

Lattice constant

a = 3.2495 Å, c = 5.2069 Å

Formula units (Z)

| 2

Coordination geometry

| Tetrahedral
Thermochemistry[9]

Heat capacity (C)

| 40.3 J·K−1mol−1

Std molar
entropy (S ~~o~~ 298)

| 43.65±0.40 J·K−1mol−1

Std enthalpy of
formation (ΔfH⦵298)

| −350.46±0.27 kJ mol−1

Gibbs free energy (ΔfG˚)

| −320.5 kJ mol−1

Enthalpy of fusion (ΔfH⦵fus)

| 70 kJ/mol
Pharmacology
1=ATCvet code}  | QA07XA91 (WHO)
Hazards
Safety data sheet | ICSC 0208
GHS pictograms |
GHS Signal word | Warning

GHS hazard statements

| H400, H401

GHS precautionary statements

| P273, P391, P501
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)  |

Flash point |  1,436 °C (2,617 °F; 1,709 K)
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):

LD50 (median dose)

| 240 mg/kg (intraperitoneal, rat)[10]
7950 mg/kg (rat, oral)[11]

LC50 (median concentration)

| 2500 mg/m3 (mouse)[11]

LCLo (lowest published)

| 2500 mg/m3 (guinea pig, 3–4 h)[11]
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):

PEL (Permissible)

| TWA 5 mg/m3 (fume) TWA 15 mg/m3 (total dust) TWA 5 mg/m3 (resp dust)[2]

REL (Recommended)

| Dust: TWA 5 mg/m3 C 15 mg/m3

Fume: TWA 5 mg/m3 ST 10 mg/m3[2]

IDLH (Immediate danger)

| 500 mg/m3[2]
Related compounds

Other anions

| Zinc sulfide
Zinc selenide
Zinc telluride

Other cations

| Cadmium oxide
Mercury(II) oxide

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

N verify (what is YN ?)
Infobox references

Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula ZnO. It is a white powder which is insoluble in water. ZnO is used as an additive in numerous materials and products including cosmetics, food supplements, rubbers, plastics, ceramics, glass, cement, lubricants,[12] paints, sunscreens, ointments, adhesives, sealants, pigments, foods, batteries, ferrites, fire retardants, semi conductors,[13] and first-aid tapes. Although it occurs naturally as the mineral zincite, most zinc oxide is produced synthetically.[14]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Chemical properties
* 3 Physical properties
* 3.1 Structure
* 3.2 Mechanical properties
* 3.3 Electronic and optical properties
* 4 Production
* 4.1 Indirect process
* 4.2 Direct process
* 4.3 Wet chemical process
* 4.4 Laboratory synthesis
* 4.5 ZnO nanostructures
* 5 Applications
* 5.1 Rubber industry
* 5.2 Ceramic industry
* 5.3 Medicine
* 5.3.1 Skin treatment
* 5.3.2 Antibacterial
* 5.3.3 Sunscreen
* 5.3.4 Dental restoration
* 5.4 Food additive
* 5.5 Pigment
* 5.6 UV absorber
* 5.7 Coatings
* 5.8 Corrosion prevention in nuclear reactors
* 5.9 Methane reforming
* 5.10 Electronics
* 5.11 Gas sensors
* 6 Aspirational applications
* 6.1 Transparent electrodes
* 6.2 Piezoelectricity
* 6.3 Photocatalysis
* 6.4 Other
* 7 Safety
* 8 See also
* 9 References
* 10 Cited sources
* 11 Reviews
* 12 External links

## History

Early humans probably used zinc compounds in processed[14] and unprocessed forms, as paint or medicinal ointment; however, their composition is uncertain. The use of pushpanjan, probably zinc oxide, as a salve for eyes and open wounds is mentioned in the Indian medical text the Charaka Samhita, thought to date from 500 BC or before.[15] Zinc oxide ointment is also mentioned by the Greek physician Dioscorides (1st century AD).[16] Galen suggested treating ulcerating cancers with zinc oxide,[17] as did Avicenna in his The Canon of Medicine. It is used as an ingredient in products such as baby powder and creams against diaper rashes, calamine cream, anti-dandruff shampoos, and antiseptic ointments.[18]

The Romans produced considerable quantities of brass (an alloy of zinc and copper) as early as 200 BC by a cementation process where copper was reacted with zinc oxide.[19] The zinc oxide is thought to have been produced by heating zinc ore in a shaft furnace. This liberated metallic zinc as a vapor, which then ascended the flue and condensed as the oxide. This process was described by Dioscorides in the 1st century AD.[20] Zinc oxide has also been recovered from zinc mines at Zawar in India, dating from the second half of the first millennium BC.[16]

From the 12th to the 16th century, zinc and zinc oxide were recognized and produced in India using a primitive form of the direct synthesis process. From India, zinc manufacturing moved to China in the 17th century. In 1743, the first European zinc smelter was established in Bristol, United Kingdom.[21] Around 1782, Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau proposed replacing lead white pigment with zinc oxide.[22]

The main usage of zinc oxide (zinc white) was in paints and as an additive to ointments. Zinc white was accepted as a pigment in oil paintings by 1834 but it did not mix well with oil. This problem was solved by optimizing the synthesis of ZnO. In 1845, Edme-Jean Leclaire in Paris was producing the oil paint on a large scale; by 1850, zinc white was being manufactured throughout Europe. The success of zinc white paint was due to its advantages over the traditional white lead: zinc white is essentially permanent in sunlight, it is not blackened by sulfur-bearing air, it is non-toxic and more economical. Because zinc white is so "clean" it is valuable for making tints with other colors, but it makes a rather brittle dry film when unmixed with other colors. For example, during the late 1890s and early 1900s, some artists used zinc white as a ground for their oil paintings. These paintings developed cracks over time.[23]

In recent times, most zinc oxide has been used in the rubber industry to resist corrosion. In the 1970s, the second largest application of ZnO was photocopying. High-quality ZnO produced by the "French process" was added to photocopying paper as a filler. This application was soon displaced by titanium.[24]

## Chemical properties

Pure ZnO is a white powder. However, in nature, it occurs as the rare mineral zincite, which usually contains manganese and other impurities that confer a yellow to red color.[25]

Crystalline zinc oxide is thermochromic, changing from white to yellow when heated in air and reverting to white on cooling.[26] This color change is caused by a small loss of oxygen to the environment at high temperatures to form the non-stoichiometric Zn1+xO, where at 800 °C, x = 0.00007.[26]

Zinc oxide is an amphoteric oxide. It is nearly insoluble in water, but it will dissolve in most acids, such as hydrochloric acid:[27]

ZnO + 2 HCl → ZnCl2 \+ H2O

Solid zinc oxide will also dissolve in alkalis to give soluble zincates:[27]

ZnO + 2 NaOH + H2O → Na2[Zn(OH)4]

ZnO reacts slowly with fatty acids in oils to produce the corresponding carboxylates, such as oleate or stearate. When mixed with a strong aqueous solution of zinc chloride, ZnO forms cement-like products best described as zinc hydroxy chlorides.[28] This cement was used in dentistry.[29]

Hopeite

ZnO also forms cement-like material when treated with phosphoric acid; related materials are used in dentistry.[29] A major component of zinc phosphate cement produced by this reaction is hopeite, Zn3(PO4)2·4H2O.[30]

ZnO decomposes into zinc vapor and oxygen at around 1975 °C with a standard oxygen pressure. In a carbothermic reaction, heating with carbon converts the oxide into zinc vapor at a much lower temperature (around 950 °C).[27]

ZnO + C → Zn(Vapor) \+ CO

## Physical properties

Wurtzite structure A zincblende unit cell

### Structure

Zinc oxide crystallizes in two main forms, hexagonal wurtzite[31] and cubic zincblende. The wurtzite structure is most stable at ambient conditions and thus most common. The zincblende form can be stabilized by growing ZnO on substrates with cubic lattice structure. In both cases, the zinc and oxide centers are tetrahedral, the most characteristic geometry for Zn(II). ZnO converts to the rocksalt motif at relatively high pressures about 10 GPa.[13]

Hexagonal[32] and zincblende polymorphs have no inversion symmetry (reflection of a crystal relative to any given point does not transform it into itself).[33] This and other lattice symmetry properties result in piezoelectricity of the hexagonal[32] and zincblende[33] ZnO, and pyroelectricity of hexagonal ZnO.[34]

The hexagonal structure has a point group 6 mm (Hermann–Mauguin notation) or C6v (Schoenflies notation), and the space group is P63mc or C6v4. The lattice constants are a = 3.25 Å and c = 5.2 Å; their ratio c/a ~ 1.60 is close to the ideal value for hexagonal cell c/a = 1.633.[35] As in most group II-VI materials, the bonding in ZnO is largely ionic (Zn2+O2−) with the corresponding radii of 0.074 nm for Zn2+ and 0.140 nm for O2−. This property accounts for the preferential formation of wurtzite rather than zinc blende structure,[36] as well as the strong piezoelectricity of ZnO. Because of the polar Zn−O bonds, zinc and oxygen planes are electrically charged. To maintain electrical neutrality, those planes reconstruct at atomic level in most relative materials, but not in ZnO – its surfaces are atomically flat, stable and exhibit no reconstruction.[37] However, studies using wurtzoid structures explained the origin of surface flatness and the absence of reconstruction at ZnO wurtzite surfaces[38] in addition to the origin of charges on ZnO planes.

### Mechanical properties

ZnO is a relatively soft material with approximate hardness of 4.5 on the Mohs scale.[12] Its elastic constants are smaller than those of relevant III-V semiconductors, such as GaN. The high heat capacity and heat conductivity, low thermal expansion and high melting temperature of ZnO are beneficial for ceramics.[24] The E2 optical phonon in ZnO exhibits an unusually long lifetime of 133 ps at 10 K.[39]

Among the tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors, it has been stated that ZnO has the highest piezoelectric tensor, or at least one comparable to that of GaN and AlN.[40] This property makes it a technologically important material for many piezoelectrical applications, which require a large electromechanical coupling. Therefore, ZnO in the form of thin film has been one of the most studied and used resonator materials for thin-film bulk acoustic resonators.[41]

### Electronic and optical properties

Favourable properties of zinc oxide include good transparency, high electron mobility, wide band gap, and strong room-temperature luminescence. Those properties make ZnO valuable for a variety of emerging applications: transparent electrodes in liquid crystal displays,[42] energy-saving or heat-protecting windows,[25] and electronics as thin-film transistors and light-emitting diodes.[43]

ZnO is a semiconductor of the II-VI semiconductor group and it has a relatively wide direct band gap of ~3.3 eV at room temperature. Advantages associated with a wide band gap include higher breakdown voltages, ability to sustain large electric fields, lower electronic noise, and high-temperature and high-power operation. The band gap of ZnO can further be tuned to ~3–4 eV by its alloying with magnesium oxide or cadmium oxide.[13] Due to this large band gap, there have been efforts to create visibly transparent solar cells utilising ZnO as a light absorbing layer. However, these solar cells have so far proven highly inefficient.[44]

Most ZnO has n-type character, even in the absence of intentional doping.[13] Nonstoichiometry is typically the origin of this n-type character, but the subject remains controversial.[45] An alternative explanation has been proposed, based on theoretical calculations, that unintentional substitutional hydrogen impurities are responsible.[46] Controllable n-type doping is easily achieved by substituting Zn with group-III elements such as Al, Ga, In or by substituting oxygen with group-VII elements chlorine or iodine.[47]

Reliable p-type doping of ZnO remains difficult. This problem originates from low solubility of p-type dopants and their compensation by abundant n-type impurities. This problem is observed with GaN and ZnSe. Measurement of p-type in "intrinsically" n-type material is complicated by the inhomogeneity of samples.[48]

Current limitations to p-doping limit electronic and optoelectronic applications of ZnO, which usually require junctions of n-type and p-type material. Known p-type dopants include group-I elements Li, Na, K; group-V elements N, P and As; as well as copper and silver. However, many of these form deep acceptors and do not produce significant p-type conduction at room temperature.[13]

Electron mobility of ZnO strongly varies with temperature and has a maximum of ~2000 cm2/(V·s) at 80 K.[49] Data on hole mobility are scarce with values in the range 5–30 cm2/(V·s).[50]

ZnO discs, acting as a varistor, are the active material in most surge arresters.[51][52]

Zinc oxide is noted for its strongly nonlinear optical properties, especially in bulk. The nonlinearity of ZnO nanoparticles can be fine-tuned according to their size.[53]

## Production

See also: Chemistry:Zinc smelting

For industrial use, ZnO is produced at levels of 105 tons per year[25] by three main processes:[24]

### Indirect process

In the indirect or French process, metallic zinc is melted in a graphite crucible and vaporized at temperatures above 907 °C (typically around 1000 °C). Zinc vapor reacts with the oxygen in the air to give ZnO,[54] accompanied by a drop in its temperature and bright luminescence. Zinc oxide particles are transported into a cooling duct and collected in a bag house. This indirect method was popularized by Edme Jean LeClaire of Paris in 1844 and therefore is commonly known as the French process. Its product normally consists of agglomerated zinc oxide particles with an average size of 0.1 to a few micrometers. By weight, most of the world's zinc oxide is manufactured via French process.[citation needed]

### Direct process

The direct or American process starts with diverse contaminated zinc composites, such as zinc ores or smelter by-products. The zinc precursors are reduced (carbothermal reduction) by heating with a source of carbon such as anthracite to produce zinc vapor, which is then oxidized as in the indirect process. Because of the lower purity of the source material, the final product is also of lower quality in the direct process as compared to the indirect one.[54]

### Wet chemical process

A small amount of industrial production involves wet chemical processes, which start with aqueous solutions of zinc salts, from which zinc carbonate or zinc hydroxide is precipitated. The solid precipitate is then calcined at temperatures around 800 °C.[citation needed]

### Laboratory synthesis

The red and green colors of these synthetic ZnO crystals result from different concentrations of oxygen vacancies.[55]

Large single crystals (many cubic centimeters) can be grown by the gas transport (vapor-phase deposition), hydrothermal synthesis,[37][55][56] or melt growth.[7] However, because of the high vapor pressure of ZnO, growth from the melt is problematic. Growth by gas transport is difficult to control, leaving the hydrothermal method as a preference.[7] Thin films can be produced by a variety of methods including chemical vapor deposition,[57] metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy, electrodeposition, sputtering, spray pyrolysis, thermal oxidation,[58] sol–gel synthesis, atomic layer deposition, and pulsed laser deposition.[59]

Zinc oxide can be produced in bulk by precipitation from zinc compounds, mainly zinc acetate, in various solutions, such as aqueous sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonium carbonate.[60] Synthetic methods characterized in literature since the year 2000 aim to produce ZnO particles with high surface area and minimal size distribution, including precipitation, mechanochemical, sol-gel, microwave, and emulsion methods.[61]

### ZnO nanostructures

Nanostructures of ZnO can be synthesized into a variety of morphologies, including nanowires, nanorods, tetrapods, nanobelts, nanoflowers, nanoparticles, etc. Nanostructures can be obtained with most above-mentioned techniques, at certain conditions, and also with the vapor–liquid–solid method.[37][62][63] The synthesis is typically carried out at temperatures of about 90 °C, in an equimolar aqueous solution of zinc nitrate and hexamine, the latter providing the basic environment. Certain additives, such as polyethylene glycol or polyethylenimine, can improve the aspect ratio of the ZnO nanowires.[64] Doping of the ZnO nanowires has been achieved by adding other metal nitrates to the growth solution.[65] The morphology of the resulting nanostructures can be tuned by changing the parameters relating to the precursor composition (such as the zinc concentration and pH) or to the thermal treatment (such as the temperature and heating rate).[66]

Aligned ZnO nanowires on pre-seeded silicon, glass, and gallium nitride substrates have been grown using aqueous zinc salts such as zinc nitrate and zinc acetate in basic environments.[67] Pre-seeding substrates with ZnO creates sites for homogeneous nucleation of ZnO crystal during the synthesis. Common pre-seeding methods include in-situ thermal decomposition of zinc acetate crystallites, spin coating of ZnO nanoparticles, and the use of physical vapor deposition methods to deposit ZnO thin films.[68][69] Pre-seeding can be performed in conjunction with top down patterning methods such as electron beam lithography and nanosphere lithography to designate nucleation sites prior to growth. Aligned ZnO nanowires can be used in dye-sensitized solar cells and field emission devices.[70][71]

## Applications

The applications of zinc oxide powder are numerous, and the principal ones are summarized below. Most applications exploit the reactivity of the oxide as a precursor to other zinc compounds. For material science applications, zinc oxide has high refractive index, high thermal conductivity, binding, antibacterial and UV-protection properties. Consequently, it is added into materials and products including plastics, ceramics, glass, cement,[72] rubber, lubricants,[12] paints, ointments, adhesive, sealants, concrete manufacturing, pigments, foods, batteries, ferrites, and fire retardants.[73]

### Rubber industry

Between 50% and 60% of ZnO use is in the rubber industry.[74] Zinc oxide along with stearic acid is used in the sulfur vulcanization of rubber.[24][75] ZnO additives in the form of nanoparticles are used in rubber as a pigment[76] and to enhance its durability,[77] and have been used in composite rubber materials such as those based on montmorillonite to impart germicidal properties.[78]

### Ceramic industry

Ceramic industry consumes a significant amount of zinc oxide, in particular in ceramic glaze and frit compositions. The relatively high heat capacity, thermal conductivity and high temperature stability of ZnO coupled with a comparatively low coefficient of expansion are desirable properties in the production of ceramics. ZnO affects the melting point and optical properties of the glazes, enamels, and ceramic formulations. Zinc oxide as a low expansion, secondary flux improves the elasticity of glazes by reducing the change in viscosity as a function of temperature and helps prevent crazing and shivering. By substituting ZnO for BaO and PbO, the heat capacity is decreased and the thermal conductivity is increased. Zinc in small amounts improves the development of glossy and brilliant surfaces. However, in moderate to high amounts, it produces matte and crystalline surfaces. With regard to color, zinc has a complicated influence.[74]

### Medicine

#### Skin treatment

Zinc oxide as a mixture with about 0.5% iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) is called calamine and is used in calamine lotion, a topical skin treatment.[79] Historically, the name calamine was ascribed to a mineral that contained zinc used in powdered form as medicine,[80] but it was determined in 1803 that ore described as calamine was actually a mixture of the zinc minerals smithsonite and hemimorphite.[81]

Zinc oxide is widely used to treat a variety of skin conditions, including atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, itching due to eczema, diaper rash and acne.[82] It is used in products such as baby powder and barrier creams to treat diaper rashes, calamine cream, anti-dandruff shampoos, and antiseptic ointments.[18][83] It is often combined with castor oil to form an emollient and astringent, zinc and castor oil cream, commonly used to treat infants.[84][85]

It is also a component in tape (called "zinc oxide tape") used by athletes as a bandage to prevent soft tissue damage during workouts.[86]

#### Antibacterial

Zinc oxide is used in mouthwash products and toothpastes as an anti-bacterial agent proposed to prevent plaque and tartar formation,[87] and to control bad breath by reducing the volatile gases and volatile sulfur compounds (VSC) in the mouth.[88] Along with zinc oxide or zinc salts, these products also commonly contain other active ingredients, such as cetylpyridinium chloride,[89] xylitol,[90] hinokitiol,[91] essential oils and plant extracts.[92][93] Powdered zinc oxide has deodorizing and antibacterial properties.[94]

ZnO is added to cotton fabric, rubber, oral care products,[95][96] and food packaging.[97][98] Enhanced antibacterial action of fine particles compared to bulk material is not exclusive to ZnO and is observed for other materials, such as silver.[99] The mechanism of ZnO's antibacterial effect has been variously described as the generation of reactive oxygen species, the release of Zn2+ ions, and a general disturbance of the bacterial cell membrane by nanoparticles.[100]

#### Sunscreen

Zinc oxide is used in sunscreen to absorb ultraviolet light.[82] It is the broadest spectrum UVA and UVB absorber[101][102] that is approved for use as a sunscreen by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),[103] and is completely photostable.[104] When used as an ingredient in sunscreen, zinc oxide blocks both UVA (320–400 nm) and UVB (280–320 nm) rays of ultraviolet light. Zinc oxide and the other most common physical sunscreen, titanium dioxide, are considered to be nonirritating, nonallergenic, and non-comedogenic.[105] Zinc from zinc oxide is, however, slightly absorbed into the skin.[106]

Many sunscreens use nanoparticles of zinc oxide (along with nanoparticles of titanium dioxide) because such small particles do not scatter light and therefore do not appear white. The nanoparticles are not absorbed into the skin more than regular-sized zinc oxide particles are[107] and are only absorbed into the outermost layer of the skin but not into the body.[107]

#### Dental restoration

When mixed with eugenol, zinc oxide eugenol is formed, which has applications as a restorative and prosthodontic in dentistry.[29][108]

### Food additive

See also: Medicine:Zinc deficiency and Zinc toxicity

Zinc oxide is added to many food products, including breakfast cereals, as a source of zinc, a necessary nutrient. Zinc may be added to food in the form of zinc oxide nanoparticles, or as zinc sulfate, zinc gluconate, zinc acetate, or zinc citrate.[109] Some foods also include trace amounts of ZnO even if it is not intended as a nutrient.[110]

### Pigment

Main article: Zinc white

Zinc oxide (zinc white) is used as a pigment in paints and is more opaque than lithopone, but less opaque than titanium dioxide.[14] It is also used in coatings for paper. Chinese white is a special grade of zinc white used in artists' pigments.[111] The use of zinc white as a pigment in oil painting started in the middle of 18th century.[112] It has partly replaced the poisonous lead white and was used by painters such as Böcklin, Van Gogh,[113] Manet, Munch and others, though it is being phased out by some artists paint manufacturers because of its tendency to form brittle and unstable paint films in oils.[114][115] It is also a main ingredient of mineral makeup (CI 77947).[116]

### UV absorber

Micronized and nano-scale zinc oxide provides strong protection against UVA and UVB ultraviolet radiation, and are consequently used in sunscreens,[117] and also in UV-blocking sunglasses for use in space and for protection when welding, following research by scientists at Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).[118]

### Coatings

Paints containing zinc oxide powder have long been utilized as anticorrosive coatings for metals. They are especially effective for galvanized iron. Iron is difficult to protect because its reactivity with organic coatings leads to brittleness and lack of adhesion. Zinc oxide paints retain their flexibility and adherence on such surfaces for many years.[73]

ZnO highly n-type doped with aluminium, gallium, or indium is transparent and conductive (transparency ~90%, lowest resistivity ~10−4 Ω·cm[119]). ZnO:Al coatings are used for energy-saving or heat-protecting windows. The coating lets the visible part of the spectrum in but either reflects the infrared (IR) radiation back into the room (energy saving) or does not let the IR radiation into the room (heat protection), depending on which side of the window has the coating.[25]

Plastics, such as polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), can be protected by applying zinc oxide coating. The coating reduces the diffusion of oxygen through PEN.[120] Zinc oxide layers can also be used on polycarbonate in outdoor applications. The coating protects polycarbonate from solar radiation, and decreases its oxidation rate and photo-yellowing.[121]

### Corrosion prevention in nuclear reactors

Main article: Physics:Depleted zinc oxide

Zinc oxide depleted in 64Zn (the zinc isotope with atomic mass 64) is used in corrosion prevention in nuclear pressurized water reactors. The depletion is necessary, because 64Zn is transformed into radioactive 65Zn under irradiation by the reactor neutrons.[122]

### Methane reforming

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is used as a pretreatment step to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from natural gas following hydrogenation of any sulfur compounds prior to a methane reformer, which can poison the catalyst. At temperatures between about 230–430 °C (446–806 °F), H2S is converted to water by the following reaction:[123]

H2S + ZnO → H2O + ZnS

### Electronics

Photograph of an operating ZnO UV laser diode and the corresponding device structure.[124] Flexible gas sensor based on ZnO nanorods and its internal structure. ITO stands for indium tin oxide and PET for polyethylene terephthalate.[125]

ZnO has wide direct band gap (3.37 eV or 375 nm at room temperature). Therefore, its most common potential applications are in laser diodes and light emitting diodes (LEDs).[126] Moreover, ultrafast nonlinearities and photoconductive functions have been reported in ZnO.[127] Some optoelectronic applications of ZnO overlap with that of GaN, which has a similar band gap (~3.4 eV at room temperature). Compared to GaN, ZnO has a larger exciton binding energy (~60 meV, 2.4 times of the room-temperature thermal energy), which results in bright room-temperature emission from ZnO. ZnO can be combined with GaN for LED-applications. For instance, a transparent conducting oxide layer and ZnO nanostructures provide better light outcoupling.[128] Other properties of ZnO favorable for electronic applications include its stability to high-energy radiation and its ability to be patterned by wet chemical etching.[129] Radiation resistance[130] makes ZnO a suitable candidate for space applications. Nanostructured ZnO is an effective medium both in powder and polycrystalline forms in random lasers,[131] due to its high refractive index and aforementioned light emission properties.[132]

### Gas sensors

Zinc oxide is used in semiconductor gas sensors for detecting airborne compounds such as hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen dioxide, and volatile organic compounds. ZnO is a semiconductor that becomes n-doped by adsorption of reducing compounds, which reduces the detected electrical resistance through the device, in a manner similar to the widely used tin oxide semiconductor gas sensors. It is formed into nanostructures such as thin films, nanoparticles, nanopillars, or nanowires to provide a large surface area for interaction with gasses. The sensors are made selective for specific gasses by doping or surface-attaching materials such as catalytic noble metals.[133][134]

## Aspirational applications

### Transparent electrodes

Aluminium-doped ZnO layers are used as transparent electrodes. The components Zn and Al are much cheaper and less toxic compared to the generally used indium tin oxide (ITO). One application which has begun to be commercially available is the use of ZnO as the front contact for solar cells or of liquid crystal displays.[42]

Transparent thin-film transistors (TTFT) can be produced with ZnO. As field-effect transistors, they do not need a p–n junction,[135] thus avoiding the p-type doping problem of ZnO. Some of the field-effect transistors even use ZnO nanorods as conducting channels.[136]

### Piezoelectricity

The piezoelectricity in textile fibers coated in ZnO have been shown capable of fabricating "self-powered nanosystems" with everyday mechanical stress from wind or body movements.[137][138]

### Photocatalysis

ZnO, both in macro-[139] and nano-[140] scales, could in principle be used as an electrode in photocatalysis, mainly as an anode[141] in green chemistry applications. As a photocatalyst, ZnO reacts when exposed to UV radiation[139] and is used in photodegradation reactions to remove organic pollutants from the environment.[142][143] It is also used to replace catalysts used in photochemical reactions that would ordinarily require costly or inconvenient reaction conditions with low yields.[139]

### Other

The pointed tips of ZnO nanorods could be used as field emitters.[144]

ZnO is a promising anode material for lithium-ion battery because it is cheap, biocompatible, and environmentally friendly. ZnO has a higher theoretical capacity (978 mAh g−1) than many other transition metal oxides such as CoO (715 mAh g−1), NiO (718 mAh g−1) and CuO (674 mAh g−1).[145] ZnO is also used as an electrode in supercapacitors.[146]

## Safety

As a food additive, zinc oxide is on the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's list of generally recognized as safe substances.[147]

Zinc oxide itself is non-toxic; it is hazardous, however, to inhale high concentrations of zinc oxide fumes, such as those generated when zinc or zinc alloys are melted and oxidized at high temperature. This problem occurs while melting alloys containing brass because the melting point of brass is close to the boiling point of zinc.[148] Inhalation of zinc oxide, which may occur when welding galvanized (zinc-plated) steel, can result in a malady called metal fume fever.[148]

In sunscreen formulations that combined zinc oxide with small-molecule UV absorbers, UV light caused photodegradation of the small-molecule absorbers and toxicity in embryonic zebrafish assays.[149]

## See also

* Physics:Depleted zinc oxide
* Physics:Zinc oxide nanoparticle
* Gallium(III) nitride - Chemical semiconductor compound
* Chemistry:List of inorganic pigments
* Chemistry:Zinc
* Chemistry:Zinc oxide eugenol
* Chemistry:Zinc peroxide
* Chemistry:Zinc smelting - Conversion of zinc ore into pure zinc
* Chemistry:Zinc–air battery - High-energy-density electrical storage device
* Chemistry:Zinc–zinc oxide cycle
* Physics:ZnO nanostructures

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Haynes, pp. 4.95, 12.80
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4. ↑ Haynes, p. 4.131
5. ↑ Haynes, p. 12.80
6. ↑ Haynes, pp. 4.138, 10.251
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113. ↑ Vincent van Gogh, 'Wheatfield with Cypresses, 1889, pigment analysis at ColourLex
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117. ↑ US Environment Protection Agency: Sunscreen What are the active Ingredients in Sunscreen – Physical Ingredients:"The physical compounds titanium dioxide and zinc oxide reflect, scatter, and absorb both UVA and UVB rays." A table lists them as providing extensive physical protection against UVA and UVB
118. ↑ Look Sharp While Seeing Sharp. NASA Scientific and Technical Information (2006). Retrieved 17 October 2009. JPL scientists developed UV-protective sunglasses using dyes and "zinc oxide, which absorbs ultraviolet light"
119. ↑ "ZnO – nanostructures, defects, and devices". Materials Today 10 (5): 40–48. 2007. doi:10.1016/S1369-7021(07)70078-0.
120. ↑ "Photoprotection of poly(ethylene-naphthalate) by zinc oxide coating". Surface and Coatings Technology 180–181: 71–75. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2003.10.039.
121. ↑ "Sputtered zinc oxide coatings: structural study and application to the photoprotection of the polycarbonate". Surface and Coatings Technology 180–181: 642–645. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2003.10.109.
122. ↑ "BWR water chemistry?a delicate balance". Nuclear Energy 40 (4): 245–252. 2001. doi:10.1680/nuen.40.4.245.39338.
123. ↑ Robinson, Victor S. (1978) "Process for desulfurization using particulate zinc oxide shapes of high surface area and improved strength" U.S. Patent 4,128,619
124. ↑ "Ultraviolet Lasers Realized via Electrostatic Doping Method". Scientific Reports 5. September 2015. doi:10.1038/srep13641. PMID 26324054. Bibcode: 2015NatSR...513641L.
125. ↑ "Light-controlling, flexible and transparent ethanol gas sensor based on ZnO nanoparticles for wearable devices". Scientific Reports 5. June 2015. doi:10.1038/srep11070. PMID 26076705. Bibcode: 2015NatSR...511070Z.
126. ↑ "ZnMgO-ZnO quantum wells embedded in ZnO nanopillars: Towards realisation of nano-LEDs". Physica Status Solidi C 4 (1): 158–161. 2007. doi:10.1002/pssc.200673557. Bibcode: 2007PSSCR...4..158B.
127. ↑ Torres-Torres, C.; Castro-Chacón, J. H.; Castañeda, L.; Rojo, R. Rangel; Torres-Martínez, R.; Tamayo-Rivera, L.; Khomenko, A. V. (2011-08-15). "Ultrafast nonlinear optical response of photoconductive ZnO films with fluorine nanoparticles" (in EN). Optics Express 19 (17): 16346–16355. doi:10.1364/OE.19.016346. ISSN 1094-4087. PMID 21934998. Bibcode: 2011OExpr..1916346T. https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-19-17-16346.
128. ↑ "ZnO – GaN Hybrid Heterostructures as Potential Cost Efficient LED Technology". Proceedings of the IEEE 98 (7): 1281–1287. 2010. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2009.2037444.
129. ↑ "Recent advances in ZnO materials and devices". Materials Science and Engineering B 80 (1–3): 383–387. 2001. doi:10.1016/S0921-5107(00)00604-8.
130. ↑ "Ion-beam-produced structural defects in ZnO". Physical Review B 67 (9). 2003-03-31. doi:10.1103/physrevb.67.094115. Bibcode: 2003PhRvB..67i4115K. http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:115991/UQ115991.pdf.
131. ↑ Perrière, Jacques; Millon, Eric; Craciun, Valentin (2006-11-17), Eason, Robert, ed., "ZnO and ZnO-Related Compounds" (in en), Pulsed Laser Deposition of Thin Films (Wiley): p. 282, doi:10.1002/9780470052129.ch12, ISBN 978-0-471-44709-2, https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9780470052129.ch12, retrieved 2024-10-27
132. ↑ Abdulhameed, Abdullah (22 July 2024). "ZnO-based random lasing and their sensing applications: a mini-review" (in en). Applied Nanoscience 14 (10): 985–995. doi:10.1007/s13204-024-03059-6. ISSN 2190-5509. Bibcode: 2024ApNan..14..985A. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13204-024-03059-6.
133. ↑ Zhou, Xin; Lee, Songyi; Xu, Zhaochao; Yoon, Juyoung (2015). "Recent Progress on the Development of Chemosensors for Gases". Chemical Reviews 115 (15): 7944–8000. doi:10.1021/cr500567r. ISSN 0009-2665. PMID 25651137.
134. ↑ Sun, Yu-Feng; Liu, Shao-Bo; Meng, Fan-Li; Liu, Jin-Yun; Jin, Zhen; Kong, Ling-Tao; Liu, Jin-Huai (2012). "Metal Oxide Nanostructures and Their Gas Sensing Properties: A Review". Sensors 12 (3): 2610–2631. doi:10.3390/s120302610. ISSN 1424-8220. PMID 22736968. Bibcode: 2012Senso..12.2610S.
135. ↑ "Thin-film transistor fabricated in single-crystalline transparent oxide semiconductor". Science 300 (5623): 1269–72. May 2003. doi:10.1126/science.1083212. PMID 12764192. Bibcode: 2003Sci...300.1269N.
136. ↑ "Depletion-mode ZnO nanowire field-effect transistor". Applied Physics Letters 85 (12): 2274. 2004. doi:10.1063/1.1794351. Bibcode: 2004ApPhL..85.2274H.
137. ↑ Keim, Brandon (February 13, 2008). "Piezoelectric Nanowires Turn Fabric Into Power Source". Wired News (CondéNet). http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/02/piezoelectric-n.html.
138. ↑ "Microfibre-nanowire hybrid structure for energy scavenging". Nature 451 (7180): 809–13. February 2008. doi:10.1038/nature06601. PMID 18273015. Bibcode: 2008Natur.451..809Q.
139. ↑ 139.0 139.1 139.2 Lang, Xianjun; Chen, Xiaodong; Zhao, Jincai (2014). "Heterogeneous visible light photocatalysis for selective organic transformations" (in en). Chem. Soc. Rev. 43 (1): 473–486. doi:10.1039/C3CS60188A. ISSN 0306-0012. PMID 24162830. https://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C3CS60188A.
140. ↑ Ong, Chin Boon; Ng, Law Yong; Mohammad, Abdul Wahab (2018-01-01). "A review of ZnO nanoparticles as solar photocatalysts: Synthesis, mechanisms and applications". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81: 536–551. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.08.020. ISSN 1364-0321. Bibcode: 2018RSERv..81..536O. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1364032117311656.
141. ↑ Yang, Jinhui; Wang, Donge; Han, Hongxian; Li, Can (2013-08-20). "Roles of Cocatalysts in Photocatalysis and Photoelectrocatalysis" (in en). Accounts of Chemical Research 46 (8): 1900–1909. doi:10.1021/ar300227e. ISSN 0001-4842. PMID 23530781. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ar300227e.
142. ↑ Lee, Kian Mun; Lai, Chin Wei; Ngai, Koh Sing; Juan, Joon Ching (2016-01-01). "Recent developments of zinc oxide based photocatalyst in water treatment technology: A review". Water Research 88: 428–448. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2015.09.045. ISSN 0043-1354. PMID 26519627. Bibcode: 2016WatRe..88..428L. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0043135415302578.
143. ↑ Ong, Chin Boon; Ng, Law Yong; Mohammad, Abdul Wahab (2018-01-01). "A review of ZnO nanoparticles as solar photocatalysts: Synthesis, mechanisms and applications". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 81: 536–551. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2017.08.020. ISSN 1364-0321. Bibcode: 2018RSERv..81..536O. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1364032117311656.
144. ↑ "ZnO nanoneedles with tip surface perturbations: Excellent field emitters". Applied Physics Letters 84 (18): 3603. 2004. doi:10.1063/1.1738174. Bibcode: 2004ApPhL..84.3603L.
145. ↑ "Bio-inspired Murray materials for mass transfer and activity". Nature Communications 8. April 2017. doi:10.1038/ncomms14921. PMID 28382972. Bibcode: 2017NatCo...814921Z.
146. ↑ Sreejesh, M.; Dhanush, S.; Rossignol, F.; Nagaraja, H. S. (2017-04-15). "Microwave assisted synthesis of rGO/ZnO composites for non-enzymatic glucose sensing and supercapacitor applications" (in en). Ceramics International 43 (6): 4895–4903. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.12.140. ISSN 0272-8842. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272884216324105.
147. ↑ "Zinc oxide". Database of Select Committee on GRAS Substances (SCOGS) Reviews. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/fcn/fcnDetailNavigation.cfm?rpt=scogsListing&id=372.
148. ↑ 148.0 148.1 Gray, Theodore. "The Safety of Zinc Casting". The Wooden Periodic Table Table. http://www.theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/ZincSafety.html.
149. ↑ "Zinc oxide-induced changes to sunscreen ingredient efficacy and toxicity under UV irradiation.". Photochem Photobiol Sci 20 (10): 1273–1285. 2021. doi:10.1007/s43630-021-00101-2. PMID 34647278. Bibcode: 2021PhPhS..20.1273G.

## Cited sources

* Haynes, William M., ed (2016). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4987-5429-3.

## Reviews

* "A comprehensive review of ZnO materials and devices". Journal of Applied Physics 98 (4): 041301–041301–103. 2005. doi:10.1063/1.1992666. Bibcode: 2005JAP....98d1301O. https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1158&context=egre_pubs.
* "ZnO Epitaxial Growth". Comprehensive Semiconductor Science and Technology 6 Volume Encyclopaedia. Elsevier. 29 March 2011. ISBN 978-0-444-53143-8.
* "Hydrothermal growth of ZnO nanostructures". Science and Technology of Advanced Materials 10 (1). February 2009. doi:10.1088/1468-6996/10/1/013001. PMID 27877250. Bibcode: 2009STAdM..10a3001B.
* Janisch, Rebecca (2005). "Transition metal-doped TiO 2 and ZnO—present status of the field". Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter 17 (27): R657–R689. doi:10.1088/0953-8984/17/27/R01. Bibcode: 2005JPCM...17R.657J.
* "ZnO nanowire growth and devices". Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports 47 (1–2): 1–47. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.mser.2004.09.001.
* "ZnO: From basics towards applications". Physica Status Solidi B 244 (9): 3027–3073. 2007. doi:10.1002/pssb.200743072. Bibcode: 2007PSSBR.244.3027K.
* "ZnO: material, physics and applications". ChemPhysChem 8 (6): 782–803. April 2007. doi:10.1002/cphc.200700002. PMID 17429819. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&q=ZnO:+Material,+Physics+and+Applications&btnG=.
* "Quasi-one-dimensional metal oxide materials—Synthesis, properties and applications". Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports 52 (1–3): 49–91. 2006. doi:10.1016/j.mser.2006.04.002.
* "One-dimensional ZnO nanostructures: Solution growth and functional properties". Nano Research 4 (11): 1013–1098. 2011. doi:10.1007/s12274-011-0160-7.
* "Oxide nanowire arrays for light-emitting diodes and piezoelectric energy harvesters". Pure and Applied Chemistry 83 (12): 2171–2198. 2011. doi:10.1351/PAC-CON-11-08-17.

## External links

* Zincite properties
* International Chemical Safety Card 0208.
* NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards.
* Zinc oxide in the Pesticide Properties DataBase (PPDB)
* Zinc white pigment at ColourLex

* v
* t
* e

Zinc compounds

Zinc(I)|

| Organozinc(I) compounds|

* Zn2(C5(CH3)5)2

|

Zinc(II)|

* Zn(N3)2
* ZnBr2
* Zn(CN)2
* ZnCl2
* Zn(ClO3)2
* ZnCrO4
* ZnF2
* ZnH2
* ZnI2
* ZnMoO4
* Zn(NO3)2
* ZnO
* ZnO2
* Zn(OH)2
* ZnS
* ZnSO4
* ZnSe
* ZnTe
* Zn2P2O7
* Zn3Sb2
* Zn3As2
* Zn3N2
* Zn3P2
* Zn3(PO4)2

| Organozinc(II) compounds|

* Zn(CH3)2
* Zn(C2H5)2
* Zn(CH(CH3)2)2
* Zn(C(CH3)3)2
* Zn(C6H5)2
* ZnCIH2I

|

* v
* t
* e

Sunscreening agents approved by the US FDA or other agencies

* UVA: 400–315 nm
* UVB: 315–290 nm
* chemical agents unless otherwise noted

UVA filters|

* Avobenzone (Parsol 1789)
* Bisdisulizole disodium (Neo Heliopan AP)
* Diethylamino hydroxybenzoyl hexyl benzoate (Uvinul A Plus)
* Ecamsule (Mexoryl SX)
* Menthyl anthranilate

UVB filters|

* Amiloxate
* 4-Aminobenzoic acid (PABA)
* Cinoxate
* Ethylhexyl triazone (Uvinul T 150)
* Homosalate
* 4-Methylbenzylidene camphor (Enzacamene)
* Octyl methoxycinnamate (Octinoxate)
* Octyl salicylate (Octisalate)
* Padimate O (Escalol 507)
* Phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic acid (Ensulizole)
* Polysilicone-15 (Parsol SLX)
* Trolamine salicylate

UVA+UVB filters|

* Bemotrizinol (Tinosorb S)
* Benzophenones 1–12
* Dioxybenzone
* Drometrizole trisiloxane (Mexoryl XL)
* Iscotrizinol (Uvasorb HEB)
* Octocrylene
* Oxybenzone (Eusolex 4360)
* Sulisobenzone
* hybrid (chemical/physical): Bisoctrizole (Tinosorb M / Eversorb M)
* physical:
* Titanium dioxide
* Zinc oxide

See also: Photoprotection, Sun protective clothing, Sun tanning, and Sunburn

* v
* t
* e

Oxides

Mixed oxidation states|

* Antimony tetroxide (Sb2O4)
* Cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co3O4)
* Europium(II,III) oxide (Eu3O4)
* Iron(II,III) oxide (Fe<sub>3O4)
* Lead(II,IV) oxide (Pb3O4)
* Manganese(II,III) oxide (Mn3O4)
* Silver(I,III) oxide (Ag2O2)
* Triuranium octoxide (U3O8)
* Carbon suboxide (C3O2)
* Mellitic anhydride (C12O9)
* [[Chemistry:Praseodymium(III,IV) Praseodymium(III,IV) oxide]] (Pr6O11)
* Terbium(III,IV) oxide (Tb4O7)

+1 oxidation state|

* Copper(I) oxide (Cu<sub>2O)
* Caesium oxide (Cs2O)
* Dicarbon monoxide (C2O)
* Dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O)
* Gallium(I) oxide (Ga2O)
* Lithium oxide (Li2O)
* Potassium oxide (K2O)
* Rubidium oxide (Rb2O)
* Silver oxide (Ag2O)
* Thallium(I) oxide (Tl2O)
* Sodium oxide (Na2O)
* Water (hydrogen oxide) (H2O)

+2 oxidation state|

* Aluminium(II) oxide (AlO)
* Barium oxide (BaO)
* Beryllium oxide (BeO)
* Cadmium oxide (CdO)
* Calcium oxide (CaO)
* Carbon monoxide (CO)
* Chromium(II) oxide (CrO)
* Cobalt(II) oxide (CoO)
* Copper(II) oxide (CuO)
* Europium(II) oxide (EuO)
* Germanium monoxide (GeO))
* Iron(II) oxide (FeO)
* Lead(II) oxide (PbO)
* Magnesium oxide (MgO)
* Manganese(II) oxide (MnO)
* Mercury(II) oxide (HgO)
* Nickel(II) oxide (NiO)
* Nitric oxide (NO)
* Palladium(II) oxide (PdO)
* Silicon monoxide (SiO)
* Strontium oxide (SrO)
* Sulfur monoxide (SO)
* Disulfur dioxide (S2O2)
* Thorium monoxide (ThO)
* Tin(II) oxide (SnO)
* Titanium(II) oxide (TiO)
* Vanadium(II) oxide (VO)
* Zinc oxide (ZnO)

+3 oxidation state|

* Aluminium oxide (Al<sub>2O3)
* Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3)
* Arsenic trioxide (As2O3)
* Bismuth(III) oxide (Bi2O3)
* Boron trioxide (B2O3)
* Cerium(III) oxide (Ce2O3)
* Dibromine trioxide (Br2O3)
* Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3)
* Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3)
* Dysprosium(III) oxide (Dy2O3)
* Erbium(III) oxide (Er2O3)
* Europium(III) oxide (Eu2O3)
* Gadolinium(III) oxide (Gd2O3)
* Gallium(III) oxide (Ga2O3)
* Holmium(III) oxide (Ho2O3)
* Indium(III) oxide (In<sub>2O3)
* Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3)
* Lanthanum oxide (La2O3)
* Lutetium(III) oxide (Lu2O3)
* Manganese(III) oxide (Mn2O3)
* Neodymium(III) oxide (Nd2O3)
* Nickel(III) oxide (Ni2O3)
* Phosphorus trioxide (P4O6)
* Praseodymium(III) oxide (Pr2O3)
* Promethium(III) oxide (Pm2O3)
* Rhodium(III) oxide (Rh2O3)
* [[Chemistry:Samarium(III) Samarium(III) oxide]] (Sm2O3)
* Scandium oxide (Sc2O3)
* Terbium(III) oxide (Tb2O3)
* Thallium(III) oxide (Tl2O3)
* Thulium(III) oxide (Tm2O3)
* Titanium(III) oxide (Ti2O3)
* Tungsten(III) oxide (W2O3)
* Vanadium(III) oxide (V2O3)
* Ytterbium(III) oxide (Yb2O3)
* Yttrium(III) oxide (Y2O3)

+4 oxidation state|

* Americium dioxide (AmO2)
* Carbon dioxide (CO2)
* Carbon trioxide (CO3)
* Cerium(IV) oxide (CeO2)
* Chlorine dioxide (ClO2)
* Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO<sub>2)
* Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4)
* Germanium dioxide (GeO<sub>2)
* [[Chemistry:Hafnium(IV) Hafnium(IV) oxide]] (HfO2)
* Lead dioxide (PbO2)
* Manganese dioxide (MnO2)
* Neptunium(IV) oxide (NpO2)
* Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
* Osmium dioxide (OsO2)
* Plutonium(IV) oxide (PuO2)
* Praseodymium(IV) oxide (PrO2)
* Protactinium(IV) oxide (PaO2)
* Rhodium(IV) oxide (RhO2)
* Ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO<sub>2)
* Selenium dioxide (SeO2)
* Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
* Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
* Tellurium dioxide (TeO<sub>2)
* [[Chemistry:Terbium(IV) Terbium(IV) oxide]] (TbO2)
* Thorium dioxide (ThO2)
* Tin dioxide (SnO2)
* Titanium dioxide (TiO<sub>2)
* Tungsten(IV) oxide (WO2)
* Uranium dioxide (UO2)
* Vanadium(IV) oxide (VO2)
* Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2)

+5 oxidation state|

* Antimony pentoxide (Sb2O5)
* Arsenic pentoxide (As2O5)
* Dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5)
* Niobium pentoxide (Nb2O5)
* Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5)
* Protactinium(V) oxide (Pa2O5)
* Tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5)
* Vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5)

+6 oxidation state|

* Chromium trioxide (CrO3)
* Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3)
* Rhenium trioxide (ReO3)
* Selenium trioxide (SeO3)
* Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
* Tellurium trioxide (TeO3)
* Tungsten trioxide (WO3)
* Uranium trioxide (UO3)
* Xenon trioxide (XeO3)
* Iridium trioxide (IrO3)

+7 oxidation state|

* Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7)
* Manganese heptoxide (Mn2O7)
* [[Chemistry:Rhenium(VII) Rhenium(VII) oxide]] (Re2O7)
* Technetium(VII) oxide (Tc2O7)

+8 oxidation state|

* Osmium tetroxide (OsO4)
* Ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4)
* Xenon tetroxide (XeO4)
* Iridium tetroxide (IrO4)
* Hassium tetroxide (HsO4)

Related|

* Oxocarbon
* Suboxide
* Oxyanion
* Ozonide
* Peroxide
* Superoxide

Oxides are sorted by oxidation state. Category:Oxides

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