Connectionism

Connectionism is an approach to the study of human mental processes and cognition that utilizes mathematical models known as connectionist networks or artificial neural networks.[1]

Connectionism has had many "waves" since its beginnings. The first wave appeared 1943 with Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach,[2] and Frank Rosenblatt who published the 1958 paper "The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain" in Psychological Review, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory.[3] The first wave ended with the 1969 book Perceptrons about limitations of the original perceptron idea, written by Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert, which contributed to discouraging major funding agencies in the US from investing in connectionist research.[4] With a few noteworthy deviations, most connectionist research entered a period of inactivity until the mid-1980s. The term connectionist model was reintroduced in a 1982 paper in the journal Cognitive Science by Jerome Feldman and Dana Ballard.

The second wave blossomed in the late 1980s, following a 1987 book Parallel Distributed Processing by James L. McClelland, David E. Rumelhart, et al., which introduced a couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (now known as "hidden layers") alongside input and output units, and used a sigmoid activation function instead of the old "all-or-nothing" function. Their work built upon that of John Hopfield, who was a key figure investigating the mathematical characteristics of sigmoid activation functions.[3] From the late 1980s to the mid-1990s, connectionism took on an almost revolutionary tone when Schneider,[5] Terence Horgan and Tienson posed the question of whether connectionism represented a fundamental shift in psychology and so-called "good old-fashioned AI", or GOFAI.[3] Some advantages of the second wave connectionist approach included its applicability to a broad array of functions, structural approximation to biological neurons, low requirements for innate structure, and capacity for graceful degradation.[6] Its disadvantages included the difficulty in deciphering how ANNs process information or account for the compositionality of mental representations, and a resultant difficulty explaining phenomena at a higher level.[7]

The current (third) wave has been marked by advances in deep learning, which have made possible the creation of large language models.[3] The success of deep-learning networks in the past decade has greatly increased the popularity of this approach, but the complexity and scale of such networks has brought with them increased interpretability problems.[8]

## Contents

* 1 Basic principle
* 1.1 Activation function
* 1.2 Memory and learning
* 1.3 Biological realism
* 2 Precursors
* 3 The first wave
* 4 The neural network winter
* 5 The second wave
* 6 Connectionism vs. computationalism debate
* 7 Symbolism vs. connectionism debate
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 External links

## Basic principle

The central connectionist principle is that mental phenomena can be described by interconnected networks of simple and often uniform units. The form of the connections and the units can vary from model to model. For example, units in the network could represent neurons and the connections could represent synapses, as in the human brain. This principle has been seen as an alternative to GOFAI and the classical theories of mind based on symbolic computation, but the extent to which the two approaches are compatible has been the subject of much debate since their inception.[8]

### Activation function

Main article: Activation function

Internal states of any network change over time due to neurons sending a signal to a succeeding layer of neurons in the case of a feedforward network, or to a previous layer in the case of a recurrent network. Discovery of non-linear activation functions has enabled the second wave of connectionism.

### Memory and learning

Neural networks follow two basic principles:

1. Any mental state can be described as a n-dimensional vector of numeric activation values over neural units in a network.
2. Memory and learning are created by modifying the 'weights' of the connections between neural units, generally represented as an n×m matrix. The weights are adjusted according to some learning rule or algorithm, such as Hebbian learning.[9]

Most of the variety among the models comes from:

* Interpretation of units: Units can be interpreted as neurons or groups of neurons.
* Definition of activation: Activation can be defined in a variety of ways. For example, in a Boltzmann machine, the activation is interpreted as the probability of generating an action potential spike, and is determined via a logistic function on the sum of the inputs to a unit.
* Learning algorithm: Different networks modify their connections differently. In general, any mathematically defined change in connection weights over time is referred to as the "learning algorithm".

### Biological realism

Connectionist work in general does not need to be biologically realistic.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] One area where connectionist models are thought to be biologically implausible is with respect to error-propagation networks that are needed to support learning,[17][18] but error propagation can explain some of the biologically-generated electrical activity seen at the scalp in event-related potentials such as the N400 and P600,[19] and this provides some biological support for one of the key assumptions of connectionist learning procedures. Many recurrent connectionist models also incorporate dynamical systems theory. Many researchers, such as the connectionist Paul Smolensky, have argued that connectionist models will evolve toward fully continuous, high-dimensional, non-linear, dynamic systems approaches.

## Precursors

Precursors of the connectionist principles can be traced to early work in psychology, such as that of William James.[20] Psychological theories based on knowledge about the human brain were fashionable in the late 19th century. As early as 1869, the neurologist John Hughlings Jackson argued for multi-level, distributed systems. Following from this lead, Herbert Spencer's Principles of Psychology, 3rd edition (1872), and Sigmund Freud's Project for a Scientific Psychology (composed 1895) propounded connectionist or proto-connectionist theories. These tended to be speculative theories. But by the early 20th century, Edward Thorndike was writing about human learning that posited a connectionist type network.[21]

Hopfield networks had precursors in the Ising model due to Wilhelm Lenz (1920) and Ernst Ising (1925), though the Ising model conceived by them did not involve time. Monte Carlo simulations of Ising model required the advent of computers in the 1950s.[22]

## The first wave

The first wave begun in 1943 with Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts both focusing on comprehending neural circuitry through a formal and mathematical approach. McCulloch and Pitts showed how neural systems could implement first-order logic: Their classic paper "A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) is important in this development here. They were influenced by the work of Nicolas Rashevsky in the 1930s and symbolic logic in the style of Principia Mathematica.[23][3]

Hebb contributed greatly to speculations about neural functioning, and proposed a learning principle, Hebbian learning. Lashley argued for distributed representations as a result of his failure to find anything like a localized engram in years of lesion experiments. Friedrich Hayek independently conceived the model, first in a brief unpublished manuscript in 1920,[24][25] then expanded into a book in 1952.[26]

The Perceptron machines were proposed and built by Frank Rosenblatt, who published the 1958 paper “The Perceptron: A Probabilistic Model For Information Storage and Organization in the Brain” in Psychological Review, while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. He cited Hebb, Hayek, Uttley, and Ashby as main influences.

Another form of connectionist model was the relational network framework developed by the linguist Sydney Lamb in the 1960s.

The research group led by Widrow empirically searched for methods to train two-layered ADALINE networks (MADALINE), with limited success.[27][28]

A method to train multilayered perceptrons with arbitrary levels of trainable weights was published by Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa in 1965, called the Group Method of Data Handling. This method employs incremental layer by layer training based on regression analysis, where useless units in hidden layers are pruned with the help of a validation set.[29][30][31]

The first multilayered perceptrons trained by stochastic gradient descent[32] was published in 1967 by Shun'ichi Amari.[33] In computer experiments conducted by Amari's student Saito, a five layer MLP with two modifiable layers learned useful internal representations to classify non-linearily separable pattern classes.[30]

In 1972, Shun'ichi Amari produced an early example of self-organizing network.[34]

## The neural network winter

There was some conflict among artificial intelligence researchers as to what neural networks are useful for. Around late 1960s, there was a widespread lull in research and publications on neural networks, "the neural network winter", which lasted through the 1970s, during which the field of artificial intelligence turned towards symbolic methods. The publication of Perceptrons (1969) is typically regarded as a catalyst of this event.[35][36]

## The second wave

The second wave begun in the early 1980s. Some key publications included (John Hopfield, 1982)[37] which popularized Hopfield networks, the 1986 paper that popularized backpropagation,[38] and the 1987 two-volume book about the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) by James L. McClelland, David E. Rumelhart et al., which has introduced a couple of improvements to the simple perceptron idea, such as intermediate processors (known as "hidden layers" now) alongside input and output units and using sigmoid activation function instead of the old 'all-or-nothing' function.

Hopfield approached the field from the perspective of statistical mechanics, providing some early forms of mathematical rigor that increased the perceived respectability of the field.[3] Another important series of publications proved that neural networks are universal function approximators, which also provided some mathematical respectability.[39]

Some early popular demonstration projects appeared during this time. NETtalk (1987) learned to pronounce written English. It achieved popular success, appearing on the Today show.[40] TD-Gammon (1992) reached top human level in backgammon.[41]

## Connectionism vs. computationalism debate

As connectionism became increasingly popular in the late 1980s, some researchers (including Jerry Fodor, Steven Pinker and others) reacted against it. They argued that connectionism, as then developing, threatened to obliterate what they saw as the progress being made in the fields of cognitive science and psychology by the classical approach of computationalism. Computationalism is a specific form of cognitivism that argues that mental activity is computational, that is, that the mind operates by performing purely formal operations on symbols, like a Turing machine. Some researchers argued that the trend in connectionism represented a reversion toward associationism and the abandonment of the idea of a language of thought, something they saw as mistaken. In contrast, those very tendencies made connectionism attractive for other researchers.

Connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds, but the debate in the late 1980s and early 1990s led to opposition between the two approaches. Throughout the debate, some researchers have argued that connectionism and computationalism are fully compatible, though full consensus on this issue has not been reached. Differences between the two approaches include the following:

* Computationalists posit symbolic models that are structurally similar to underlying brain structure, whereas connectionists engage in "low-level" modeling, trying to ensure that their models resemble neurological structures.
* Computationalists in general focus on the structure of explicit symbols (mental models) and syntactical rules for their internal manipulation, whereas connectionists focus on learning from environmental stimuli and storing this information in a form of connections between neurons.
* Computationalists believe that internal mental activity consists of manipulation of explicit symbols, whereas connectionists believe that the manipulation of explicit symbols provides a poor model of mental activity.
* Computationalists often posit domain specific symbolic sub-systems designed to support learning in specific areas of cognition (e.g., language, intentionality, number), whereas connectionists posit one or a small set of very general learning-mechanisms.

Despite these differences, some theorists have proposed that the connectionist architecture is simply the manner in which organic brains happen to implement the symbol-manipulation system. This is logically possible, as it is well known that connectionist models can implement symbol-manipulation systems of the kind used in computationalist models,[42] as indeed they must be able if they are to explain the human ability to perform symbol-manipulation tasks. Several cognitive models combining both symbol-manipulative and connectionist architectures have been proposed. Among them are Paul Smolensky's Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic Cognitive Architecture (ICS).[8][43] and Ron Sun's CLARION (cognitive architecture). But the debate rests on whether this symbol manipulation forms the foundation of cognition in general, so this is not a potential vindication of computationalism. Nonetheless, computational descriptions may be helpful high-level descriptions of cognition of logic, for example.

The debate was largely centred on logical arguments about whether connectionist networks could produce the syntactic structure observed in this sort of reasoning. This was later achieved although using fast-variable binding abilities outside of those standardly assumed in connectionist models.[42][44]

Part of the appeal of computational descriptions is that they are relatively easy to interpret, and thus may be seen as contributing to our understanding of particular mental processes, whereas connectionist models are in general more opaque, to the extent that they may be describable only in very general terms (such as specifying the learning algorithm, the number of units, etc.), or in unhelpfully low-level terms. In this sense, connectionist models may instantiate, and thereby provide evidence for, a broad theory of cognition (i.e., connectionism), without representing a helpful theory of the particular process that is being modelled. In this sense, the debate might be considered as to some extent reflecting a mere difference in the level of analysis in which particular theories are framed. Some researchers suggest that the analysis gap is the consequence of connectionist mechanisms giving rise to emergent phenomena that may be describable in computational terms.[45]

In the 2000s, the popularity of dynamical systems in philosophy of mind have added a new perspective on the debate;[46][47] some authors[which?] now argue that any split between connectionism and computationalism is more conclusively characterized as a split between computationalism and dynamical systems.

In 2014, Alex Graves and others from DeepMind published a series of papers describing a novel Deep Neural Network structure called the Neural Turing Machine[48] able to read symbols on a tape and store symbols in memory. Relational Networks, another Deep Network module published by DeepMind, are able to create object-like representations and manipulate them to answer complex questions. Relational Networks and Neural Turing Machines are further evidence that connectionism and computationalism need not be at odds.

## Symbolism vs. connectionism debate

Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm[49][50] has to meet the Fodor-Pylyshyn challenge[51][52][53][54] formulated by classical symbol theory for a convincing theory of cognition in modern connectionism. In order to be an adequate alternative theory of cognition, Smolensky's Subsymbolic Paradigm would have to explain the existence of systematicity or systematic relations in language cognition without the assumption that cognitive processes are causally sensitive to the classical constituent structure of mental representations. The subsymbolic paradigm, or connectionism in general, would thus have to explain the existence of systematicity and compositionality without relying on the mere implementation of a classical cognitive architecture. This challenge implies a dilemma: If the Subsymbolic Paradigm could contribute nothing to the systematicity and compositionality of mental representations, it would be insufficient as a basis for an alternative theory of cognition. However, if the Subsymbolic Paradigm's contribution to systematicity requires mental processes grounded in the classical constituent structure of mental representations, the theory of cognition it develops would be, at best, an implementation architecture of the classical model of symbol theory and thus not a genuine alternative (connectionist) theory of cognition.[55] The classical model of symbolism is characterized by (1) a combinatorial syntax and semantics of mental representations and (2) mental operations as structure-sensitive processes, based on the fundamental principle of syntactic and semantic constituent structure of mental representations as used in Fodor's "Language of Thought (LOT)".[56][57] This can be used to explain the following closely related properties of human cognition, namely its (1) productivity, (2) systematicity, (3) compositionality, and (4) inferential coherence.[58]

This challenge has been met in modern connectionism, for example, not only by Smolensky's "Integrated Connectionist/Symbolic (ICS) Cognitive Architecture",[59][60] but also by Werning and Maye's "Oscillatory Networks".[61][62][63] An overview of this is given for example by Bechtel & Abrahamsen,[64] Marcus[65] and Maurer.[66]

Recently, Heng Zhang and his colleagues have demonstrated that mainstream knowledge representation formalisms are, in fact, recursively isomorphic, provided they possess equivalent expressive power.[67] This finding implies that there is no fundamental distinction between using symbolic or connectionist knowledge representation formalisms for the realization of artificial general intelligence (AGI). Moreover, the existence of recursive isomorphisms suggests that different technical approaches can draw insights from one another.

## See also

* Associationism
* Artificial intelligence
* Behaviorism
* Catastrophic interference
* Calculus of relations
* Cybernetics
* Deep learning
* Eliminative materialism
* Feature integration theory
* Genetic algorithm
* Harmonic grammar
* Machine learning
* Pandemonium architecture
* Self-organizing map

## Notes

1. ↑ "Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy". https://iep.utm.edu/connectionism-cognition/#:~:text=Connectionism is an approach to,, neuron-like processing units..
2. ↑ McCulloch, Warren S.; Pitts, Walter (1943-12-01). "A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity" (in en). The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 5 (4): 115–133. doi:10.1007/BF02478259. ISSN 1522-9602. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02478259.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Berkeley, Istvan S. N. (2019). "The Curious Case of Connectionism". Open Philosophy 2019 (2): 190–205. doi:10.1515/opphil-2019-0018.
4. ↑ Boden, Margaret (2006). Mind as Machine: A History of Cognitive Science. Oxford: Oxford U.P. pp. 914. ISBN 978-0-262-63268-3. https://archive.org/details/mindasmachinehis0002bode/page/n5/mode/thumb.
5. ↑ Schneider, Walter (1987). "Connectionism: Is it a Paradigm Shift for Psychology?". Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 19: 73–83. doi:10.1515/opphil-2019-0018.
6. ↑ Marcus, Gary F. (2001). The Algebraic Mind: Integrating Connectionism and Cognitive Science (Learning, Development, and Conceptual Change). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 978-0-262-63268-3. https://archive.org/details/algebraicmindint00marc_403.
7. ↑ Smolensky, Paul (1999). "Grammar-based Connectionist Approaches to Language". Cognitive Science 23 (4): 589–613. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2304_9.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Garson, James (27 November 2018). Zalta, Edward N.. ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2018/entries/connectionism/.
9. ↑ Novo, María-Luisa; Alsina, Ángel; Marbán, José-María; Berciano, Ainhoa (2017). "Connective Intelligence for Childhood Mathematics Education" (in es). Comunicar 25 (52): 29–39. doi:10.3916/c52-2017-03. ISSN 1134-3478.
10. ↑ "Encephalos Journal". http://www.encephalos.gr/48-1-01e.htm.
11. ↑ Wilson, Elizabeth A. (2016-02-04) (in en). Neural Geographies: Feminism and the Microstructure of Cognition. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-95876-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=s-OCCwAAQBAJ&q="accurate"&pg=PT18.
12. ↑ Di Paolo, E.A (1 January 2003). "Organismically-inspired robotics: homeostatic adaptation and teleology beyond the closed sensorimotor loop". Dynamical Systems Approach to Embodiment and Sociality, Advanced Knowledge International (University of Sussex). https://users.sussex.ac.uk/~ezequiel/dp-erasmus.pdf. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
13. ↑ Zorzi, Marco; Testolin, Alberto; Stoianov, Ivilin P. (2013-08-20). "Modeling language and cognition with deep unsupervised learning: a tutorial overview". Frontiers in Psychology 4: 515. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00515. ISSN 1664-1078. PMID 23970869.
14. ↑ Tieszen, R. (2011). "Analytic and Continental Philosophy, Science, and Global Philosophy". Comparative Philosophy 2 (2): 4–22. doi:10.31979/2151-6014(2011).020206. https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1015&context=comparativephilosophy. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
15. ↑ Browne, A. (1997-01-01) (in en). Neural Network Perspectives on Cognition and Adaptive Robotics. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-7503-0455-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=uV9TZzOITMwC&q="biological plausibility"&pg=PA17.
16. ↑ Pfeifer, R.; Schreter, Z.; Fogelman-Soulié, F.; Steels, L. (1989-08-23) (in en). Connectionism in Perspective. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-59876-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=7pPv0STSos8C&q="biological+realism"&pg=PA63.
17. ↑ Crick, Francis (January 1989). "The recent excitement about neural networks" (in en). Nature 337 (6203): 129–132. doi:10.1038/337129a0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 2911347. Bibcode: 1989Natur.337..129C.
18. ↑ Rumelhart, David E.; Hinton, Geoffrey E.; Williams, Ronald J. (October 1986). "Learning representations by back-propagating errors" (in en). Nature 323 (6088): 533–536. doi:10.1038/323533a0. ISSN 1476-4687. Bibcode: 1986Natur.323..533R.
19. ↑ Fitz, Hartmut; Chang, Franklin (2019-06-01). "Language ERPs reflect learning through prediction error propagation". Cognitive Psychology 111: 15–52. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2019.03.002. ISSN 0010-0285. PMID 30921626.
20. ↑ Anderson, James A.; Rosenfeld, Edward (1989). "Chapter 1: (1890) William James Psychology (Brief Course)". Neurocomputing: Foundations of Research. A Bradford Book. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-262-51048-6.
21. ↑ Edward Thorndike (1931) Human Learning, page 122
22. ↑ Brush, Stephen G. (1967). "History of the Lenz-Ising Model". Reviews of Modern Physics 39 (4): 883–893. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.39.883. Bibcode: 1967RvMP...39..883B.
23. ↑ McCulloch, Warren S.; Pitts, Walter (1943-12-01). "A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity" (in en). The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics 5 (4): 115–133. doi:10.1007/BF02478259. ISSN 1522-9602. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02478259.
24. ↑ Hayek, Friedrich A. [1920] 1991. Beiträge zur Theorie der Entwicklung des Bewusstseins [Contributions to a theory of how consciousness develops]. Manuscript, translated by Grete Heinz.
25. ↑ Caldwell, Bruce (2004). "Some Reflections on F.A. Hayek's The Sensory Order" (in en). Journal of Bioeconomics 6 (3): 239–254. doi:10.1007/s10818-004-5505-9. ISSN 1387-6996. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10818-004-5505-9.
26. ↑ Hayek, F. A. (2012-09-15) (in en). The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology (1st ed.). The University of Chicago Press.
27. ↑ pp 124-129, Olazaran Rodriguez, Jose Miguel. A historical sociology of neural network research. PhD Dissertation. University of Edinburgh, 1991.
28. ↑ Widrow, B. (1962) Generalization and information storage in networks of ADALINE "neurons". In M. C. Yovits, G. T. Jacobi, & G. D. Goldstein (Ed.), Self-Organizing Svstems-1962 (pp. 435-461). Washington, DC: Spartan Books.
29. ↑ Ivakhnenko, A. G.; Grigorʹevich Lapa, Valentin (1967). Cybernetics and forecasting techniques. American Elsevier Pub. Co.. https://books.google.com/books?id=rGFgAAAAMAAJ.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Schmidhuber, Jürgen (2022). "Annotated History of Modern AI and Deep Learning". arXiv:2212.11279 [cs.NE].
31. ↑ Ivakhnenko, A. G. (1973). Cybernetic Predicting Devices. CCM Information Corporation. https://books.google.com/books?id=FhwVNQAACAAJ.
32. ↑ Robbins, H.; Monro, S. (1951). "A Stochastic Approximation Method". The Annals of Mathematical Statistics 22 (3): 400. doi:10.1214/aoms/1177729586.
33. ↑ Amari, Shun'ichi (1967). "A theory of adaptive pattern classifier". IEEE Transactions EC (16): 279–307.
34. ↑ Amari, S.-I. (November 1972). "Learning Patterns and Pattern Sequences by Self-Organizing Nets of Threshold Elements". IEEE Transactions on Computers C-21 (11): 1197–1206. doi:10.1109/T-C.1972.223477. ISSN 0018-9340.
35. ↑ Olazaran, Mikel (1993-01-01), "A Sociological History of the Neural Network Controversy", in Yovits, Marshall C., Advances in Computers Volume 37, 37, Elsevier, pp. 335–425, doi:10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60408-8, ISBN 978-0-12-012137-3, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065245808604088, retrieved 2024-08-07
36. ↑ Olazaran, Mikel (August 1996). "A Sociological Study of the Official History of the Perceptrons Controversy" (in en). Social Studies of Science 26 (3): 611–659. doi:10.1177/030631296026003005. ISSN 0306-3127. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030631296026003005.
37. ↑ Hopfield, J J (April 1982). "Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities." (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 79 (8): 2554–2558. doi:10.1073/pnas.79.8.2554. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 6953413. Bibcode: 1982PNAS...79.2554H.
38. ↑ Rumelhart, David E.; Hinton, Geoffrey E.; Williams, Ronald J. (October 1986). "Learning representations by back-propagating errors" (in en). Nature 323 (6088): 533–536. doi:10.1038/323533a0. ISSN 1476-4687. Bibcode: 1986Natur.323..533R. https://www.nature.com/articles/323533a0.
39. ↑ Cybenko, G. (1989-12-01). "Approximation by superpositions of a sigmoidal function" (in en). Mathematics of Control, Signals and Systems 2 (4): 303–314. doi:10.1007/BF02551274. ISSN 1435-568X. Bibcode: 1989MCSS....2..303C. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02551274.
40. ↑ Sejnowski, Terrence J. (2018). The deep learning revolution. Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03803-4.
41. ↑ Sammut, Claude; Webb, Geoffrey I., eds. (2010) (in en), TD-Gammon, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 955–956, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30164-8_813, ISBN 978-0-387-30164-8, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30164-8_813, retrieved 2023-12-25
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 Chang, Franklin (2002). "Symbolically speaking: a connectionist model of sentence production" (in en). Cognitive Science 26 (5): 609–651. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2605_3. ISSN 1551-6709.
43. ↑ Smolensky, Paul (1990). "Tensor Product Variable Binding and the Representation of Symbolic Structures in Connectionist Systems". Artificial Intelligence 46 (1–2): 159–216. doi:10.1016/0004-3702(90)90007-M. http://www.lscp.net/persons/dupoux/teaching/AT1_2012/papers/Smolensky_1990_TensorProductVariableBinding.AI.pdf.
44. ↑ Shastri, Lokendra; Ajjanagadde, Venkat (September 1993). "From simple associations to systematic reasoning: A connectionist representation of rules, variables and dynamic bindings using temporal synchrony" (in en). Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16 (3): 417–451. doi:10.1017/S0140525X00030910. ISSN 1469-1825.
45. ↑ Ellis, Nick C. (1998). "Emergentism, Connectionism and Language Learning". Language Learning 48 (4): 631–664. doi:10.1111/0023-8333.00063. http://www-personal.umich.edu/~ncellis/NickEllis/Publications_files/Emergentism.pdf.
46. ↑ Van Gelder, Tim (1998), "The dynamical hypothesis in cognitive science", Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21 (5): 615–28; discussion 629–65, doi:10.1017/S0140525X98001733, PMID 10097022, https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0140525X98271731, retrieved 28 May 2022
47. ↑ Beer, Randall D. (March 2000). "Dynamical approaches to cognitive science". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (3): 91–99. doi:10.1016/s1364-6613(99)01440-0. ISSN 1364-6613. PMID 10689343.
48. ↑ Graves, Alex (2014). "Neural Turing Machines". arXiv:1410.5401 [cs.NE].
49. ↑ P. Smolensky: On the proper treatment of connectionism. In: Behavioral and Brain Sciences. Band 11, 1988, S. 1-74.
50. ↑ P. Smolensky: The constituent structure of connectionist mental states: a reply to Fodor and Pylyshyn. In: T. Horgan, J. Tienson (Hrsg.): Spindel Conference 1987: Connectionism and the Philosophy of Mind. The Southern Journal of Philosophy. Special Issue on Connectionism and the Foundations of Cognitive Science. Supplement. Band 26, 1988, S. 137-161.
51. ↑ Fodor, Jerry A.; Pylyshyn, Zenon W. (March 1988). "Connectionism and cognitive architecture: A critical analysis". Cognition 28 (1–2): 3–71. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(88)90031-5. PMID 2450716.
52. ↑ J.A. Fodor, B. McLaughlin: Connectionism and the problem of systematicity: why Smolensky's solution doesn't work. Cognition. Band 35, 1990, S. 183-184.
53. ↑ B. McLaughlin (1993). "The connectionism/classicism battle to win souls". Philosophical Studies 71 (2): 171–172. doi:10.1007/BF00989855.
54. ↑ B. McLaughlin: Can an ICS architecture meet the systematicity and productivity challenges? In: P. Calvo, J. Symons (Hrsg.): The Architecture of Cognition. Rethinking Fodor and Pylyshyn's Systematicity Challenge. MIT Press, Cambridge/MA, London, 2014, S. 31-76.
55. ↑ J.A. Fodor, B. McLaughlin: Connectionism and the problem of systematicity: Why Smolensky's solution doesn't work. Cognition. Band 35, 1990, S. 183-184.
56. ↑ J.A. Fodor: The language of thought. Harvester Press, Sussex, 1976, ISBN 0-85527-309-7.
57. ↑ J.A. Fodor: LOT 2: The language of thought revisited. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2008, ISBN 0-19-954877-3.
58. ↑ J.A. Fodor, Z.W. Pylyshyn (1988), S. 33-48.
59. ↑ P. Smolenky: Reply: Constituent structure and explanation in an integrated connectionist / symbolic cognitive architecture. In: C. MacDonald, G. MacDonald (Hrsg.): Connectionism: Debates on psychological explanation. Blackwell Publishers. Oxford/UK, Cambridge/MA. Vol. 2, 1995, S. 224, 236-239, 242-244, 250-252, 282.
60. ↑ P. Smolensky, G. Legendre: The Harmonic Mind: From Neural Computation to Optimality-Theoretic Grammar. Vol. 1: Cognitive Architecture. A Bradford Book, The MIT Press, Cambridge, London, 2006a, ISBN 0-262-19526-7, S. 65-67, 69-71, 74-75, 154-155, 159-202, 209-210, 235-267, 271-342, 513.
61. ↑ M. Werning: Neuronal synchronization, covariation, and compositional representation. In: M. Werning, E. Machery, G. Schurz (Hrsg.): The compositionality of meaning and content. Vol. II: Applications to linguistics, psychology and neuroscience. Ontos Verlag, 2005, S. 283-312.
62. ↑ M. Werning: Non-symbolic compositional representation and its neuronal foundation: towards an emulative semantics. In: M. Werning, W. Hinzen, E. Machery (Hrsg.): The Oxford Handbook of Compositionality. Oxford University Press, 2012, S. 633-654.
63. ↑ A. Maye und M. Werning: Neuronal synchronization: from dynamics feature binding to compositional representations. Chaos and Complexity Letters, Band 2, S. 315-325.
64. ↑ Bechtel, W., Abrahamsen, A.A. Connectionism and the Mind: Parallel Processing, Dynamics, and Evolution in Networks. 2nd Edition. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. 2002
65. ↑ G.F. Marcus: The algebraic mind. Integrating connectionism and cognitive science. Bradford Book, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 2001, ISBN 0-262-13379-2.
66. ↑ H. Maurer: Cognitive science: Integrative synchronization mechanisms in cognitive neuroarchitectures of the modern connectionism. CRC Press, Boca Raton/FL, 2021, ISBN 978-1-351-04352-6. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351043526
67. ↑ Zhang, Heng; Jiang, Guifei; Quan, Donghui (2025-04-11). "A Theory of Formalisms for Representing Knowledge" (in en). Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 39 (14): 15257–15264. doi:10.1609/aaai.v39i14.33674. ISSN 2374-3468. https://ojs.aaai.org/index.php/AAAI/article/view/33674.

## References

* Feldman, Jerome and Ballard, Dana. Connectionist models and their properties(1982). Cognitive Science. V6, Iissue 3 , pp205-254.
* Rumelhart, D.E., J.L. McClelland and the PDP Research Group (1986). Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 1: Foundations, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-68053-0
* McClelland, J.L., D.E. Rumelhart and the PDP Research Group (1986). Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition. Volume 2: Psychological and Biological Models, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-63110-5
* Pinker, Steven and Mehler, Jacques (1988). Connections and Symbols, Cambridge MA: MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-66064-8
* Jeffrey L. Elman, Elizabeth A. Bates, Mark H. Johnson, Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Domenico Parisi, Kim Plunkett (1996). Rethinking Innateness: A connectionist perspective on development, Cambridge MA: MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-55030-7
* Marcus, Gary F. (2001). The Algebraic Mind: Integrating Connectionism and Cognitive Science (Learning, Development, and Conceptual Change), Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-63268-3
* David A. Medler (1998). "A Brief History of Connectionism". Neural Computing Surveys 1: 61–101. http://www.blutner.de/NeuralNets/Texts/Medler.pdf.
* Maurer, Harald (2021). Cognitive Science: Integrative Synchronization Mechanisms in Cognitive Neuroarchitectures of the Modern Connectionism, Boca Raton/FL: CRC Press, https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351043526, ISBN 978-1-351-04352-6

## External links

* Dictionary of Philosophy of Mind entry on connectionism
* Garson, James. "Connectionism". in Zalta, Edward N.. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/connectionism/.
* A demonstration of Interactive Activation and Competition Networks
* "Connectionism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://www.iep.utm.edu/connect.
* Critique of connectionism

* v
* t
* e

Subfields of and cyberneticians involved in cybernetics

Subfields|

* Polycontexturality
* Second-order cybernetics
* Catastrophe theory
* Connectionism
* Control theory
* Cybernetics in the Soviet Union
* Decision theory
* Engineering cybernetics
* Information theory
* Semiotics
* Synergetics
* Biological cybernetics
* Biosemiotics
* Biomedical cybernetics
* Biorobotics
* Computational neuroscience
* Homeostasis
* Management cybernetics
* Medical cybernetics
* Neurocybernetics
* Sociocybernetics
* Emergence
* Artificial intelligence

Cyberneticians|

* Maleyka Abbaszadeh
* Igor Aleksander
* William Ross Ashby
* Gregory Bateson
* Anthony Stafford Beer
* Natalia Bekhtereva
* Claude Bernard
* Ludwig von Bertalanffy
* Valentin Braitenberg
* Gordon S. Brown
* Walter Bradford Cannon
* Manfred Clynes
* Heinz von Foerster
* Charles François
* Jay Wright Forrester
* Jacque Fresco
* Buckminster Fuller
* Ranulph Glanville
* Ernst von Glasersfeld
* Pyotr Grigorenko
* N. Katherine Hayles
* Francis Heylighen
* Erich von Holst
* Jason Jixuan Hu
* Cliff Joslyn
* Stuart Kauffman
* Sergei P. Kurdyumov
* Allenna Leonard
* Alexander Lerner
* Niklas Luhmann
* Alexey Lyapunov
* Warren McCulloch
* Humberto Maturana
* Marian Mazur
* Margaret Mead
* Ulla Mitzdorf
* Talcott Parsons
* Gordon Pask
* Walter Pitts
* Qian Xuesen
* Alfred Radcliffe-Brown
* I. A. Richards
* Robert Trappl
* Valentin Turchin
* Jakob von Uexküll
* Stuart Umpleby
* Francisco Varela
* Frederic Vester
* Charles Geoffrey Vickers
* John N. Warfield
* William Grey Walter
* Kevin Warwick
* Norbert Wiener
* Jennifer Wilby
* Anthony Wilden

* v
* t
* e

Evolutionary psychology

* History

Processes|

* Altruism
* Coevolution
* Evolutionarily stable strategy
* Kin selection
* Natural selection
* Sexual selection
* Social selection

Areas|

* Psychological development
* Morality
* Religion
* Depression
* Educational psychology
* Evolutionary aesthetics
* Music
* Darwinian literary studies
* Evolution of emotion

Biologists/
Neuroscientists|

* John Crook
* Charles Darwin
* Richard Dawkins
* Jared Diamond
* W. D. Hamilton
* Peter Kropotkin
* Gordon Orians
* Jaak Panksepp
* Margie Profet
* Giacomo Rizzolatti
* Randy Thornhill
* Robert Trivers
* Carel van Schaik
* Claus Wedekind
* Wolfgang Wickler
* David Sloan Wilson
* E. O. Wilson
* George C. Williams
* Richard Wrangham

Anthropologists|

* Jerome H. Barkow
* Robert Boyd
* Napoleon Chagnon
* Gregory Cochran
* Robin Dunbar
* Daniel Fessler
* Mark Flinn
* Henry Harpending
* John D. Hawks
* Joseph Henrich
* Ruth Mace
* Daniel Nettle
* Stephen Shennan
* Donald Symons
* John Tooby
* Pierre van den Berghe

Behavioral economists/
Political scientists|

* Samuel Bowles
* Ernst Fehr
* Herbert Gintis
* Dominic D. P. Johnson
* Gad Saad

Literary theory/
Aesthetics|

* Joseph Carroll
* Denis Dutton

Psychologists/
Cognitive scientists|

* Simon Baron-Cohen
* Justin L. Barrett
* Jay Belsky
* David F. Bjorklund
* Paul Bloom
* Pascal Boyer
* Joseph Bulbulia
* David Buss
* Josep Call
* Anne Campbell
* Peter Carruthers
* Leda Cosmides
* Martin Daly
* Daniel Dennett
* Paul Ekman
* Anne Fernald
* Aurelio José Figueredo
* David C. Geary
* Gerd Gigerenzer
* Jonathan Haidt
* Judith Rich Harris
* Stephen Kaplan
* Douglas T. Kenrick
* Simon M. Kirby
* Robert Kurzban
* Michael T. McGuire
* Geoffrey Miller
* Darcia Narvaez
* Randolph M. Nesse
* Steven Neuberg
* David Perrett
* Steven Pinker
* Paul Rozin
* Mark Schaller
* David P. Schmitt
* Todd K. Shackelford
* Roger Shepard
* Peter K. Smith
* Dan Sperber
* Anthony Stevens
* Frank Sulloway
* Michael Tomasello
* Mark van Vugt
* Andrew Whiten
* Glenn Wilson
* Margo Wilson

Research centers/
organizations|

* Center for Evolutionary Psychology
* Human Behavior and Evolution Society
* Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
* Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences
* New England Complex Systems Institute

Related subjects
and articles|

* The Adapted Mind
* The Evolution of Human Sexuality
* Evolutionary Psychology
* Evolution and Human Behavior
* Biosocial criminology
* Criticism of evolutionary psychology
* Evolutionary anthropology
* Evolutionary medicine
* Evolutionary linguistics
* Evolutionary neuroscience
* Evolutionary psychology and culture
* Group selection
* Human evolution
* Memetics
* Primatology
* Sociobiology
* Sociocultural evolution

Lists|

* Evolutionary psychologists
* Evolutionary psychology research groups and centers
* Bibliography of evolution and human behavior

* Evolutionary psychology
* Psychology portal
* Evolutionary biology portal

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectionism. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Connectionism&oldid=4228822"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template