Democracy-Dictatorship Index

Short description: Binary measure of democracy and dictatorship

For overview of democracy indices, see Democracy indices.

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Democracies and dictatorships in 2008[1] Democracies and dictatorships in 1988[1]

Democracy-Dictatorship (DD),[1] index of democracy and dictatorship[2] or simply the DD index[3] or the DD datasets was the binary measure of democracy and dictatorship whose publication stopped in 2008. Originally proposed by Adam Przeworski, and further developed and maintained by Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland.[4]

Based on the regime binary classification idea proposed by Alvarez in 1996,[5] and the Democracy and Development (or DD measure, ACLP dataset) proposed by Przeworski, Cheibub, Gandhi, and Vreeland developed a six-fold regime classification scheme, resulting what the authors called as the DD datasets.[1]: 68

The DD dataset covers the annual data points of 199 countries from 1946 (or date of independence) to 2008.[1]: 68 The figures at the left show the results in 1988 and 2008.

## Contents

* 1 Six-fold regime classification scheme and its rules
* 1.1 Four rules
* 2 Countries
* 3 Democracy classification
* 3.1 Legislative responsibility
* 3.2 Head of state
* 3.3 Classification
* 3.4 Definitions
* 4 Comparison with other democracy-measuring data sets
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links

## Six-fold regime classification scheme and its rules

The DD index first classifies the regimes into two types: democracies and dictatorships. For democracies, it categorizes them into three types: parliamentary, semi-presidential and presidential democracies. For dictatorships, monarchic, military and civilian dictatorship.[1] " Based on a "minimalist" theory of democracy, the index relies on rules regarding the existence of competitive elections.[1][3] Resorting to democratic concepts by Karl Popper and Joseph Schumpeter, Przeworski defended the minimalist approach, citing Popper that "the only system in which citizens can get rid of governments without bloodshed."[6]

### Four rules

For a regime to be considered as a democracy by the DD scheme, it must meet the requirement of four rules below:[1]: 69 [3]

>   1. The chief executive must be chosen by popular election or by a body that was itself popularly elected.
>   2. The legislature must be popularly elected.
>   3. There must be more than one party competing in the elections.
>   4. An alternation in power under electoral rules identical to the ones that brought the incumbent to office must have taken place.

Some regimes may meet the first three rules, but lack an alternation in power in its historical past; these regimes are classified as dictatorships because of cases where the incumbent only allows elections as long as they keep winning, and would refuse to step down if they lost. However, since they might also give up power willingly, the regime is marked with a type II value to signal potential classification errors where a democratic regime may be falsely classified as dictatorship.[1]: 70 . This does not indicate cases of semi-democracy or semi-dictatorship.[1]: 71 . The authors acknowledged that the last rule is more complicated to implement, but stated that it helps researchers to control potential errors and removes subjective judgement from the classification.[1]: 70

## Countries

For overview of democracy indices, see Democracy indices.

Note: the most recent dataset was released in 2008

The Democracy-Dictatorship Index has the main regime types of "democracy" and "dictatorship" and three sub-types for each as well. Democracies can be either parliamentary, semi-presidential, or presidential and dictatorships can be civilian, military, or royal. Many countries which are seen as otherwise democratic are dictatorships because there has yet to be an alternation in power since their incumbent government has never lost an election. Therefore, it is impossible to know if the regime is a democracy or a dictatorship, so DD Index considers them dictatorships until an alternation in power occurs.

Countries by regime type (2008)[7] Regime  | Type  | Subtype  | Reason for Dictatorship[7]

|
|
|

Afghanistan | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Albania | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Algeria | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Andorra | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data AGO | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
Template:Country data ATG | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Argentina | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Armenia | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Australia | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Austria | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Azerbaijan | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Bahamas | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Bahrain | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. No parties
Template:Country data BGD | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. No Legislature
3\. No legislative parties
Template:Country data BRB | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Belarus | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Belgium | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data BLZ | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Benin | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data BTN | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Bolivia | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
Template:Country data BWA | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Brazil | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Brunei | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. Legislature not elected
3\. One party
Bulgaria | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data BFA | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data BDI | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data KHM | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
3\. No legislative parties
Cameroon | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Canada | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Cape Verde | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data CAF | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data TCD | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Chile | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
China | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 3\. All parties are in regime
Colombia | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data COM | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data COG | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Costa Rica | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Ivory Coast | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  |
Croatia | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Cuba | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Cyprus | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Czech Republic | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Democratic Republic of the Congo | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Denmark | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data DJI | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 3\. One legislative party
Template:Country data DMA | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Dominican Republic | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data TLS | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Ecuador | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Egypt | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
El Salvador | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data GNQ | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data ERI | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. Legislature not elected
3\. All parties banned
4\. No alternation in power
Estonia | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Ethiopia | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 3\. All parties are in regime
4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data FJI | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. No Legislature
3\. No Legislative parties
Finland | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
France | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Gabon | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data GMB | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Georgia | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Germany | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Ghana | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Greece | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data GRD | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data GTM | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data GIN | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
Template:Country data GNB | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data GUY | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data HTI | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data HND | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Hungary | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Iceland | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
India | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Indonesia | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Iran | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  |
Iraq | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | All parties in regime
Ireland | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Israel | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Italy | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Jamaica | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Japan | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Jordan | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
Kazakhstan | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Kenya | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data KIR | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Kuwait | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
3\. All parties legally banned
Kyrgyzstan | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data LAO | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 3\. Legally single party state
Latvia | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Lebanon | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data LSO | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data LBR | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Libya | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. Legislature is appointed
3\. No parties
Liechtenstein | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Lithuania | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Luxembourg | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Macedonia | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data MDG | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Malawi | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Malaysia | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 3\. All parties in regime
4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data MDV | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Mali | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Malta | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data MHL | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data MRT | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. No Legislature
3\. No Legislative parties
Template:Country data MUS | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Mexico | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data FSM | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Moldova | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Mongolia | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Montenegro | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship[clarification needed] | 4\. No alternation in power
Morocco | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
Mozambique | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data MMR | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. No Legislature
3\. No Legislative parties
Namibia | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data NRU | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data NPL | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Netherlands | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
New Zealand | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Nicaragua | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  |
Template:Country data NER | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Nigeria | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
North Korea | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
Norway | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Oman | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. Legislature is closed
3\. No Legislative parties
Pakistan | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data PLW | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Panama | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Papua New Guinea | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Paraguay | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Peru | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Philippines | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Poland | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
File:Flag of Portugal (official).svg Portugal | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Qatar | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. Legislature not elected
3\. No Legislative parties
Romania | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Russia | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Rwanda | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data SAM | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
File:Flag of San Marino (before 2011).svg San Marino | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data STP | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Saudi Arabia | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. Legislature not elected
3\. No Legislative parties
Senegal | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Serbia | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data SYC | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data SLE | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Singapore | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Slovakia | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Slovenia | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data SLB | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data SOM | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 2\. Legislature not elected
3\. No Legislative parties
South Africa | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
South Korea | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Spain | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Sri Lanka | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data KNA | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data LCA | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data SDN | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. Legislature not elected
Template:Country data SUR | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Template:Country data SWZ | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
3\. Legally single party state
Sweden | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
File:Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg Switzerland | Democracy | Direct Democracy[8] |
Syria | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 3\. All parties in regime
Taiwan | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
Tajikistan | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data TZA | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Thailand | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Template:Country data TGO | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data TON | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. Legislature not elected
3\. All parties legally banned
4\. No alternation in power
Trinidad and Tobago | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Tunisia | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Turkey | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Turkmenistan | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 3\. Legally one party state
Template:Country data TUV | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Uganda | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Ukraine | Democracy | Semi-Presidential Democracy  |
United Arab Emirates | Dictatorship | Royal Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
2\. No Legislature
3\. No Legislative parties
United Kingdom | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
United States | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Uruguay | Democracy | Presidential Democracy  |
Uzbekistan | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 3\. One party
4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data VUT | Democracy | Parliamentary Democracy  |
Venezuela | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected

4\. No alternation in power

Vietnam | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 1\. Executive not elected
3\. One party
Yemen | Dictatorship | Military Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data ZMB | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power
Template:Country data ZWE | Dictatorship | Civilian Dictatorship  | 4\. No alternation in power

## Democracy classification

A flowchart for the classification of democracies. Note that the official names do not determine their classification.

Democracies are classified by the rules in which executives can be appointed or removed and can be either presidential, mixed or semi-presidential, or parliamentary.[1][9]: 454 It is important to note that these names do not have to correspond to the official or colloquial titles of any of the countries offices. For example, DD could classify a country which has a legislative assembly whose official name is "the parliament" but still classify it in any of the three categories. The classification depends on the rules outlining the relationship between a country's government, legislative assembly (often called the legislature), and head of state.[9]: 454 The government composes the chief executive and the heads of the executive departments. The chief executive can take many titles including chancellor, prime minister, or premier and the heads of the executive departments can bear different titles and be called different things. In the United Kingdom, for example, the chief executive is the prime minister, and the ministers are the heads of the executive departments, which together compose the government.

### Legislative responsibility

The first distinction made is whether a country has a government has legislative responsibility, i.e. whether a majority vote in the legislature can remove the sitting government without cause. The required majority needed to remove the sitting government varies between countries but is termed a vote of no confidence.[9]: 455 Some countries (such as Spain, Belgium, Germany, and Israel) require that the vote of no confidence also specify who is going to replace the sitting government to minimize the time without an interim government, essentially replacing one government with another. This type of vote is termed a constructive vote of no confidence.[9]: 455 Sometimes sitting governments will attach a vote of no confidence clause to a piece of legislation they want passed, effectively tying the survival of the government on the piece of legislation.[9]: 456

### Head of state

The second distinction made is whether the head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term. The head of state may be unelected and still be classified as a democracy.[1] Popularly elected means that the head of state is directly elected by the citizens or elected by an assembly which then elects them (an example being the electoral college in the United States). In Germany, the head of state is elected by regional legislatures and not popularly elected.[9]: 457 Elected heads of state are usually referred to as "president." The phrase "fixed term" indicates the once the head of state is chosen, they serve a known and a limited number of years before another election is held, and they cannot be removed from the office in the meantime via a vote of no confidence.[9]: 456

The head of state in most parliamentary democracies formally appoint the head of government.[9]: 465 Some countries, such as Greece and Bulgaria, stipulate who the head of state chooses as head of government. In the former, for example, the President must appoint as Prime Minister the leader of the largest party in parliament, who has three days to gain the confidence of a majority thereof.

Some countries, such as Sweden, instead charge another person entirely with choosing the head of government, such as the presiding officer of the legislative assembly.

### Classification

The first distinction made is whether a democracy's government is responsible to the legislature. If it is not responsible, it is a presidential democracy. If it is, then a further distinction is made between democracies where the head of state is popularly elected and those where the head of state is not popularly elected. If the head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term then, the democracy is mixed or semi-presidential. If the head of state serves for life or is not popularly elected or a fixed term, then the democracy is parliamentary.[1]

The table below offers a full list of which countries are what type of democracy. Keep note that the head of state, chief executive, government, and legislatures can have their official names be seemingly contradictory to this classification. The name a democracy gives itself or its office does not indicate what type of democracy it is.

### Definitions

A presidential democracy has a government that does not need the majority support of a legislature to stay in power. A semi-presidential (mixed) democracy has a government that needs the majority of support from a legislature to exist and whose head of state is popularly elected for a fixed term. Parliamentary democracy is the same as semi-presidential but has heads of state which are not popularly elected for a fixed term, typically either monarchs or officials not chosen by popular elections. [9]: 457

## Comparison with other democracy-measuring data sets

The DD dataset is limited to 199 countries after 1946, whereas Boix, Miller, & Rosato, 2013 proposed a data set from 1800 to 2007, covering 219 countries. The 2010 version of Polity data series covers 189 countries from 1800 to 2009.[10]

Gugiu & Centellas developed the Democracy Cluster Classification Index that integrates five democracy indicators (including the DD dataset, Polity dataset), clustering 24 American and 39 European regimes over 30 years.[2]

## See also

* Polity data series

## References

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 Cheibub, José Antonio; Gandhi, Jennifer; Vreeland, James Raymond (April 2010). "Democracy and dictatorship revisited". Public Choice 143 (1–2): 67–101. doi:10.1007/s11127-009-9491-2.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ristei, Mihaiela; Centellas, Miguel (Summer 2013). "The Democracy Cluster Classification Index". Political Analysis 21 (3): 334–349. doi:10.1093/pan/mpt004.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Keech, William R. (14 October 2013). Economic Politics in the United States. Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–. ISBN 978-1-107-00414-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=2UeyAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA17. Retrieved 24 March 2014. "Specifically, the DD index (for Democracy and Dictatorship) assesses the United States as a democracy from 1946, the first measured, through 2008, the last year of measurement. ... My definition of a democracy is minimalist, like the DD definition of Cheibub, Gadhi, and Vreeland (2010), but it adds a dimension. Like DD, it considers the presence of contested elections a necessary condition of ...."
4. ↑ Haggard, Stephan; Kaufman, Robert R. (August 2012). "Inequality and regime change: democratic transitions and the stability of democratic rule". American Political Science Review 106 (3): 495–516. doi:10.1017/S0003055412000287.
5. ↑ Alvarez, M.; Cheibub, J. A.; Limongi, F.; Przeworski, A. (1996). "Classifying political regimes". Studies in Comparative International Development 31 (2): 3–36. doi:10.1007/bf02719326.
6. ↑ Przeworski, Adam (2003). "Minimalist Conception of Democracy: A Defense". in Robert Alan Dahl, Ian Shapiro& José Antônio Cheibub. The Democracy Sourcebook. MIT Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-262-54147-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=B8THIuSkiqgC&pg=PA12. Retrieved 24 March 2014.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "DD - José Antonio Cheibub". https://sites.google.com/site/joseantoniocheibub/datasets/dd?authuser=0.
8. ↑ "Political system". 1 March 2024. https://www.aboutswitzerland.eda.admin.ch/en/political-system.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 Clark, Robert Williams; Golder, Matt; Golder, Nadenichek (2018). Principles of Comparative Politics (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications. pp. 454–467. ISBN 978-1506318127.
10. ↑ Boix, Carles; Miller, Michael; Rosato, Sebastian (December 2013). "A complete data set of political regimes, 1800–2007". Comparative Political Studies 46 (12): 1523–1554. doi:10.1177/0010414012463905.

## External links

* DD dataset and citations
* ACLP datsset and citations
* Przeworski, Alvarez, Cheibub, and Limongi: Democracy and development From WikiSummary, the Free Social Science Summary Database

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