Climate change vulnerability

Short description: Concept regarding strength of impact of climate change

Climate change vulnerability is a concept that describes how strongly people or ecosystems are likely to be affected by climate change. Its formal definition is the "propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected" by climate change. It can apply to humans and also to natural systems (or ecosystems).[1]: 12 Issues around the capacity to cope and adapt are also part of this concept.[1]: 5 Vulnerability is a component of climate risk. It differs within communities and also across societies, regions, and countries.[2] It can increase or decrease over time.[1]: 12 Vulnerability is generally a bigger problem for people in low-income countries than for those in high-income countries.[3]

Higher levels of vulnerability will be found in densely populated areas, in particular those affected by poverty, poor governance, and/or conflict. Also, some livelihoods are more sensitive to the effects of climate change than others. Smallholder farming, pastoralism, and fishing are livelihoods that may be especially vulnerable.[1]: 12 Further drivers for vulnerability are unsustainable land and ocean use, marginalization, and historical and ongoing patterns of inequity and poor governance.[1]: 12

There are many different notions of what it means to be vulnerable. An important distinction is between biophysical and social vulnerability. Biophysical vulnerability is about the effects of climate hazards such as heat waves, coastal flooding or tropical cyclones. Social vulnerability, on the other hand, is about the underlying political, institutional, economic and social factors within societies. These factors matter for how and why people are affected, and they put some people and places more at risk than others. People who are more vulnerable include those with low incomes, indigenous peoples, women, children, and the elderly.

Tools for vulnerability assessment vary depending on the sector, the scale and the entity or system which is thought to vulnerable. For example, the Vulnerability Sourcebook is a guide for practical and scientific knowledge on vulnerability assessment.[4] Climate vulnerability mapping helps to determine which areas are the most vulnerable. Mapping can also help to communicate climate vulnerability to stakeholders.[3] It is useful to carry out vulnerability assessments in advance of preparing local climate adaptation plans or risk management plans.[5] Global vulnerability assessments use spatial mapping with aggregated data for the regional or national level.[6]: 1195–1199

## Contents

* 1 Definition
* 1.1 Vulnerability and exposure
* 2 Types
* 2.1 Biophysical or (physical) vulnerability
* 2.2 Social (socioeconomic) vulnerability
* 2.3 Other categories
* 3 Scale
* 4 People who are more vulnerable
* 5 The Impact of Climate Change on Health Outcomes
* 5.1 Varying Racial and Ethnic Groups
* 5.2 Older Adults (65+ years)
* 5.2.1 Introduction
* 6 Reducing vulnerability
* 6.1 Climate change adaptation
* 6.2 Climate resilience
* 6.3 Climate justice
* 6.4 Climate Vulnerable Forum
* 7 Measurement tools
* 7.1 Indicators and indices
* 7.2 Vulnerability curves
* 7.3 Tools for vulnerability assessment
* 8 By region and country
* 9 See also
* 10 References

## Definition

Some climate change effects: Wildfire caused by heat and dryness, bleached coral caused by ocean acidification and heating, environmental migration caused by desertification, and coastal flooding caused by storms and sea level rise.

Climate change vulnerability has been a central concept in academic research and IPCC assessments since 2001.[7] The concept of vulnerability can refer to a wide variety of different meanings or contexts in climate change research. It can apply to humans or to natural systems (ecosystems), often simultaneously given the interdependence of humans and ecosystems.[1]: 12 Vulnerability is a component of climate risk. Vulnerability will be higher if the capacity to cope and adapt is low.[1]: 5

One definition of climate change vulnerability is stated as the "propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected" by climate change.[1] A similar definition is given by the Third IPCC report (2001): "the degree to which a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes".[8]: 89 [9] : 995

Early studies focused on biophysical vulnerability to climate change.[10]: 133 In other words, the effects of physical climate hazards such as a heat wave or heavy rain events. This direction of research was shaped by earlier natural hazards research and it emphasised physical changes and energy flows in the landscape. It aims to quantify and measure the impacts of an event on the environment and on people. Since (biophysical) vulnerability is interpreted here as the negative outcome of climate change on people or places, it is also sometimes referred to as 'outcome vulnerability'.[11][12]

An alternative framing focuses on social dimensions of vulnerability that set the context in which climate change happens. These dimensions include the political, institutional, economic and social structures that interact with the physical climate changes. For example, water privatization might affect the ability of people to respond to drought. This direction of research was shaped by human security research and they focus on the current context or 'starting point' for the social and biophysical processes. They are sometimes also referred to as 'contextual vulnerability' approaches.[11] Research in this area focuses on analysing the factors that "put people and places at risk and reduce capacity to respond".[13] See the section on 'Causes' below.

In the Fifth IPCC report, the social context was emphasized. It noted factors such as wealth and employment, access to technology and information, societal values and the role of institutions to resolve conflicts or develop relations among states as important.[14] Vulnerability was defined as a characteristic of people or places independent of physical events. The report included two additional definitions, one of contextual vulnerability and one of outcome vulnerability.[12]

### Vulnerability and exposure

In the climate change context, exposure is defined as "the presence of people; livelihoods; species or ecosystems; environmental functions, services, and resources; infrastructure; or economic, social, or cultural assets in places and settings that could be adversely affected.".[12]

In earlier definitions of vulnerability to climate change (in the Third IPCC report and Fourth IPCC report) vulnerability was defined as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity. This changed during the Fifth IPCC cycle. In this report, exposure was defined as one of the three interacting elements of climate risk, rather than as one of the external drivers of vulnerability. This change had two main implications. First, it means that vulnerability is understood as independent of exposure (and hazard) but is contextual. Second, it means that vulnerability assessment could focus on indicators for sensitivity and adaptive capacity to understand the current system weaknesses. For example, weaknesses such as the high ground slope of a farmland or marginalization of households in a community would make people or places sensitive to climate impacts. This makes it important to select the most hazard-relevant indicators for any vulnerability assessment. For example, to assess the vulnerability of traditional coastal fishing communities to sea surge, 'distance of dwellings from sea' and 'elevation of dwellings from sea level' would be hazard-relevant indicators.[15]

## Types

Climate change vulnerability has a wide variety of different meanings and uses of the term have varied and evolved over time. The main distinction is between biophysical and social (or socioeconomic) vulnerability:

* Biophysical vulnerability is about the effects of physical climate hazards such as a heat wave or heavy rain events
* Social vulnerability considers the many political, institutional, economic and social structures that form the context for climate change[16]

### Biophysical or (physical) vulnerability

Early studies focused on biophysical vulnerability to climate change.[10]: 133 In other words, the effects of physical climate hazards such as a heat wave or heavy rain events. This direction of research was shaped by earlier natural hazards research and it emphasised physical changes and energy flows in the landscape. It aims to quantify and measure the impacts of an event on the environment and on people. It plays down the role of people themselves in managing these impacts. Since (biophysical) vulnerability is interpreted here as the negative outcome of climate change on people or places, it is also sometimes referred to as 'outcome vulnerability'.[11][12]

Physical vulnerability tends to focus on outcomes of monetary loss and disruptions.[17] It is also sometimes defined as the "degree of loss" on a scale of 0 (no loss) to 1 (total loss). In this framework, for example, physical vulnerability to surface water hazards in mountain areas has been widely studied.[18]

### Social (socioeconomic) vulnerability

Social vulnerability is a more people-centred, holistic perspective on how and why people are affected by climate change.[11] Vulnerability of ecosystems and people to climate change is driven by certain unsustainable development patterns such as "unsustainable ocean and land use, inequity, marginalization, historical and ongoing patterns of inequity such as colonialism, and governance".[1]: 12 Therefore, vulnerability is higher in some locations than in others. Certain aspects within a region increase vulnerability, for example poverty, governance challenges and violent conflict. Some types of livelihoods are regarded as particularly climate-sensitive, resulting in a higher level of climate change vulnerability. These include for example smallholder farmers, pastoralists and fishing communities.[1]: 12

At its basic level, a community that is economically vulnerable is one that is ill-prepared for the effects of climate change because it lacks the needed financial resources.[19] Preparing a climate resilient society will require huge investments in infrastructure, city planning, engineering sustainable energy sources, and preparedness systems.[clarification needed] From a global perspective, it is more likely that people living at or below poverty will be affected the most by climate change and are thus the most vulnerable, because they will have the least amount of resource dollars to invest in resiliency infrastructure. They will also have the least amount of resource dollars for cleanup efforts after more frequently occurring natural climate change related disasters.[20]

Vulnerability for people of a certain gender or age can be caused by "systemic reproduction of historical legacies of inequality", for example as part of "(post)colonial, (post)apartheid, and poverty discrimination".[21] Social vulnerability of people can be related to aspects that make people different from one another (gender, class, race, age, etc.), and also the situational variables (where they live, their health, who lives with them in the household, how much they earn).[21][22]

### Other categories

World gross national income per capita: Lower income countries tend to have a higher vulnerability to climate change.

Geographic, or place-based vulnerability to climate change is an important dimension. The most geographically vulnerable locations to climate change are those that will be impacted by side effects of natural hazards, such as rising sea levels and by dramatic changes in ecosystem services, including access to food. Island nations are usually noted as more vulnerable but communities that rely heavily on a sustenance based lifestyle are also at greater risk.[23]

Around the world, climate change affects rural communities that heavily depend on their agriculture and natural resources for their livelihood. Increased frequency and severity of climate events disproportionately affects women, rural, dryland, and island communities.[24] This leads to more drastic changes in their lifestyles and forces them to adapt to this change. It is becoming more important for local and government agencies to create strategies to react to change and adapt infrastructure to meet the needs of those impacted. Various organizations work to create adaptation, mitigation, and resilience plans that will help rural and at risk communities around the world that depend on the earth's resources to survive.[25]

## Scale

See also: Biology:Effects of climate change

It has been estimated in 2021 that "approximately 3.3 to 3.6 billion people live in contexts that are highly vulnerable to climate change".[1]: 12

The vulnerability of ecosystems and people to climate change is not the same everywhere: there are marked differences among and within regions (see regions that are particularly vulnerable below).[1]: 12 Vulnerability can also increase or decrease over time.[1]: 5

## People who are more vulnerable

Hurricane Ida (2021) flooding effects in Pennsylvania, US where poorer neighbourhoods were more affected.

People who are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change than others include for example people with low incomes, indigenous peoples, women, children, the elderly. For example, when looking at the effects of climate change on human health, a report published in The Lancet found that the greatest impact tends to fall on the most vulnerable people such as the poor, women, children, the elderly, people with pre-existing health concerns, other minorities and outdoor workers.[26]: 13

There can be "structural deficits related to social, economic, cultural, political, and institutional conditions" which would explain why some parts of the population are more impacted than others.[13] This applies for example to climate-related risks to household water security for women in remote rural regions in Burkina Faso[13] or the urban poor in sub-Saharan Africa.[21]

This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change#Social impacts on vulnerable groups[ edit ]

## The Impact of Climate Change on Health Outcomes

### Varying Racial and Ethnic Groups

The extent to which climate change can negatively impact the health outcomes of populations may vary amongst different racial and ethnic groups across the globe. It is also important in this case to note that social positions can be denoted by race or ethnicity. Therefore, there can exist a variance in health outcomes as a result of differences in exposure and accessibility to healthcare to mitigate the health damages caused by climate change.

It is understood that increased exposure to high temperatures as a result of global warming can lead to acute heat-related illnesses such as heat stroke or can aggravate pre-existing conditions. In a study done in Los Angeles, California during a heat wave, it was found that African American populations were at greater risk of mortality.[27] In fact, the mortality rate of African Americans during this 2006 heat wave was double that of the average population. Heat-related emergency department visits were also significantly increased for ethnic populations as there was a spike in emergency department visits found amongst Asian/Pacific Islander populations and African American populations.[28]

Although some may attribute the discrepancy in mortality and hospitalization rates among ethnic groups to physiological differences between populations, not enough evidence has been provided to support this statement. Rather, studies show that these differences in health outcomes amongst different racial and ethnic groups are more likely to be the result of socioeconomic variance.[29] Racial minorities are more likely to be socioeconomically disadvantaged and are therefore more likely to take on underpaid high-risk occupations, live in hazardous areas, and have difficulty finding the financial resources to maintain a healthy level of thermal comfort.[30]

A study done in Phoenix, Arizona highlighted that more heat distress calls were made in neighborhoods consisting of primarily African American and low-income Hispanic populations.[31] It is found that financially disadvantaged communities, often which are composed of ethnic minorities, have a propensity to be warmer neighborhoods despite the lack of access to means of thermal regulation.[32]

The urban heat island effect emphasizes the fact that urban areas tend to be most impacted. During a heat wave in Oklahoma City, a study examined the urban island heat effect in varying communities. It was found that the hotter inner city region, one densely populated by minority residents, was severely inadequately equipped with air-conditioning.[33] This inadequate access to resources that allow for thermal regulation in homes, coupled with overcrowded living spaces in low-income, minority communities can be a significant health hazard.

It is also important to discuss occupational hazards when elaborating upon the impact of climate change on the health outcomes of varying racial and ethnic groups. Extreme heat can be detrimental to outdoor workers. Several studies have revealed that the agricultural workforce has been negatively affected by the growing effects of climate change. The majority of agricultural workers are from Latin America, with also a significant population who are also composed of Asian and Caribbean migrants, and people of Native American and African American descent.[30] In the same analysis done on the 2006 heat wave in California, it was found that there was a significantly increased rate of hospitalization for cardiac-related illnesses amongst crop workers of Hispanic backgrounds as a result of occupational hazards.[28] To mitigate this concern, more relevant occupational health and safety training programs should be set in place and working conditions should be more carefully monitored.

Language barriers may also play a role in the difference of health outcomes amongst varying ethnic groups as a result of climate change. Reduced access to English media and important public health statements as a result of linguistic barriers. This may also lead to a reduction of adaptive behavior and can put some individuals in danger of experiencing heat-related illnesses or exacerbating existing conditions.[30]

### Older Adults (65+ years)

#### Introduction

As global temperatures rise, extreme weather events become more frequent, and air quality worsens due to climate change, older adults (aged 65 and above) face increased risks of heat-related illnesses, chronic disease, and infectious diseases. Both physiological vulnerabilities and sociological factors compound the risk of negative health outcomes that older adults face from climate change.[34]

## Reducing vulnerability

Vulnerability can be reduced through climate change adaptation measures.[1]: 5 For this reason, vulnerability is often framed in dialogue with climate change adaptation. Furthermore, measures that reduce poverty, gender inequality, bad governance and violent conflict would also reduce vulnerability. And finally, vulnerability would be reduced for everyone if decisive action on climate change was taken (climate change mitigation) so that the effects of climate change are less severe.[35]

### Climate change adaptation

Adapting to climate change involves structural, physical, social and institutional approaches. Clockwise from top left: mangrove planting and other habitat conservation; seawalls to protect against storm surge worsened by sea level rise; green roofs provide cooling in cities and reduce urban heat island effects; selective breeding for drought-resistant crops.

This section is an excerpt from climate change adaptation[ edit ]

### Climate resilience

This section is an excerpt from climate resilience[ edit ]

### Climate justice

Equity is another essential component of vulnerability and is closely tied to issues of environmental justice and climate justice. As the most vulnerable communities are likely to be the most heavily impacted, a climate justice movement is coalescing in response. There are many aspects of climate justice that relate to vulnerability and resiliency. The frameworks are similar to other types of justice movements and include contractarianism which attempts to allocate the most benefits for the poor, utilitarianism which seeks to find the most benefits for the most people, egalitarianism which attempts to reduce inequality, and libertarianism which emphasizes a fair share of burden but also individual freedoms.[36]

Examples of climate justices approach can be seen by the work done by the United States government on both federal and local levels. On a federal level, The Environmental Protection Agency works toward the goals of Executive Order 12898,[37] Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations. E.O 12898 states the goals of implementing federal environmental justice initiatives that work toward aiding minority and low-income communities that suffer from disproportionate environmental or human health impacts. To alleviate environmental and health challenges within many American communities the U.S Environmental Protection Agency has implemented projects[38] region by region to ensure the development of environmental justice. These developments include but are not limited to population vulnerability, green space development locally as well as federally, and the reevaluation of environmentally disproportionate health burdens.

### Climate Vulnerable Forum

This section is an excerpt from Climate Vulnerable Forum[ edit ]

## Measurement tools

See also: Vulnerability assessment

Vulnerability assessment is important because it provides information that can be used to develop management actions in response to climate change.[39] Climate change vulnerability assessments and tools are available at all scales. Macro-scale vulnerability assessment often uses indices. Modelling and participatory approaches are also in use. Global vulnerability assessments are based on spatial mapping using aggregated data for the regional or national level.[6]: 1195–1199

Assessments are also done at sub-national and sectoral level, and also increasingly for cities on an urban district or neighbourhood scale. Vulnerability assessment is also done for local communities to evaluate where and how communities and livelihoods are vulnerable to climate change. Studies can vary widely in scope and scale— for example the World Bank and Ministry of Economy of Fiji commissioned a report for the whole country in 2017-18[40] while the Rochester, New York commissioned a much more local report for the city in 2018.[41] Or, for example, NOAA Fisheries commissioned Climate Vulnerability assessments for marine fishers in the United States.[42] In some cases vulnerability assessment is done in advance of preparing local climate adaptation plans or risk management plans.[5]

### Indicators and indices

Global indices for climate change vulnerability include the ND-GAIN Country Index, which measures national climate vulnerability globally, INFORM Risk Index and the WorldRiskIndex, which include social vulnerability indices.[43] Indicator approaches are also used at national and sub-national levels. They use a composite index of many individual quantifiable indicators. To generate the index value or 'score', most often a simple average is calculated across a set of standardized values. However, sometimes weighting is done according what are thought to be the most important determinants of vulnerability.

Climate vulnerability tracking starts identifying the relevant information, preferably open access, produced by state or international bodies at the scale of interest. Then a further effort to make the vulnerability information freely accessible to all development actors is required.[44] Vulnerability tracking has many applications. It constitutes an indicator for the monitoring and evaluation of programs and projects for resilience and adaptation to climate change. Vulnerability tracking is also a decision making tool in regional and national adaptation policies.[44]

### Vulnerability curves

Climate vulnerability curves are a method of assessing physical vulnerability on various sectors such as agriculture, infrastructure, health, and ecosystems. They show a relationship between different levels of climate-related hazards (like extreme temperatures, sea-level rise, or intense precipitation) and the effects, or damages.[17]

### Tools for vulnerability assessment

Similarly as for climate risk assessment, tools for vulnerability assessment vary depending on the sector, the scale at which the study is being carried out, and the entity or system which is thought to vulnerable. Modelling and other participatory tools include WEAP for understanding water resource vulnerabilities and assessing adaptation options. The Vulnerability Sourcebook is a guide for practical and scientific knowledge on vulnerability assessment.[4] Climate vulnerability mapping is also used to understand which areas are the most geographically vulnerable. A systematic review published in 2019 found 84 studies focused on the use of mapping to communicate and do analysis of climate vulnerability.[3]

## By region and country

All regions of the world are vulnerable to climate change but to a different degree. With high confidence, researchers concluded in 2001 that developing countries would tend to be more vulnerable to climate change than developed countries.[45]: 957–958 Based on development trends in 2001, scientists have found that few developing countries would have the capacity to efficiently adapt to climate change.[46]: 957 This was partly due to their low adaptive capacity and the high costs of adaptation in proportion to their GDP.

The Arctic is extremely vulnerable to climate change. It was predicted in 2007 that there would be major ecological, sociological, and economic impacts in the region.[47]: 804–805 Among those being disproportionately impacted by issues regarding climate change have been the Indigenous peoples of the Arctic, such as the Inuit, Yupik, and Saami, who are particularly vulnerable.[48] Traditional livelihoods, including hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding, are threatened by changes in ice conditions, wildlife migration patterns, and habitat availability. Additionally, thawing permafrost can damage infrastructure and contaminate water sources, posing health and safety risks to communities.[49]

Small island Developing States are particularly vulnerable to climate change.[50]: 689 Partly this was attributed to their low adaptive capacity and the high costs of adaptation in proportion to their GDP. Climate change leads to more frequent and intense extreme weather events such as hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones. Small islands are especially susceptible to these events, which can cause widespread destruction, loss of life, and economic setbacks.

In comparison, the climate vulnerability of Europe is lower than in developing countries. This was attributed to Europe's high GNP, stable growth, stable population, and well-developed political, institutional, and technological support systems.[51]: 643 Script error: No such module "World topic".

## See also

* Climate Vulnerability Monitor
* Effects of climate change
* Effects of climate change on human health

## References

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 H.-O. Pörtner; D.C. Roberts; E.S. Poloczanska et al., eds (2022). "Summary for Policymakers". IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_SummaryForPolicymakers.pdf. . In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001
2. ↑ O'Hare, Paul (2025-02-26). "Not 'just' climate adaptation—towards progressive urban resilience" (in en). Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 12 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1057/s41599-025-04556-x. ISSN 2662-9992.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Sherbinin, Alex de; Bukvic, Anamaria; Rohat, Guillaume; Gall, Melanie; McCusker, Brent; Preston, Benjamin; Apotsos, Alex; Fish, Carolyn et al. (2019). "Climate vulnerability mapping: A systematic review and future prospects" (in en). WIREs Climate Change 10 (5). doi:10.1002/wcc.600. ISSN 1757-7799. Bibcode: 2019WIRCC..10E.600D.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "The Vulnerability Sourcebook". Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH.. 2017. https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/metadata/guidances/the-vulnerability-sourcebook-concept-and-guidelines-for-standardized-vulnerability-assessments.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Tiepolo, Maurizio (2017). "Relevance and Quality of Climate Planning for Large and Medium-Sized Cities of the Tropics". Renewing Local Planning to Face Climate Change in the Tropics. Green Energy and Technology. Springer. pp. 199–226. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-59096-7_10. ISBN 978-3-319-59095-0.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Birkmann, J., E. Liwenga, R. Pandey, E. Boyd, R. Djalante, F. Gemenne, W. Leal Filho, P.F. Pinho, L. Stringer, and D. Wrathall, 2022: Poverty, Livelihoods and Sustainable Development . In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1171–1274, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.010
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8. ↑ IPCC (2007a). "Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Core Writing Team, Pachauri, R.K and Reisinger, A. (eds.))". IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm.
9. ↑ "TAR Working Group 2". IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar3/wg2/.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Point of Departure and Key Concepts". Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. 2023. pp. 121–196. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.003. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_Chapter01.pdf.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 O'Brien, Karen; Eriksen, Siri; Nygaard, Lynn P.; Schjolden, ANE (2007). "Why different interpretations of vulnerability matter in climate change discourses". Climate Policy 7 (1): 73–88. doi:10.1080/14693062.2007.9685639. Bibcode: 2007CliPo...7...73O.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 IPCC, 2014: Annex II: Glossary [Agard, J., E.L.F. Schipper, J. Birkmann, M. Campos, C. Dubeux, Y. Nojiri, L. Olsson, B. Osman-Elasha, M. Pelling, M.J. Prather, M.G. Rivera-Ferre, O.C. Ruppel, A. Sallenger, K.R. Smith, A.L. St. Clair, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, and T.E. Bilir (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Barros, V.R., C.B. Field, D.J. Dokken, M.D. Mastrandrea, K.J. Mach, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L. White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1757-1776.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Dickin, Sarah; Segnestam, Lisa; Sou Dakouré, Mariam (2021-05-28). "Women's vulnerability to climate-related risks to household water security in Centre-East, Burkina Faso" (in en). Climate and Development 13 (5): 443–453. doi:10.1080/17565529.2020.1790335. ISSN 1756-5529. Bibcode: 2021CliDe..13..443D.
14. ↑ "Summary for policymakers". IPCC. 2014. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/02/ar5_wgII_spm_en.pdf. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L.White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1-32.
15. ↑ Sharma, Jagmohan; Ravindranath, Nijavalli H. (2019). "Applying IPCC 2014 framework for hazard-specific vulnerability assessment under climate change". Environmental Research Communications 1 (5). doi:10.1088/2515-7620/ab24ed. Bibcode: 2019ERCom...1e1004S.
16. ↑ Li, A; Toll, M; Bentley, R (2023). "Mapping social vulnerability indicators to understand the health impacts of climate change: a scoping review". The Lancet Planetary Health 7 (11): e925–e937. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00216-4. PMID 37940212.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Papathoma-Köhle, Maria; Schlögl, Matthias; Dosser, Lea; Roesch, Florian; Borga, Marco; Erlicher, Marcel; Keiler, Margreth; Fuchs, Sven (2022). "Physical vulnerability to dynamic flooding: Vulnerability curves and vulnerability indices". Journal of Hydrology 607. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.127501. Bibcode: 2022JHyd..60727501P.
18. ↑ Fuchs, S.; Keiler, M.; Ortlepp, R.; Schinke, R.; Papathoma-Köhle, M. (2019). "Recent advances in vulnerability assessment for the built environment exposed to torrential hazards: Challenges and the way forward". Journal of Hydrology 575: 587–595. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.05.067. Bibcode: 2019JHyd..575..587F.
19. ↑ Sarkodie, Samuel Asumadu; Ahmed, Maruf Yakubu; Owusu, Phebe Asantewaa (2022-04-05). "Global adaptation readiness and income mitigate sectoral climate change vulnerabilities" (in en). Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 9 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1057/s41599-022-01130-7. ISSN 2662-9992.
20. ↑ M.J. Collier et al. "Transitioning to resilience and sustainability in urban communities" Cities 2013. 32:21–S28
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Grasham, Catherine F.; Korzenevica, Marina; Charles, Katrina J. (2019). "On considering climate resilience in urban water security: A review of the vulnerability of the urban poor in sub-Saharan Africa" (in en). WIREs Water 6 (3). doi:10.1002/wat2.1344. ISSN 2049-1948. Bibcode: 2019WIRWa...6E1344G.
22. ↑ Li, A; Toll, M; Bentley, R (2023). "Mapping social vulnerability indicators to understand the health impacts of climate change: a scoping review". The Lancet Planetary Health 7 (11): e925–e937. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00216-4. PMID 37940212.
23. ↑ K. Hewitt (Ed.), Interpretations of Calamity for the Viewpoint of Human Ecology, Allen and Unwin, Boston (1983), pp. 231–262
24. ↑ "Climate Change". https://www.nri.org/publications/thematic-papers/9-climate-change/file.
25. ↑ "Achieving Dryland Women's Empowerment: Environmental Resilience and Social Transformation Imperatives". https://catalogue.unccd.int/917_Dryland_women_ Resilience_Brief.pdf.
26. ↑ Romanello, Marina; McGushin, Alice; Di Napoli, Claudia; Drummond, Paul; Hughes, Nick; Jamart, Louis; Kennard, Harry; Lampard, Pete et al. (October 2021). "The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: code red for a healthy future". The Lancet 398 (10311): 1619–1662. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6. PMID 34687662. PMC 7616807. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/102413/1/2021 Report of the Lancet Countdown revised _no refs ES_clean.pdf. Retrieved 2023-05-17.
27. ↑ Shonkoff, Seth B.; Morello-Frosch, Rachel; Pastor, Manuel; Sadd, James (December 2009). "Minding the Climate Gap: Environmental Health and Equity Implications of Climate Change Mitigation Policies in California". Environmental Justice 2 (4): 173–177. doi:10.1089/env.2009.0030. ISSN 1939-4071. Bibcode: 2009EnvJ....2..173S.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Knowlton, Kim; Rotkin-Ellman, Miriam; King, Galatea; Margolis, Helene G.; Smith, Daniel; Solomon, Gina; Trent, Roger; English, Paul (January 2009). "The 2006 California Heat Wave: Impacts on Hospitalizations and Emergency Department Visits". Environmental Health Perspectives 117 (1): 61–67. doi:10.1289/ehp.11594. ISSN 0091-6765. PMID 19165388. Bibcode: 2009EnvHP.117...61K.
29. ↑ Mechanic, David; Tanner, Jennifer (September 2007). "Vulnerable People, Groups, And Populations: Societal View". Health Affairs 26 (5): 1220–1230. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.26.5.1220. ISSN 0278-2715. PMID 17848429.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Hansen, Alana; Bi, Linda; Saniotis, Arthur; Nitschke, Monika (December 2013). "Vulnerability to extreme heat and climate change: is ethnicity a factor?" (in en). Global Health Action 6 (1). doi:10.3402/gha.v6i0.21364. ISSN 1654-9716. PMID 23899408.
31. ↑ Uejio, Christopher K.; Wilhelmi, Olga V.; Golden, Jay S.; Mills, David M.; Gulino, Sam P.; Samenow, Jason P. (March 2011). "Intra-urban societal vulnerability to extreme heat: The role of heat exposure and the built environment, socioeconomics, and neighborhood stability" (in en). Health & Place 17 (2): 498–507. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.12.005. PMID 21216652. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1353829210001838.
32. ↑ Luber, George; McGeehin, Michael (November 2008). "Climate Change and Extreme Heat Events". American Journal of Preventive Medicine 35 (5): 429–435. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.08.021. ISSN 0749-3797. PMID 18929969.
33. ↑ Basara, Jeffrey B.; Basara, Heather G.; Illston, Bradley G.; Crawford, Kenneth C. (January 2010). "The Impact of the Urban Heat Island during an Intense Heat Wave in Oklahoma City". Advances in Meteorology 2010 (1). doi:10.1155/2010/230365. ISSN 1687-9309. Bibcode: 2010AdMet201030365B.
34. ↑ Li, A; Toll, M; Bentley, R (2023). "Mapping social vulnerability indicators to understand the health impacts of climate change: a scoping review". The Lancet Planetary Health 7 (11): e925–e937. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00216-4. PMID 37940212.
35. ↑ Pinho-Gomes, Ana-Catarina; Woodward, Mark (2024). "The association between gender equality and climate adaptation across the globe". BMC Public Health 24 (1). doi:10.1186/s12889-024-18880-5. PMID 38790000.
36. ↑ Liu, F. (2000). Environmental justice analysis: Theories, methods and practice. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
37. ↑ OP (2013-02-22). "Summary of Executive Order 12898 - Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-executive-order-12898-federal-actions-address-environmental-justice.
38. ↑ OEJECR (2015-04-15). "Environmental Justice in Your Community" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/environmental-justice-your-community.
39. ↑ "Climate Change Vulnerability Assessments | Climate Change Resource Center". https://research.fs.usda.gov/centers/ccrc.
40. ↑ "Fiji: Climate Vulnerability Assessment". Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. 2017. https://www.gfdrr.org/en/fiji-climate-vulnerability-assessment.
41. ↑ "Climate vulnerability assessment". City of Rochester NY. https://www.cityofrochester.gov/CVA/.
42. ↑ "Climate Vulnerability Assessments" (in en). NOAA Fisheries. 2019-09-19. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/climate/climate-vulnerability-assessments.
43. ↑ "DRMKC - INFORM". INFORM, European Commission Joint Research Center. 2019. https://drmkc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/inform-index/.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Tiepolo, Maurizio; Bacci, Maurizio (2017). "Tracking Climate Change Vulnerability at Municipal Level in Rural Haiti Using Open Data". Renewing Local Planning to Face Climate Change in the Tropics. Green Energy and Technology. pp. 103–131. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-59096-7_6. ISBN 978-3-319-59095-0.
45. ↑ Smith, J. B. (2001). "Vulnerability to Climate Change and Reasons for Concern: A Synthesis. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (J.J. McCarthy et al. Eds.)". Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.htm.
46. ↑ "19. Vulnerability to Climate Change and Reasons for Concern: A Synthesis". Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. 2001. pp. 913–970. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/wg2TARchap19.pdf. Retrieved 2022-01-19.
47. ↑ "16. Polar Regions (Arctic and Antarctic)". Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. 2001. pp. 801–842. ISBN 978-0-521-80768-5. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/2018/03/wg2TARchap16.pdf. Retrieved 2022-01-19.
48. ↑ Vo, Steven (2021-02-23). "Indigenous Peoples and Climate Justice in the Arctic" (in en-US). https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2021/02/23/indigenous-peoples-and-climate-justice-in-the-arctic/.
49. ↑ "Thawing permafrost" (in sv). https://www.arcticwwf.org/the-circle/stories/thawing-permafrost/.
50. ↑ Mimura, N. (2007). Executive summary. In (book chapter): Small islands. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (M.L. Parry et al., (eds.)). Print version: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y. This version: IPCC website. ISBN 978-0-521-88010-7. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch16s16-es.html. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
51. ↑ Kundzewicz, Z. W. (2001). "Europe. In: Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change". in J. J. McCarthy. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, N.Y.. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch12.html.

* v
* t
* e

Climate change

Overview

* Causes of climate change
* Effects of climate change
* Climate change mitigation
* Climate change adaptation
* By country and region

Causes

| Overview|

* Climate system
* Greenhouse effect (Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Earth)
* Scientific consensus on climate change

|

Sources|

* Deforestation
* Fossil fuel
* Greenhouse gases
* Greenhouse gas emissions
* Carbon accounting
* Carbon footprint
* Carbon leakage
* from agriculture
* from wetlands
* World energy supply and consumption

History

* History of climate change policy and politics
* History of climate change science
* Svante Arrhenius
* James Hansen
* Charles David Keeling
* United Nations Climate Change conferences
* Years in climate change
* 2019
* 2020
* 2021
* 2022
* 2023
* 2024
* 2025
* 2026

Effects and issues

| Physical|

* Abrupt climate change
* Anoxic event
* Arctic methane emissions
* Arctic sea ice decline
* Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
* Drought
* Extreme weather
* Flood
* Coastal flooding
* Heat wave
* Marine
* Urban heat island
* Oceans
* acidification
* deoxygenation
* heat content
* sea surface temperature
* stratification
* temperature
* Ozone depletion
* Permafrost thaw
* Retreat of glaciers since 1850
* Sea level rise
* Season creep
* Climate sensitivity
* Tipping points in the climate system
* Tropical cyclones
* Water cycle
* Wildfires

|

Flora and fauna|

* Biomes
* Mass mortality event
* Birds
* Extinction risk
* Forest dieback
* Invasive species
* Marine life
* Plant biodiversity

Social and economic|

* Agriculture
* Livestock
* Multi-breadbasket failure
* In the United States
* Children
* Cities
* Civilizational collapse
* Crime
* Depopulation of settlements
* Destruction of cultural heritage
* Disability
* Economic impacts
* U.S. insurance industry
* Fisheries
* Gender
* Health
* Infectious diseases
* Mental health
* In the United Kingdom
* In the Philippines
* Human rights
* Indigenous peoples
* Migration
* Poverty
* Psychological impacts
* Security and conflict
* Urban flooding
* Water scarcity
* Water security

By country and region|

* Africa
* Americas
* Antarctica
* Arctic
* Asia
* Australia
* Caribbean
* Europe
* Middle East and North Africa
* Small island countries
* by individual country

Mitigation

| Economics and finance|

* Carbon budget
* Carbon emission trading
* Carbon offsets and credits
* Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
* Carbon price
* Carbon tax
* Climate debt
* Climate finance
* Climate risk insurance
* Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
* Economics of climate change mitigation
* Fossil fuel divestment
* Green Climate Fund
* Low-carbon economy
* Net zero emissions

|

Energy|

* Carbon capture and storage
* Energy transition
* Fossil fuel phase-out
* Nuclear power
* Renewable energy
* Sustainable energy

Preserving and enhancing
carbon sinks|

* Blue carbon
* Carbon dioxide removal
* Carbon sequestration
* Direct air capture
* Carbon farming
* Climate-smart agriculture
* Forest management
* afforestation
* forestry for carbon sequestration
* REDD+
* reforestation
* Land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF and AFOLU)
* Nature-based solutions

Other|

* Earth Strike
* Fridays for Future
* Geoengineering
* Individual action on climate change
* Positive tipping points
* Sustainable architecture
* Sustainable transport

Society and adaptation

| Society|

* Business action
* Climate action
* Climate emergency declaration
* Climate movement
* School Strike for Climate
* Denial
* Ecological grief
* Governance
* Justice
* Litigation
* Politics
* Public opinion
* Women

|

Adaptation|

* Adaptation strategies on the German coast
* Adaptive capacity
* Disaster risk reduction
* Ecosystem-based adaptation
* Flood control
* Loss and damage
* Managed retreat
* Nature-based solutions
* Resilience
* Risk
* Vulnerability
* The Adaptation Fund
* National Adaptation Programme of Action

Communication|

* Climate Change Performance Index
* Climate crisis (term)
* Climate spiral
* Education
* Media coverage
* Popular culture depictions
* art
* fiction
* video games
* Warming stripes

International agreements|

* Glasgow Climate Pact
* Integrity Council for the Voluntary Carbon Market
* Taskforce on Scaling Voluntary Carbon Markets
* Kyoto Protocol
* Paris Agreement
* Cooperative mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
* Nationally determined contributions
* Sustainable Development Goal 13
* United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Background and theory

| Measurements|

* Global surface temperature
* Instrumental temperature record
* Proxy
* Satellite temperature measurement

|

Theory|

* Albedo
* Carbon cycle
* atmospheric
* biologic
* oceanic
* permafrost
* Carbon sink
* Climate sensitivity
* Climate variability and change
* Cloud feedback
* Cloud forcing
* Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
* Cryosphere
* Earth's energy budget
* Extreme event attribution
* Feedbacks
* Global warming potential
* Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
* Orbital forcing
* Radiative forcing

Research and modelling|

* Climate change scenario
* Climate model
* Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
* Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
* IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
* Paleoclimatology
* Representative Concentration Pathway
* Shared Socioeconomic Pathways

* '
* Category
* Glossary
* Index

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