Biochar

Biochar is a form of charcoal, sometimes modified, that is intended for organic use, as in soil. It is the lightweight black remnants remaining after the pyrolysis of biomass, consisting of carbon and ashes.[1] Despite its name, biochar is sterile immediately after production and only gains biological life following assisted or incidental exposure to biota. Biochar is defined by the International Biochar Initiative as the "solid material obtained from the thermochemical conversion of biomass in an oxygen-limited environment".[2]

Biochar is mainly used in soils to increase soil aeration, reduce soil emissions of greenhouse gases,[3] improve soil fertility,[4] reduce nutrient leaching, reduce soil acidity,[5] and potentially increase the water content of coarse soils.[6] Biochar application may increase soil fertility and agricultural productivity.[5] However, when applied excessively or made from feedstock unsuitable for the soil type, biochar soil amendments also have the potential for negative effects, including harming soil biota, reducing available water content, altering soil pH, and increasing salinity.[7]

Beyond soil application, biochar can be used for slash-and-char farming, for water retention in soil, and as an additive for animal fodder. There is an increasing focus on the potential role of biochar application in global climate change mitigation. Due to its refractory stability, biochar can stay in soils or other environments for thousands of years.[8] This has given rise to the concept of biochar carbon removal, a process of carbon sequestration in the form of biochar.[8] Carbon removal can be achieved when high-quality biochar is applied to soils, or added as a substitute material to construction materials such as concrete and tar.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 3 Production
* 3.1 Gasification
* 3.2 Small-scale methods
* 3.3 Crops used
* 3.4 Hydrochar
* 3.5 Thermo-catalytic depolymerization
* 4 Properties
* 5 Applications
* 5.1 Carbon sink
* 5.2 Soil health
* 5.3 Slash-and-char
* 5.4 Water retention
* 5.5 Stock fodder
* 5.6 Concrete additive
* 5.7 Fuel slurry
* 5.8 Water treatment
* 6 Research
* 6.1 Studies
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 8.1 Sources
* 9 External links

## Etymology

The word "biochar" is a late-20th century English neologism derived from the Greek word 'βίος' (bios, 'life') and 'char' (charcoal produced by carbonization of biomass).[9] It is recognized as charcoal that participates in biological processes found in soil, aquatic habitats, and animal digestive systems.

## History

Pre-Columbian Amazonians produced biochar by smoldering agricultural waste (i.e., covering burning biomass with soil)[10] in pits or trenches.[11] It is not known if they intentionally used biochar to enhance soil productivity.[11] European settlers called it terra preta de Indio.[12] Following observations and experiments, one research team working in French Guiana hypothesized that the Amazonian earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus was the main agent of fine powdering and incorporation of charcoal debris in the mineral soil.[13]

## Production

Artisanal biochar production in a Kon-tiki kiln

Biochar is a high-carbon, fine-grained residue that is produced via pyrolysis. It is the direct thermal decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen, which prevents combustion, and produces a mixture of solids (biochar), liquid (bio-oil), and gas (syngas) products.[14]

### Gasification

Gasifiers produce most of the biochar sold in the United States.[15] The gasification process consists of four main stages: oxidation, drying, pyrolysis, and reduction.[16] Temperature during pyrolysis in gasifiers is 250–550 °C (523–823 K), 600–800 °C (873–1,073 K) in the reduction zone, and 800–1,000 °C (1,070–1,270 K) in the combustion zone.[17]

The specific yield from pyrolysis (the step of gasification that produces biochar) is dependent on process conditions such as temperature, heating rate, and residence time.[18] These parameters can be tuned to produce either more energy or more biochar.[19] Temperatures of 400–500 °C (673–773 K) produce more char, whereas temperatures above 700 °C (973 K) favor the yield of liquid and gas fuel components.[20] Pyrolysis occurs more quickly at higher temperatures, typically requiring seconds rather than hours. The increasing heating rate leads to a decrease in biochar yield, while the temperature is in the range of 350–600 °C (623–873 K).[21] Typical yields are 60% bio-oil, 20% biochar, and 20% syngas. By comparison, slow pyrolysis can produce substantially more char (≈35%);[20] this contributes to soil fertility. Once initialized, both processes produce net energy. For typical inputs, the energy required to run a "fast" pyrolyzer is approximately 15% of the energy that it outputs.[22] Pyrolysis plants can use the syngas output and yield 3–9 times the amount of energy required to run.[11]

The Amazonian pit/trench method,[11] in contrast, harvests neither bio-oil nor syngas, and releases CO
2, black carbon, and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) (and potentially, toxicants) into the air, though less greenhouse gasses than captured during the growth of the biomass. Commercial-scale systems process agricultural waste, paper byproducts, and even municipal waste and typically eliminate these side effects by capturing and using the liquid and gas products.[23][24] The 2018 winner of the X Prize Foundation for atmospheric water generators harvests potable water from the drying stage of the gasification process.[25][26] The production of biochar as an output is not a priority in most cases.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024}

### Small-scale methods

Smallholder biochar production with fruit-orchard prunings

Smallholder farmers in developing countries easily produce their own biochar without special equipment. They make piles of crop waste (e.g., maize stalks, rice straw, or wheat straw), light the piles on the top, and quench the embers with dirt or water to make biochar. This method greatly reduces smoke compared to traditional methods of burning crop waste. This method is known as the top-down burn or conservation burn.[27][28][29]

Alternatively, more industrial methods can be used on small scales. While in a centralized system, unused biomass is brought to a central plant for processing into biochar,[30] it is also possible for each farmer or group of farmers to operate a kiln. In this scenario, a truck equipped with a pyrolyzer moves from place to place to pyrolyze biomass. Vehicle power comes from the syngas stream, while the biochar remains on the farm. The biofuel is sent to a refinery or storage site. Factors that influence the choice of system type include the cost of transportation of the liquid and solid byproducts, the amount of material to be processed, and the ability to supply the power grid.{{Citation needed|date=May 2024} Various companies in North America, Australia, and England also sell biochar or biochar production units. In Sweden, the 'Stockholm Solution' is an urban tree planting system that uses 30% biochar to support urban forest growth.[31] At the 2009 International Biochar Conference, a mobile pyrolysis unit with a specified intake of 1,000 pounds (450 kg) was introduced for agricultural applications.[32]

### Crops used

Common crops used for making biochar include various tree species, as well as various energy crops. Some of these energy crops (i.e. Napier grass) can store much more carbon on a shorter timespan than trees do.[33]

For crops that are not exclusively for biochar production, the residue-to-product ratio (RPR) and the collection factor (CF), the percent of the residue not used for other things, measure the approximate amount of feedstock that can be obtained. For instance, Brazil harvests approximately 460 million tons (MT) of sugarcane annually,[34] with an RPR of 0.30, and a CF of 0.70 for the sugarcane tops, which normally are burned in the field.[35] This translates into approximately 100 MT of residue annually, which could be pyrolyzed to create energy and soil additives. Adding in the bagasse (sugarcane waste) (RPR=0.29, CF=1.0), which is otherwise burned (inefficiently) in boilers, raises the total to 230 MT of pyrolysis feedstock. Some plant residue, however, must remain on the soil to avoid increased costs and emissions from nitrogen fertilizers.[36]

### Hydrochar

Besides pyrolysis, torrefaction and hydrothermal carbonization processes can also thermally decompose biomass to the solid material. However, these products cannot be strictly defined as biochar. The carbon product from the torrefaction process contains some volatile organic components; thus its properties are between that of biomass feedstock and biochar.[37] And although hydrothermal carbonization can produce a carbon-rich solid product, the process is evidently different from the conventional thermal conversion process,[38] so the product is therefore defined as "hydrochar" rather than "biochar".

### Thermo-catalytic depolymerization

Thermo-catalytic depolymerization is another method to produce biochar, which utilizes microwaves. It has been used to efficiently convert organic matter to biochar on an industrial scale, producing about 50% char.[39][40]

## Properties

Smaller pellets of biochar Biochar produced from residual wood

The physical and chemical properties of biochars as determined by feedstocks and technologies are crucial. Characterization data explain their performance in a specific use. For example, guidelines published by the International Biochar Initiative provide standardized evaluation methods.[14] Properties can be categorized in several respects, including the proximate and elemental composition, pH value, and porosity. The atomic ratios of biochar, including H/C and O/C, correlate with the properties that are relevant to organic content, such as polarity and aromaticity.[41] A van-Krevelen diagram can show the evolution of biochar atomic ratios in the production process.[42] In the carbonization process, both the H/C and O/C atomic ratios decrease due to the release of functional groups that contain hydrogen and oxygen.[43]

Scanning electron image of biochar shows detailed morphology

Production temperatures influence biochar properties in several ways. The molecular carbon structure of the solid biochar matrix is particularly affected. Initial pyrolysis at 450-550 °C leaves an amorphous carbon structure. Temperatures above this range will result in the progressive thermochemical conversion of amorphous carbon into turbostratic graphene sheets. Biochar conductivity also increases with production temperature.[44][45][46] Important to carbon capture, aromaticity and intrinsic recalcitrance increases with temperature.[47]

## Applications

### Carbon sink

The refractory stability of biochar leads to the concept of biochar carbon removal, a process of carbon sequestration in the form of biochar.[48][8] It may be a means to mitigate climate change due to its potential of sequestering carbon with minimal effort.[49][50][51] Biomass burning and natural decomposition releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane to the Earth's atmosphere. The biochar production process also releases CO
2 (up to 50% of the biomass); however, the remaining carbon content becomes indefinitely stable.[51] Biochar carbon remains in the ground for centuries, slowing the growth in atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. Simultaneously, its presence in the earth can improve water quality, increase soil fertility, raise agricultural productivity, and reduce pressure on old-growth forests.[52]

Biochar can sequester carbon in the soil for hundreds to thousands of years, like coal.[53][54][55][56][57] According to the World Bank, "biochar retains between 10 percent and 70 percent (on average about 50 percent) of the carbon present in the original biomass and slows down the rate of carbon decomposition by one or two orders of magnitude, that is, in the scale of centuries or millennia".[58] Early works proposing the use of biochar for carbon dioxide removal to create a long-term stable carbon sink were published in the early 2000s.[59][60][61] This technique is advocated by scientists including James Hansen[62] and James Lovelock.[63]

A 2010 report estimated that sustainable use of biochar could reduce the global net emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide by up to 1.8 billion tonnes carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) per year (compared to the about 50 billion tonnes emitted in 2021), without endangering food security, habitats, or soil conservation.[51] However a 2018 study doubted enough biomass would be available to achieve significant carbon sequestration.[64] A 2021 review estimated potential CO
2 removal from 1.6 to 3.2 billion tonnes per year,[65] and by 2023 it had become a lucrative business renovated by carbon credits.[66]

As of 2023, the significance of biochar's potential as a carbon sink is widely accepted. Biochar was found to have the technical potential to sequester 7% of carbon dioxide on average across all countries, with twelve nations able to sequester over 20% of their greenhouse gas emissions—Bhutan leads this proportion (68%), followed by India (53%).[67]

In 2021 the cost of biochar ranged around European carbon prices,[68] but was not yet included in the EU or UK Emissions Trading Scheme.[69]

Biochar adsorption of CO2 can be limited by the surface area of the material, which can be improved by using resonant acoustic mixing.[70]

In developing countries, biochar derived from improved cookstoves for home-use can reduce carbon emissions (when the traditional cookstove is discontinued), as well as achieve other benefits for sustainable development.[71]

Biochar has been proposed as a negative emissions technology with substantial long term climate mitigation potential. While early scenario studies focused on technical maxima and suggested that several gigatonnes of CO2 equivalent could be avoided annually, more recent work emphasizes that economically feasible deployment is likely to be smaller, with global removal potentials of roughly 0.3–1.8 Gt CO2 per year under carbon prices below 100 USD per tonne.[72] Real world implementation remains at an early stage: global biochar production is estimated to be on the order of a few hundred thousand tonnes per year, delivering well under 1 Mt CO2 per year of certified removal, though voluntary carbon market deliveries and installed capacity have grown quickly in recent years. Because feedstock availability, logistics and co product use strongly influence costs, some applications are currently viable only where biochar provides additional agronomic or environmental benefits or can access carbon removal credits. The rapid expansion of publications on biochar has led to concerns in the literature that expectations for its climate role could trigger a ‘boom and bust’ cycle if projected benefits are not realized at scale.[73][74][75].

### Soil health

Biochar in preparation as a soil amendment

Biochar offers multiple soil health benefits in degraded tropical soils but is less beneficial in temperate regions.[76][77] Its porous nature is effective at retaining both water and water-soluble nutrients. Soil biologist Elaine Ingham highlighted its suitability as a habitat for beneficial soil microorganisms. She pointed out that when pre-charged with these beneficial organisms, biochar promotes good soil and plant health.[78]

Biochar reduces leaching of E. coli through sandy soils depending on application rate, feedstock, pyrolysis temperature, soil moisture content, soil texture, and surface properties of the bacteria.[79][80][81]

For plants that require high potash and elevated pH,[82] biochar can improve yield.[83]

Biochar can improve water quality, reduce soil emissions of greenhouse gases, reduce nutrient leaching, reduce soil acidity,[84] and reduce irrigation and fertilizer requirements.[85][86] Due to its porosity, the small holes in biochar can keep water and dissolved minerals in the upper layers of soil, assisting plant growth and reducing the need for and expense of fertilizer.[86] Under certain circumstances biochar induces plant systemic responses to foliar fungal diseases and improves plant responses to diseases caused by soilborne pathogens.[87][88][89] Biochar can remove heavy metals from the soil.[90]

Biochar's impacts are dependent on its properties[91] as well as the amount applied,[89] although knowledge about the important mechanisms and properties is limited.[92] Biochar impact may depend on regional conditions including soil type, soil condition (depleted or healthy), temperature, and humidity.[93] Modest additions of biochar reduce nitrous oxide (N2O)[94] emissions by up to 80% and eliminate methane emissions, which are both more potent greenhouse gases than CO
2.[95]

Studies reported positive effects from biochar on crop production in degraded and nutrient–poor soils.[96] The application of compost and biochar under FP7 project FERTIPLUS had positive effects on soil humidity, crop productivity and quality in multiple countries.[97] Biochar can be adapted with specific qualities to target distinct soil properties.[98] In Colombian savanna soil, biochar reduced leaching of critical nutrients, created a higher nutrient uptake, and provided greater nutrient availability.[99] At 10% levels, biochar reduced contaminant levels in plants by up to 80%, while reducing chlordane and DDX content in the plants by 68 and 79%, respectively.[100] However, because of its high adsorption capacity, biochar may reduce pesticide efficacy.[101][102] High-surface-area biochars may be particularly problematic.[101]

Biochar may be plowed into soils in crop fields or added to gardens to enhance their fertility and stability[103] and for medium- to long-term carbon sequestration in these soils. It even shows good results when top-dressed. It has shown positive effects in increasing soil fertility and improving disease resistance in West European soils.[97] Gardeners taking individual action on climate change add biochar to soil,[104] increasing plant yield and thereby drawing down more carbon.[105] The use of biochar as a feed additive is a way to apply biochar to pastures and to reduce methane emissions.[106][107]

Application rates of 2.5–20 tonnes per hectare (1.0–8.1 t/acre) appear required to improve plant yields significantly. Biochar costs in developed countries vary from $300–$7,000/tonne, which is generally impractical for the farmer/horticulturalist and prohibitive for low-input field crops. In developing countries, constraints on agricultural biochar relate more to biomass availability and production time. A compromise is to use small amounts of biochar in lower-cost biochar-fertilizer complexes.[108]

Biochar soil amendments, when applied at excessive rates or with unsuitable soil type and biochar feedstock combinations, also have the potential for negative effects, including harming soil biota, reducing available water content, altering soil pH, and increasing salinity.[7]

### Slash-and-char

Suggested as an alternative to slash-and-burn , slash-and-char farming techniques in tropical regions can decrease both deforestation and carbon dioxide emission, as well as increase crop yields. Slash-and-burn leaves only 3% of the carbon from the organic material in the soil[109] whereas slash-and-char can retain up to 50%.[110] The global potential for carbon sequestration by shifting from slash-and-burn to slash-and-char farming techinques has been estimated to between 0.22 and 0.42 Gt C/yr.[111] Biochar reduces the need for nitrogen fertilizers, thereby reducing cost and emissions from fertilizer production and transport.[112] Additionally, by improving soil's till-ability, fertility, and productivity, biochar-enhanced soils can indefinitely sustain agricultural production. This is unlike slash-and-burn soils, which quickly become depleted of nutrients, forcing farmers to abandon fields, producing a continuous slash-and-burn cycle. Using pyrolysis to produce bio-energy does not require infrastructure changes the way, for example, processing biomass for cellulosic ethanol does. Additionally, biochar can be applied by the widely used machinery.[113]

### Water retention

Biochar is hygroscopic due to its porous structure and high specific surface area.[114] As a result, fertilizer and other nutrients are retained for plants' benefit.

### Stock fodder

Domestic chicken feeding on biochar in Namibia

Biochar has been used in animal feed for centuries.[115]

Doug Pow, a Western Australian farmer, explored the use of biochar mixed with molasses as stock fodder. He asserted that in ruminants, biochar can assist digestion and reduce methane production. He also used dung beetles to work the resulting biochar-infused dung into the soil without using machinery. The nitrogen and carbon in the dung were both incorporated into the soil rather than staying on the soil surface, reducing the production of nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide. The nitrogen and carbon added to soil fertility. On-farm evidence indicates that the fodder led to improvements of liveweight gain in Angus-cross cattle.[116] Doug Pow won the Australian Government Innovation in Agriculture Land Management Award at the 2019 Western Australian Landcare Awards for this innovation.[117][116] Pow's work led to two further trials on dairy cattle, yielding reduced odour and increased milk production.[118]

### Concrete additive

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC), an essential component of concrete mix, is energy- and emissions-intensive to produce; cement production accounts for around 8% of global CO2 emissions.[119] The concrete industry has increasingly shifted to using supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), additives that reduce the volume of OPC in a mix while maintaining or improving concrete properties.[120] Biochar has been shown to be an effective SCM, reducing concrete production emissions while maintaining required strength and ductility properties.[121][122]

Studies have found that a 1–2% weight concentration of biochar is optimal for use in concrete mixes, from both a cost and strength standpoint.[121] A 2 wt.% biochar solution has been shown to increase concrete flexural strength by 15% in a three-point bending test conducted after 7 days, compared to traditional OPC concrete.[122] Biochar concrete also shows promise in high-temperature resistance and permeability reduction.[123]

A cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of biochar concrete showed decreased production emissions with higher concentrations of biochar, which tracks with a reduction in OPC.[124] Compared to other SCMs from industrial waste streams (such as fly ash and silica fume), biochar also showed decreased toxicity.

### Fuel slurry

Biochar mixed with liquid media such as water or organic liquids (such as ethanol) is an emerging fuel type known as biochar-based slurry.[125] Adapting slow pyrolysis in large biomass fields and installations enables the generation of biochar slurries with unique characteristics. These slurries are becoming promising fuels in countries with regional areas where biomass is abundant, and power supply relies heavily on diesel generators.[126] This type of fuel resembles a coal slurry, but with the advantage that it can be derived from biochar from renewable resources.

### Water treatment

Biochar also has applications in water treatment.[127] Its properties, porosity in particular, can be modified using different methods to increase the efficiency of contaminant removal.[128] Biochar is reported to remove contaminants such as heavy metals, dyes, organic pollutants.[90][129][130]

## Research

Biochar applied to the soil in research trials in Namibia

Research into pyrolysis and biochar is underway globally, but as of 2018[update] was still in its infancy.[64] From 2005 to 2012, 1,038 articles included the word "biochar" or "bio-char" in the topic indexed in the ISI Web of Science.[131] Research is in progress by the University of Edinburgh,[132] the University of Georgia,[133][134] the Volcani Center,[135] and the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.[136]

Research is also ongoing on the application of biochar to coarse soils in semi-arid and degraded ecosystems. In Namibia, biochar is under exploration as a climate change adaptation effort, strengthening local communities' drought resilience and food security through the local production and application of biochar from abundant encroacher biomass.[137][138][139] Similar solutions for rangeland affected by woody plant encroachment have been explored in Australia.[140]

In recent years, biochar has attracted interest as a wastewater filtration medium as well as for its adsorbing capacity for wastewater pollutants, such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products,[141] and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances.[142][143][144]

In some areas, citizen interest and support for biochar motivates government research into the uses of biochar.[145][146]

### Studies

Long-term effects of biochar on carbon sequestration have been examined using soil from arable fields in Belgium with charcoal-enriched black spots dating from before 1870 from charcoal production mound kilns. This study showed that soil treated over a long period with charcoal showed a higher proportion of maize-derived carbon and decreased respiration, attributed to physical protection, carbon saturation of microbial communities, and, potentially, slightly higher annual primary production. Overall, this study evidences the capacity of biochar to enhance carbon sequestration through reduced carbon turnover.[147]

Biochar sequesters carbon in soils because of its prolonged residence time, ranging from years to millennia. In addition, biochar can promote indirect carbon sequestration by increasing crop yield while potentially reducing carbon mineralization. Laboratory studies have evidenced effects of biochar on carbon mineralization using 13C signatures.[148]

Fluorescence analysis of organic matter dissolved in biochar-amended soil revealed that biochar application increased a humic-like fluorescent component, likely associated with biochar-carbon in solution. The combined spectroscopy-microscopy approach revealed the accumulation of aromatic carbon in discrete spots in the solid phase of microaggregates and its co-localization with clay minerals for soil amended with raw residue or biochar. Biochar application consistently reduced the co-localization of aromatic carbon and polysaccharides carbon. These findings suggested that reduced carbon metabolism is an important mechanism for carbon stabilization in biochar-amended soils.[149]

## See also

* Activated carbon
* Charring
* Dark earth
* Pellet fuel
* Soil carbon
* Soil ecology

## References

1. ↑ Khedulkar, Akhil Pradiprao; Dang, Van Dien; Thamilselvan, Annadurai; Doong, Ruey-an; Pandit, Bidhan (2024-01-30). "Sustainable high-energy supercapacitors: Metal oxide-agricultural waste biochar composites paving the way for a greener future". Journal of Energy Storage 77. doi:10.1016/j.est.2023.109723. ISSN 2352-152X. Bibcode: 2024JEnSt..7709723K.
2. ↑ "Standardized production definition and product testing guidelines for biochar that is used in soil". 23 November 2015. https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final.pdf.
3. ↑ Wang, Yuchen; Gu, Jiayu; Ni, Junjun (2023-12-01). "Influence of biochar on soil air permeability and greenhouse gas emissions in vegetated soil: A review". Biogeotechnics 1 (4). doi:10.1016/j.bgtech.2023.100040. ISSN 2949-9291. Bibcode: 2023Biogt...100040W.
4. ↑ Ding, Y., Liu, Y., Liu, S. et al. Biochar to improve soil fertility. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 36, 36 (2016). https://doi-org.ezproxy.rice.edu/10.1007/s13593-016-0372-z
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Dai, Zhongmin; Zhang, Xiaojie; Tang, C.; Muhammad, Niaz; Wu, Jianjun; Brookes, Philip C.; Xu, Jianming (2017-03-01). "Potential role of biochars in decreasing soil acidification - A critical review". The Science of the Total Environment 581-582: 601–611. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.169. ISSN 1879-1026. PMID 28063658. Bibcode: 2017ScTEn.581..601D.
6. ↑ Razzaghi, Fatemeh; Obour, Peter Bilson; Arthur, Emmanuel (2020-03-01). "Does biochar improve soil water retention? A systematic review and meta-analysis". Geoderma 361. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.114055. ISSN 0016-7061. Bibcode: 2020Geode.36114055R. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016706119322153.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Brtnicky, Martin; Datta, Rahul; Holatko, Jiri; Bielska, Lucie; Gusiatin, Zygmunt M.; Kucerik, Jiri; Hammerschmiedt, Tereza; Danish, Subhan et al. (2021-11-20). "A critical review of the possible adverse effects of biochar in the soil environment". Science of the Total Environment 796. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148756. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 34273836. Bibcode: 2021ScTEn.79648756B. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721038286.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Lean, Geoffrey (7 December 2008). "Ancient skills 'could reverse global warming'". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/ancient-skills-could-reverse-global-warming-1055700.html.
9. ↑ biochar (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=biochar (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
10. ↑ Solomon, Dawit; Lehmann, Johannes; Thies, Janice; Schäfer, Thorsten; Liang, Biqing; Kinyangi, James; Neves, Eduardo; Petersen, James et al. (May 2007). "Molecular signature and sources of biochemical recalcitrance of organic C in Amazonian Dark Earths". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71 (9): 2285–2298. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2007.02.014. ISSN 0016-7037. Bibcode: 2007GeCoA..71.2285S. "Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) are a unique type of soils apparently developed between 500 and 9000 years B.P. through intense anthropogenic activities such as biomass-burning and high-intensity nutrient depositions on pre-Columbian Amerindian settlements that transformed the original soils into Fimic Anthrosols throughout the Brazilian Amazon Basin.".
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Lehmann 2007a, pp. 381–387: "Similar soils are found, more scarcely, elsewhere in the world. To date, scientists have been unable to completely reproduce the beneficial growth properties of terra preta. It is hypothesized that part of the alleged benefits of terra preta require the biochar to be aged so that it increases the cation exchange capacity of the soil, among other possible effects. In fact, there is no evidence natives made biochar for soil treatment, but rather for transportable fuel charcoal; there is little evidence for any hypothesis accounting for the frequency and location of terra preta patches in Amazonia. Abandoned or forgotten charcoal pits left for centuries were eventually reclaimed by the forest. In that time, the initially harsh negative effects of the char (high pH, extreme ash content, salinity) wore off and turned positive as the forest soil ecosystem saturated the charcoals with nutrients." (internal citations omitted)

* * *

supra note 2 at p. 386: "Only aged biochar shows high cation retention, as in Amazonian Dark Earths. At high temperatures (30–70 °C), cation retention occurs within a few months. The production method that would attain high CEC in soil in cold climates is not currently known."
12. ↑ Glaser, Lehmann & Zech 2002, pp. 219–220: "These so-called Terra Preta do Indio (Terra Preta) characterize the settlements of pre-Columbian Indios. In Terra Preta soils large amounts of black C indicate a high and prolonged input of carbonized organic matter probably due to the production of charcoal in hearths, whereas only low amounts of charcoal are added to soils as a result of forest fires and slash-and-burn techniques." (internal citations omitted)
13. ↑ Jean-François Ponge; Stéphanie Topoliantz; Sylvain Ballof; Jean-Pierre Rossi; Patrick Lavelle; Jean-Marie Betsch; Philippe Gaucher (2006). "Ingestion of charcoal by the Amazonian earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus: a potential for tropical soil fertility". Soil Biology and Biochemistry 38 (7): 2008–2009. doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2005.12.024. Bibcode: 2006SBiBi..38.2008P. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00495398/file/Article_SBB.pdf. Retrieved 24 January 2016.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Standardized production definition and product testing guidelines for biochar that is used in soil". 2015. https://www.biochar-international.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/IBI_Biochar_Standards_V2.1_Final.pdf.
15. ↑ Amonette, James E; Blanco-Canqui, Humberto; Hassebrook, Chuck; Laird, David A; Lal, Rattan; Lehmann, Johannes; Page-Dumroese, Deborah (January 2021). "Integrated biochar research: A roadmap". Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 76 (1): 24A–29A. doi:10.2489/jswc.2021.1115A. Bibcode: 2021JSWC...761115AA. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1783242. "Large-scale wood gasifiers used to generate bioenergy, however, are relatively common and currently provide the majority of the biochar sold in the United States. Consequently, one of these full-scale facilities would be used to produce a standard wood biochar made from the same feedstock to help calibrate results across the regional sites.".
16. ↑ Akhtar, Ali; Krepl, Vladimir; Ivanova, Tatiana (July 5, 2018). "A Combined Overview of Combustion, Pyrolysis, and Gasification of Biomass". Energy Fuels 32 (7): 7294–7318. doi:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.8b01678. Bibcode: 2018EnFue..32.7294A.
17. ↑ Rollinson, Andrew N (1 August 2016). "Gasification reactor engineering approach to understanding the formation of biochar properties". Proceedings of the Royal Society 472 (2192). doi:10.1098/rspa.2015.0841. PMID 27616911. Bibcode: 2016RSPSA.47250841R. "Figure 1. Schematic of downdraft gasifier reactor used for char production showing (temperatures) energy transfer mechanisms and thermal stratification. (and) Many authors define highest treatment temperature (HTT) during pyrolysis as an important parameter for char characterization.".
18. ↑ Tripathi, Manoj; Sabu, J.N.; Ganesan, P. (21 November 2015). "Effect of process parameters on production of biochar from biomass waste through pyrolysis: A review". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 55: 467–481. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.122. ISSN 1364-0321.
19. ↑ Gaunt & Lehmann 2008, pp. 4152, 4155: "Assuming that the energy in syngas is converted to electricity with an efficiency of 35%, the recovery in the life cycle energy balance ranges from 92 to 274 kg CO
2 MWn−1 of electricity generated where the pyrolysis process is optimized for energy and 120 to 360 kg CO
2 MWn−1 where biochar is applied to land. This compares to emissions of 600–900 kg CO
2 MWh−1 for fossil-fuel-based technologies."
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Winsley, Peter (2007). "Biochar and bioenergy production for climate change mitigation". New Zealand Science Review 64. (See Table 1 for differences in output for Fast, Intermediate, Slow, and Gasification).
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54. ↑ Lehmann 2007b, p. 143: "this sequestration can be taken a step further by heating the plant biomass without oxygen (a process known as low-temperature pyrolysis)."
55. ↑ Lehmann 2007a, pp. 381, 385: "pyrolysis produces 3–9 times more energy than is invested in generating the energy. At the same time, about half of the carbon can be sequestered in soil. The total carbon stored in these soils can be one order of magnitude higher than adjacent soils."
56. ↑ Winsley, Peter (2007). "Biochar and Bioenergy Production for Climate Change Mitigation". New Zealand Science Review 64 (5): 5. http://www.biochar-international.org/images/NZSR64_1_Winsley.pdf. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
57. ↑ Kern, DC; de LP Ruivo, M; Frazão, FJL (2009), "Terra Preta Nova: The Dream of Wim Sombroek", Amazonian Dark Earths: Wim Sombroek's Vision (Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands): pp. 339–349, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9031-8_18, ISBN 978-1-4020-9030-1
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106. ↑ Schmidt, Hans-Peter; Hagemann, Nikolas; Draper, Kathleen; Kammann, Claudia (2019-07-31). "The use of biochar in animal feeding". PeerJ 7. doi:10.7717/peerj.7373. ISSN 2167-8359. PMID 31396445. Bibcode: 2019PeerJ...7e7373S.
107. ↑ Cusack, Mikki (2020-02-07). "Can charcoal make beef better for the environment?" (in en). https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200206-can-charcoal-cut-cows-methane-to-fight-climate-change.
108. ↑ Joseph, S; Graber, ER; Chia, C; Munroe, P; Donne, S; Thomas, T; Nielsen, S; Marjo, C et al. (June 2013). "Shifting paradigms: development of high-efficiency biochar fertilizers based on nano-structures and soluble components". Carbon Management 4 (3): 323–343. doi:10.4155/cmt.13.23. ISSN 1758-3004. Bibcode: 2013CarM....4..323J.
109. ↑ Glaser, Lehmann & Zech 2002, p. 225, note 7: "The published data average at about 3% charcoal formation of the original biomass C."
110. ↑ Lehmann, Johannes; Gaunt, John; Rondon, Marco (March 2006). "Bio-char Sequestration in Terrestrial Ecosystems – A Review". Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 11 (2): 403–427. doi:10.1007/s11027-005-9006-5. ISSN 1381-2386. Bibcode: 2006MASGC..11..403L. "supra note 11 at p. 407: "If this woody above-ground biomass were converted into biochar by means of simple kiln techniques and applied to soil, more than 50% of this carbon would be sequestered in a highly stable form.".
111. ↑ Sirén, Anders Henrik (2024-10-02). "The global potential for carbon removal through biochar in shifting cultivation systems" (in en). Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 29 (7). doi:10.1007/s11027-024-10170-0. ISSN 1573-1596. Bibcode: 2024MASGC..29...75S.
112. ↑ Gaunt & Lehmann 2008, p. 4152, note 3: "This results in increased crop yields in low-input agriculture and increased crop yield per unit of fertilizer applied (fertilizer efficiency) in high-input agriculture as well as reductions in off-site effects such as runoff, erosion, and gaseous losses."
113. ↑ Lehmann 2007b, p. 143, note 9: "It can be mixed with manures or fertilizers and included in no-tillage methods, without the need for additional equipment."
114. ↑ Ricigliano, Kristin (2011). "Terra Pretas: Charcoal Amendments Influence on Relict Soils and Modern Agriculture". Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education 40 (1): 69–72. doi:10.4195/jnrlse.2011.0001se. ISSN 1059-9053. Bibcode: 2011NScEd..40...69R.
115. ↑ Schmidt, H. P.; Hagemann, N.; Draper, K.; Kammann, C. (2019). "The use of biochar in animal feeding". PeerJ 7. doi:10.7717/peerj.7373. PMID 31396445. Bibcode: 2019PeerJ...7e7373S. "(During the 19th century and early 20th century) in the USA, charcoal was considered a superior feed additive for increasing butterfat content of milk.".
116. ↑ 116.0 116.1 Daly, Jon (18 October 2019). "Poo-eating beetles and charcoal used by WA farmer to combat climate change". ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation). https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2019-10-18/wa-farmer-uses-beetles-and-charcoal-to-combat-climate-change/11613846. "Mr Pow said his innovative farming system could help livestock producers become more profitable while helping to address the impact of climate change."
117. ↑ "2019 State & Territory Landcare Awards Celebrate Outstanding Landcare Champions". 2019. https://landcareaustralia.org.au/landcareawards2019.
118. ↑ "Manjimup farmer employing dung beetle to tackle climate-change set to represent WA on national stage". October 2019. https://landcareaustralia.org.au/news/manjimup-farmer-employing-dung-beetle-to-tackle-climate-change-set-to-represent-wa-on-national-stage/.
119. ↑ "Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and Concrete" (in en). 2018-06-13. https://www.chathamhouse.org/2018/06/making-concrete-change-innovation-low-carbon-cement-and-concrete.
120. ↑ Arvaniti, Eleni C.; Juenger, Maria C. G.; Bernal, Susan A.; Duchesne, Josée; Courard, Luc; Leroy, Sophie; Provis, John L.; Klemm, Agnieszka et al. (November 2015). "Physical characterization methods for supplementary cementitious materials" (in en). Materials and Structures 48 (11): 3675–3686. doi:10.1617/s11527-014-0430-4. ISSN 1359-5997. https://orbi.uliege.be/bitstream/2268/172919/1/SCM_1.pdf.
121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 Gupta, Souradeep; Kua, Harn Wei; Koh, Hui Jun (2018-04-01). "Application of biochar from food and wood waste as green admixture for cement mortar" (in en). Science of the Total Environment 619-620: 419–435. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.044. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 29156263. Bibcode: 2018ScTEn.619..419G. http://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/139301.
122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 Suarez-Riera, D.; Restuccia, L.; Ferro, G. A. (2020-01-01). "The use of Biochar to reduce the carbon footprint of cement-based materials" (in en). Procedia Structural Integrity. 1st Mediterranean Conference on Fracture and Structural Integrity, MedFract1 26: 199–210. doi:10.1016/j.prostr.2020.06.023. ISSN 2452-3216.
123. ↑ Gupta, Souradeep; Kua, Harn Wei; Pang, Sze Dai (2020-02-20). "Effect of biochar on mechanical and permeability properties of concrete exposed to elevated temperature" (in en). Construction and Building Materials 234. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117338. ISSN 0950-0618. Bibcode: 2020CBMat.23417338G. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950061819327904.
124. ↑ Campos, J.; Fajilan, S.; Lualhati, J.; Mandap, N.; Clemente, S. (2020-06-01). "Life Cycle Assessment of Biochar as a Partial Replacement to Portland Cement". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 479 (1). doi:10.1088/1755-1315/479/1/012025. ISSN 1755-1307. Bibcode: 2020E&ES..479a2025C.
125. ↑ Cueva Zepeda, Lolita; Griffin, Gregory; Shah, Kalpit; Al-Waili, Ibrahim; Parthasarathy, Rajarathinam (2023-05-01). "Energy potential, flow characteristics and stability of water and alcohol-based rice-straw biochar slurry fuel". Renewable Energy 207: 60–72. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2023.02.104. ISSN 0960-1481. Bibcode: 2023REne..207...60C.
126. ↑ Liu, Pengfei; Zhu, Mingming; Zhang, Zhezi; Leong, Yee-Kwong; Zhang, Yang; Zhang, Dongke (2017-02-01). "Rheological behaviour and stability characteristics of biochar-water slurry fuels: Effect of biochar particle size and size distribution". Fuel Processing Technology 156: 27–32. doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2016.09.030. ISSN 0378-3820. Bibcode: 2017FuPrT.156...27L. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037838201630621X.
127. ↑ Gupta, Meenal; Savla, Nishit; Pandit, Chetan; Pandit, Soumya; Gupta, Piyush Kumar; Pant, Manu; Khilari, Santimoy; Kumar, Yogesh et al. (15 June 2022). "Use of biomass-derived biochar in wastewater treatment and power production: A promising solution for a sustainable environment". Science of the Total Environment 825 (153892). doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153892. PMID 35181360. Bibcode: 2022ScTEn.82553892G.
128. ↑ Shi, Dan; Yek, Peter Nai Yuh; Ge, Shengbo; Shi, Yang; Liew, Rock Keey; Peng, Wanxi; Sonne, Christian; Tabatabaei, Meisam et al. (December 2022). "Production of highly porous biochar via microwave physiochemical activation for dechlorination in water treatment". Chemosphere 309 (136624). doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136624. PMID 36181838. Bibcode: 2022Chmsp.30936624S.
129. ↑ Wu, Jia; Yang, Jianwei; Feng, Pu; Huang, Guohuan; Xu, Chuanhui; Lin, Baofeng (May 2020). "High-efficiency removal of dyes from wastewater by fully recycling litchi peel biochar". Chemosphere 246 (125734). doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125734. PMID 31918084. Bibcode: 2020Chmsp.24625734W.
130. ↑ Dwivedi, S.; Dey, S. (13 July 2022). "Review on biochar as an adsorbent material for removal of dyes from waterbodies". International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 20 (9335–9350): 9335–9350. doi:10.1007/s13762-022-04364-9.
131. ↑ Verheijen, F.G.A.; Graber, E.R.; Ameloot, N.; Bastos, A.C.; Sohi, S.; Knicker, H. (2014). "Biochars in soils: new insights and emerging research needs". European Journal of Soil Science 65 (1): 22–27. doi:10.1111/ejss.12127. Bibcode: 2014EuJSS..65...22V.
132. ↑ "UK Biochar Research Centre" (in en). https://www.ed.ac.uk/geosciences/facilities.
133. ↑ "Can Biochar save the planet?". CNN. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/TECH/science/03/30/biochar.warming.energy/index.html#cnnSTCVideo.
134. ↑ "Biochar nearly doubles peanut yield in student's research - News and Events". Innovation Lab for Peanut. https://ftfpeanutlab.caes.uga.edu/news-and-events/news/biochar-nearly-doubles-peanut-yield-in-students-research.html.
135. ↑ "iBRN Israel Biochar Research Network". https://sites.google.com/site/ibrnisraelbiocharnetwork/.
136. ↑ "SLU Biochar network" (in en). https://www.slu.se/en/Collaborative-Centres-and-Projects/slu-biochar-network/.
137. ↑ Trendafilova, Petya (2024-04-04). "Planboo And Omiti Biochar Launch 'From Bush To Biochar' Initiative In Namibia" (in en-US). https://carbonherald.com/planboo-and-omiti-biochar-launch-from-bush-to-biochar-initiative-in-namibia/.
138. ↑ "PyroNam Targets 50 Biochar Plants in Namibia by 2030 to Tackle Carbon and Soil Health" (in en). 2024-10-31. https://biochartoday.com/2024/10/31/pyronam-targets-50-biochar-plants-in-namibia-by-2030-to-tackle-carbon-and-soil-health/.
139. ↑ De-bushing Advisory Service Namibia (2020-09-23). "Kick-start for Biochar Value Chain: Practical Guidelines for Producers Now Published". https://www.dasnamibia.org/practical-guidelines-for-producers-now-published/.
140. ↑ Simmons, Aaron T.; Cowie, Annette L.; Waters, Cathy M. (2021-05-20). "Pyrolysis of invasive woody vegetation for energy and biochar has climate change mitigation potential". Science of the Total Environment 770. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145278. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 33736413. Bibcode: 2021ScTEn.77045278S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969721003442.
141. ↑ Mukarunyana, Brigitte; Boman, Christoffer; Kabera, Telesphore; Lindgren, Robert; Fick, Jerker (2023-11-01). "The ability of biochars from cookstoves to remove pharmaceuticals and personal care products from hospital wastewater". Environmental Technology & Innovation 32. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2023.103391. ISSN 2352-1864. Bibcode: 2023EnvTI..3203391M.
142. ↑ Dalahmeh, Sahar; Ahrens, Lutz; Gros, Meritxell; Wiberg, Karin; Pell, Mikael (2018-01-15). "Potential of biochar filters for onsite sewage treatment: Adsorption and biological degradation of pharmaceuticals in laboratory filters with active, inactive and no biofilm" (in en). Science of the Total Environment 612: 192–201. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.08.178. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 28850838. Bibcode: 2018ScTEn.612..192D. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969717321769. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
143. ↑ Perez-Mercado, Luis; Lalander, Cecilia; Berger, Christina; Dalahmeh, Sahar (2018-12-12). "Potential of Biochar Filters for Onsite Wastewater Treatment: Effects of Biochar Type, Physical Properties and Operating Conditions" (in en). Water 10 (12): 1835. doi:10.3390/w10121835. ISSN 2073-4441. Bibcode: 2018Water..10.1835P.
144. ↑ Sörengård, Mattias; Östblom, Erik; Köhler, Stephan; Ahrens, Lutz (2020-06-01). "Adsorption behavior of per- and polyfluoralkyl substances (PFASs) to 44 inorganic and organic sorbents and use of dyes as proxies for PFAS sorption". Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 8 (3). doi:10.1016/j.jece.2020.103744. ISSN 2213-3437. Bibcode: 2020JEChE...803744S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2213343720300920.
145. ↑ "Biochar-ging Ahead to Engage Citizens in Combating Climate Change". Bloomberg IP Holdings LLC. https://www.bloomberg.org/blog/biochar-ging-ahead-engage-citizens-combating-climate-change/.
146. ↑ "How You Can Support Biochar Research". https://www.ncat.org/how-you-can-support-biochar-research/.
147. ↑ Hernandez-Soriano, Maria C.; Kerré, Bart; Goos, Peter; Hardy, Brieuc; Dufey, Joseph; Smolders, Erik (2016). "Long-term effect of biochar on the stabilization of recent carbon: soils with historical inputs of charcoal" (in en). GCB Bioenergy 8 (2): 371–381. doi:10.1111/gcbb.12250. ISSN 1757-1707. Bibcode: 2016GCBBi...8..371H.
148. ↑ Kerré, Bart; Hernandez-Soriano, Maria C.; Smolders, Erik (2016-03-15). "Partitioning of carbon sources among functional pools to investigate short-term priming effects of biochar in soil: A 13C study" (in en). Science of the Total Environment 547: 30–38. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.107. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 26780129. Bibcode: 2016ScTEn.547...30K. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969715312614. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
149. ↑ Hernandez-Soriano, Maria C.; Kerré, Bart; Kopittke, Peter M.; Horemans, Benjamin; Smolders, Erik (2016-04-26). "Biochar affects carbon composition and stability in soil: a combined spectroscopy-microscopy study" (in en). Scientific Reports 6 (1). doi:10.1038/srep25127. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 27113269. Bibcode: 2016NatSR...625127H.

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