Climate change in Ghana

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This bar chart is a visual representation of the change in temperature in the past 100+ years. Each stripe represents the temperature averaged over a year. The average temperature from 1971 to 2000 serves as the boundary between blue and red colors. The color scale spans from ±2.6 standard deviations of the annual average temperatures recorded between the years specified in the file name.

Climate change in Ghana is having significant impacts on the people of Ghana. Increasing temperatures and changes in rainfall, extreme weather, drought, wild fires, floods and sea-level rise[1] are expected to negatively affect the country's infrastructure, hydropower production, food security, and coastal and agricultural livelihoods such as farming and fisheries.[2][3][4] Ghana's economy will be impacted by climate change, due to its dependence on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, energy, and forestry.

Climate change is expected worsen Ghana's water security problems, and this will have socioeconomic consequences.[5] Agriculture and access to safe and reliable drinking water will be impacted. Reduced water supply will have a negative impact on hydropower, which provides 54% of the country's electricity capacity. Additionally, Ghana will likely see a rise in diseases like malaria, dengue fever and cholera due to changes in water conditions.[6]

Climate change is expected to have different impacts across the country. The north of the country, which has a typically hot and dry climate, will become hotter and wetter, and increasing rainfall variability is expected to decrease crop yields, which could drive poverty and migration. The wetter south is predicted to experience a decrease in rainfall.[7]

Ghana signed the Paris Climate Agreement in 2016. Their existing 2015 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution[8] then became their Nationally Determined Contribution, which was reviewed in 2021.[9] Ghana aims to avoid 64 million metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, compared to a business-as-usual scenario for 2020-2030. The country has committed to net zero by 2060.[10]

## Contents

* 1 Greenhouse gas emissions
* 1.1 Fossil fuel production
* 2 Climate change institutions
* 3 Impacts on the natural environment
* 3.1 Temperature and weather changes
* 3.2 Sea level rise
* 3.3 Water resources
* 4 Impacts on people
* 4.1 Economic impacts
* 4.1.1 Agriculture
* 4.1.2 Fisheries
* 4.1.3 Hydropower
* 4.2 Health impacts
* 5 Mitigation and adaptation
* 5.1 Adaptation
* 6 References

## Greenhouse gas emissions

CO2 emissions by sector, 2021[11]

Transport (46.96%)

Electricity and heat producers (34.42%)

Industry (11.73%)

Residential (3.63%)

Agriculture (1.14%)

Fishing (1.14%)

Commercial and public services (0.55%)

Other energy industries (0.42%)

In 2023, Ghana emitted around 52 million tons of greenhouse gases, (about 1.5 tons per person), equivalent to around 0.1% of the global total emissions.[12]

In 2021, Ghana's total CO2 emissions from fuel combustion in the energy sector reached 21.397 million tones, highlighting a significant increase of 332% in per-capita emissions since 2000.[13] Despite representing only 0.1% of global emissions from inflammable fuels, this rise is concerning, particularly in international efforts to mitigate climate change impacts. West Africa is among the smallest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions, but the nations "are already feeling the effects of the climate catastrophe disproportionately".[14]

The primary source of these emissions in Ghana was oil burning, which accounted for 66% of the total CO2 emissions from fuel burning. Sector-wise, transportation emerged as the largest contributor, responsible for 47% of the nation's energy-related CO2 emissions, followed by electricity and heat production at 34%. These figures underscore the urgent need for Ghana to transition towards more sustainable energy sources and improve the efficiency of its transportation and power sectors.[15]

Carbon dioxide (CO2) makes up the vast majority of greenhouse gas emissions from the sector, but smaller amounts of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are also emitted. These gases are released during the combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, to produce electricity.[16]

### Fossil fuel production

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The Jubilee offshore oil field in the Western Region of Ghana began production in 2010, raising expectations for wealth creation in Ghana.[17] However, the infrastructure needed to support Ghana's oil industry (storage, shipping, processing) has necessitated the practice of flaring. "Long-term gas flaring at the Jubilee Field may be inevitable" without accelerated development of infrastructure and would produce about 1.5 million tons of CO
2 annually (7 percent of Ghana's total national emissions).[18]

Ghana's petroleum sector has experienced significant growth, particularly since the discovery of oil in commercial quantities in the Jubilee fields in 2007. Average crude oil production capacity has been declining slightly over time, with an average 176,000 barrels per day in September 2021.[19]

Some of the major oil and gas activities are conducted by international oil companies such as Tullow Ghana, Vitol, Kosmos Energy, and ENI, among others. Their sub-contractors include Schlumberger, Baker Hughes, Weatherford, Ocean Rig, and Technip FMC, among others. The sector has been the subject of investment disputes, such as the one between the Springfield Group and ENI/Vitol.[19]

Upstream activities in the Ghanaian petroleum sector include the procurement and refining of crude oil by the nation's only petroleum refinery, Tema Oil Refinery (TOR). Downstream activities include the marketing and distribution of petroleum products by Oil Marketing Companies (OMCs) and the pre-mixing of petroleum products for other industrial uses. OMCs operating in Ghana are mainly multinationals; however, the last decade has seen an increase in the establishment of several small and medium-sized local OMCs.[19]

The Ghana National Petroleum Council (GNPC) has the mandate to explore for oil within the nation's territory. Ghana's oil and gas prospects are significant. Recent discoveries appear to indicate oil and gas resources stretch across the country's shoreline from Cape Three Points in the west to Keta in the east. The Volta Basin is also believed to hold oil and gas reserves onshore. The Government of Ghana, through GNPC, seeks to maximize the country's prospects in the oil and gas sector and extend the country's continental shelf to increase the sector's scope.[19]

The prices of petroleum products are regulated by an independent board. The nation consumes significant volumes of petroleum products, which are mainly imported. The petroleum products produced in Ghana are mainly exported.[19]

## Climate change institutions

One of the few important climate change institutions in Ghana is the Center for Climate Change and Sustainability Studies.[20] The center is located in the University of Ghana and it is involved in conducting various research works and projects with regards to climate change in Ghana. It is also a multidisciplinary faculty which explores areas such as health, resource management, economics and renewable energy. All of these research areas they venture into are targeted towards capacity building in climate change and sustainable development.[20]

## Impacts on the natural environment

### Temperature and weather changes

Köppen climate classification map for Ghana for 1980–2016

2071–2100 map under the worst climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely[21][22][23]

Many parts of Accra flood during the rainy season, causing environmental crisis in Ghana

Lake Volta, the largest artificial lake by surface area in the world, changed climate patterns in Ghana.[24]

The drier northern areas have warmed more rapidly than southern Ghana. Overall, Ghana has experienced a 1.0 °C increase in temperature since 1960.[18] Northern Ghana has only one rainy season, while southern Ghana has two, and annual rainfall is highly variable. Long-term trends for rainfall are challenging to predict. However, USDA's Forest Service concluded in 2011 that there was "no evidence that extreme rain events have either increased or decreased since 1960."[18]

However, when one compares the Köppen-Geiger climate classification map for 1980–2016 and the projected map for 2071–2100 predicted change in classification from "tropical, savannah" to "arid, steppe, hot" in some coastal areas.[25]"

### Sea level rise

Available data also shows a sea level rise of 2.1 mm per year over the last 30 years, indicating a surge of 5.8 cm, 16.5 cm, and 34.5 cm by 2020, 2050, and 2080.[26][27] Flooding affects approximately "45,000 Ghanaians every year, and half of Ghana's coastline is vulnerable to erosion and flooding as a result of sea-level rise".[28]

### Water resources

Expected decreases in water in the primary river basins providing fresh water for the country, Volta River, Bia River, and Tano River, could increase challenges in getting access to clean drinking water.[3] The volume of water in the Volta Basin was predicted to have a 24% and 45% reduction in 2050 and 2100, respectively.[3] The continuous decrease in precipitation and increasing evaporation rate has the potential to cause political tension in the region as Burkina Faso plans to draw water from the Volta Basin.

## Impacts on people

### Economic impacts

#### Agriculture

Maize farmer in Tamaligu, Ghana, Northern Region

Forty-five percent of the workforce in Ghana depends on small-holder rain-fed agriculture.[3] Disruption due to erratic rainfall and other extreme weather will harm people's economic well-being.[3] Moreover, staple crops such as Cassava, Maize, and cocoa (the major cash crop of Ghana) are expected to see decreased production.[3] Based on a 20-year baseline climate observation, it is forecasted that maize and other cereal crop yields will reduce by 7% by 2050.

Moreover, the combination of deforestation and new dams that dried up rivers has affected agriculture and, in turn, brought migration to Accra, which increased poor-quality unplanned settlements in the path of potential flash floods.[29]

A 2024 World Bank report estimates that about two million Ghanaians are vulnerable to food insecurity.[30] Should any natural disaster occur, food availability will be significantly affected, particularly in the Northern region and the country's rural areas.[30]

#### Fisheries

Seafood makes up 40–60 percent of protein intake in Ghana.[3] Key species for the economy are expected to have worse reproduction cycles .[3] Reduction in fisheries production has stimulated importation of more $200million per year worth of seafood.[31] Climate change alone might endanger a vital food source and way of life for Ghana by reducing possible fish catches by 25% or more by 2050.[32]

#### Hydropower

Because 54% of the national generation capacity is hydropower, unpredictable rainfall is likely to add uncertainty to a power grid already experiencing frequent outages (known as dumsor).[3] Some estimates suggest that capacity could fall by as much as 50% for the Volta Basin.[3] Ghana experienced a reduction in GDP between 2012 and 2015 in partial response to a deficient supply of power.[3]

### Health impacts

An increase in waterborne diseases such as cholera and mosquito-borne diseases like malaria is projected.[3] In Ghana, flood-exposed communities have been associated with cholera and non-cholera diarrheal disease outbreaks.[33][34][35] According to the World Bank, Ghana's health system is highly vulnerable to the changes in climate, "especially to illnesses like malaria and diarrhea disease ... health issues related to heat, air pollution, and infectious diseases are on the rise with the elderly, youth, and children being particularly vulnerable".[30] As climate change results in more severe and frequent flooding, water source contamination and the spread of waterborne diseases are expected to increase. Stagnant water bodies which are formed as a result of some flooding occurrences, may support mosquitoes breeding which can cause the increase in the spread of malaria.[36] A study conducted in two flood-prone and low-income areas, namely James Town and Agbogbloshie within the Accra Metropolitan Area, revealed that households experience regular cholera outbreaks and a high prevalence of non-cholera diarrhea and other illnesses. These low-income communities also have a large percentage of children under 5 years old who may have weakened immune systems and be particularly vulnerable to environmental challenges.[37]

## Mitigation and adaptation

Ghana signed the Paris Agreement on 22 April 2016 and ratified it on 21 September 2016. The first national climate change adaptation strategy in Ghana was developed to be implemented between 2010 and 2020.[38] The Ministry of Environment Science, Technology and Innovation published a policy framework in 2013.[39]

In 2015, Ghana developed a framework entitled "Ghana's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution" to outline a plan to reduce carbon emissions and to improve eternity of land use, transportation, and other economic and societal sectors.[8] This plan, after the 2016 Paris Agreement signing, became the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). Ghana has pledged to adopt 34 strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, with 9 being implemented independently and 25 dependent on external support. The goal is to cut emissions by 64 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent (MtCO2e) by 2030, compared to the total emissions expected between 2020 and 2030. Ghana has also committed to net zero by 2060.[10]

Ghana is experiencing population growth, has a high poverty rate, and its economy is dependent on vulnerable industries like agriculture. Thus, it is a West African country with increased risk of climate vulnerability, including droughts and floods, hunger and disease, that increase human suffering, violence, displacement, and economic collapse in the region.[14]

Ghanaian President Nana Akufo-Addo, the President of Ghana stated, "Our hope depends on the actions we take today."[14] However, Ghana still needs to develop long-term contingency plans for climate change because decision-makers and local managers have an inadequate perception of the costs of dealing with such crises.[29] A 2022 report by the World Bank report noted that Ghana has slowed progress in its economic development and has not fully converted its natural wealth into sufficient infrastructure, human, and institutional capital for sustained growth, but taking a climate resilient and low-carbon pathway could turn challenges into opportunities.[28] With appropriate reforms and investments, it will be possible for Ghana to "deliver large economic and social benefits for its people".[40]

### Adaptation

This section is an excerpt from Climate change adaptation in Ghana[ edit ]

## References

1. ↑ "Ghana's coastline, swallowed by the sea". UNESCO. 2021-01-11. https://en.unesco.org/courier/2021-1/ghanas-coastline-swallowed-sea.
2. ↑ Tuebner, Robert (7 June 2023). "Ghana Climate Change Report". USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Ghana Climate Change Report _Accra_Ghana_GH2023-0008.pdf.
3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 "Climate Risk Profile: Ghana". USAID. 31 January 2017. https://www.climatelinks.org/resources/climate-risk-profile-ghana.
4. ↑ "World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal" (in en). https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/.
5. ↑ World Bank Group (2021). Climate Risk Profile: Ghana. World Bank Group. https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/15857-WB_Ghana Country Profile-WEB.pdf.
6. ↑ Awuni, Stephen; Adarkwah, Francis; Ofori, Benjamin D.; Purwestri, Ratna Chrismiari; Bernal, Diana Carolina Huertas; Hajek, Miroslav (2023-05-01). "Managing the challenges of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies in Ghana" (in English). Heliyon 9 (5). doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15491. ISSN 2405-8440. PMID 37131451. Bibcode: 2023Heliy...915491A.
7. ↑ Desjonqueres, Chloe Genevieve Helene; Zhao, Hongxi; Kosmidou-Bradley, Walker Turnbull; Corral Rodas, Paul Andres. Ghana's climate vulnerability profile (English). Washington, D.C. : World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/099060524110782274
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "NDC Registry (interim)". https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/NDCStaging/Pages/All.aspx.
9. ↑ Dave, Radhika; Saint-Laurent, Carole; Murray, Lara; Antunes Daldegan, Gabriel; Brouwer, Rens; de Mattos Scaramuzza, Carlos Alberto; Raes, Leander; Simonit, Silvio et al. (2019-06-27). Second Bonn Challenge progress report: application of the Barometer in 2018. IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature. doi:10.2305/iucn.ch.2019.06.en. ISBN 978-2-8317-1980-1. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/48446.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Climate Watch. "Ghana". https://www.climatewatchdata.org/countries/GHA?end_year=2021&start_year=1990.
11. ↑ "Ghana - Countries & Regions" (in en-GB). https://www.iea.org/countries/ghana/emissions.
12. ↑ Jones, Matthew W.; Peters, Glen P.; Gasser, Thomas; Andrew, Robbie M.; Schwingshackl, Clemens; Gütschow, Johannes; Houghton, Richard A.; Friedlingstein, Pierre et al. (2024-11-13), National contributions to climate change due to historical emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, doi:10.5281/zenodo.14054503, https://zenodo.org/records/14054503, retrieved 2025-03-10
13. ↑ "Ghana's Fifth National Greenhouse Gas Inventory". 17 July 2024. https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/gh_nir5_15052022_final.pdf.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "How the Climate Change Crisis is Impacting Ghana". The Climate Reality Project. 28 June 2023. https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/how-climate-crisis-impacting-ghana.
15. ↑ "Ghana - Countries & Regions" (in en-GB). IEA. https://www.iea.org/countries/ghana/emissions.
16. ↑ "Greenhouse gas emissions - Google Search". https://www.google.com/search?q=Greenhouse+gas+emissions&gs_lp=Egxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAiGEdyZWVuaG91c2UgZ2FzIGVtaXNzaW9uczILEAAYgAQYkQIYigUyBRAAGIAEMgsQABiABBiRAhiKBTIFEAAYgAQyBRAAGIAEMgUQABiABDIFEAAYgAQyBRAAGIAEMgUQABiABDIFEAAYgARI9fqbAlCGAljW7psCcAN4AZABAJgBywKgAdMSqgEFMi00LjS4AQPIAQD4AQH4AQKYAgagAsUHqAIUwgIKEAAYsAMY1gQYR8ICCBAAGIAEGKIEwgIGEAAYBxgewgIKEAAYgAQYQxiKBcICBxAjGCcY6gLCAhAQABgDGLQCGOoCGI8B2AEBwgIQEC4YAxi0AhjqAhiPAdgBAZgDH4gGAZAGCLoGBggBEAEYCpIHBzMuMC4yLjGgB9My.
17. ↑ "Ghana - Jubilee FPSO Project - ESIA Summary". 17 July 2024. https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Environmental-and-Social-Assessments/ghana _ FSPO.pdf.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 "Ghana Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation". USAID Report prepared by the USDA Forest Service, International Programs. 30 June 2011. https://www.climatelinks.org/resources/ghana-climate-change-vulnerability-and-adaptation-assessment.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 "Ghana - Oil and Gas" (in en). U.S. Department of Commerce. 2023-11-26. https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/ghana-oil-and-gas. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Centre for Climate Change and Sustainability Studies". https://www.ug.edu.gh/c3ss/.
21. ↑ Hausfather, Zeke; Peters, Glen (29 January 2020). "Emissions – the' business as usual' story is misleading". Nature 577 (7792): 618–20. doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3. PMID 31996825. Bibcode: 2020Natur.577..618H.
22. ↑ Schuur, Edward A.G.; Abbott, Benjamin W.; Commane, Roisin; Ernakovich, Jessica; Euskirchen, Eugenie; Hugelius, Gustaf; Grosse, Guido; Jones, Miriam et al. (2022). "Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic". Annual Review of Environment and Resources 47: 343–371. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847. Bibcode: 2022ARER...47..343S. ""Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..."".
23. ↑ Phiddian, Ellen (5 April 2022). "Explainer: IPCC Scenarios". https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/. ""The IPCC doesn't make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. The Australian Academy of Science, for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. Climate Action Tracker predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C."
24. ↑ Andah, Winston E.I.; van de Giesen, Nick; Biney, Charles A. (2003). "Water, climate, food, and environment in the Volta Basin". Project ADAPT: Adaptation strategies to changing environments. https://www.weap21.org/downloads/AdaptVolta.pdf.
25. ↑ Bailey, Robert G. (2014-07-08) (in en). Ecosystem Geography: From Ecoregions to Sites. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-89516-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=rSAMQO53uPsC&q=However,+when+one+compares+the+K.
26. ↑ Stark, Jeffrey; Terasawa, Katsuaki (November 2013). "Climate Change and Conflict in West African Cities". https://www.weadapt.org/sites/weadapt.org/files/legacy-new/knowledge-base/files/53b3dad202884fess-policy-brief-cities-cleared.pdf.
27. ↑ "Climate Change Adaptation in Ghana (fact sheet)". January 2012. https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/ghana_adaptation_fact_sheet_jan2012.pdf.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Ghana Can Turn Climate Challenges into Opportunities for Resilient and Sustainable Growth, says new World Bank Group Report". The World Bank (Press release). 1 November 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2024.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Mensah, Edwin C.; Ziemnowicz, Christopher; Parnell, John A. (2021). "Crisis Perception, Experience, and Preparedness among Managers in Ghana". Journal of International Business and Economy 22 (1): 1–28. doi:10.51240/jibe.2021.1.1. https://www.ijibe.org/articles/crisis-perception,-experience,-and-preparedness-among-managers-in-ghana. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 "New World Bank Report Calls for Strengthening Resilience of Ghana's Health System in Response to Climate Change". The World Bank. 30 April 2024. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2024/04/30/new-world-bank-report-calls-for-strengthening-resilience-of-ghana-health-system-in-response-to-climate-change.
31. ↑ Ghana Country Development and Cooperative Strategy Climate Risk Screening. USAID. https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/2021-03/2021_USAID_CDCS-Annex-Ghana.pdf. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
32. ↑ "Climate Stories | Fisheries and Blue Economy" (in en). https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2023/03/03/fisheries-under-pressure-from-ghana-to-the-caribbean.
33. ↑ Ntajal, Joshua; Höllermann, Britta; Falkenberg, Timo; Kistemann, Thomas; Evers, Mariele (January 2022). "Water and Health Nexus—Land Use Dynamics, Flooding, and Water-Borne Diseases in the Odaw River Basin, Ghana" (in en). Water 14 (3): 461. doi:10.3390/w14030461. ISSN 2073-4441. Bibcode: 2022Water..14..461N.
34. ↑ Larbi, Reuben Tete; Atiglo, D. Yaw; Peterson, Maame B.; Biney, Adriana A. E.; Dodoo, Naa Dodua; Dodoo, F. Nii-Amoo (2021). "Household food sources and diarrhoea incidence in poor urban communities, Accra Ghana". PLOS ONE 16 (1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245466. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 33508014. Bibcode: 2021PLoSO..1645466L.
35. ↑ Adams, Ellis Adjei; Nyantakyi-Frimpong, Hanson (January 2021). "Stressed, anxious, and sick from the floods: A photovoice study of climate extremes, differentiated vulnerabilities, and health in Old Fadama, Accra, Ghana". Health & Place 67. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2020.102500. ISSN 1873-2054. PMID 33373811.
36. ↑ Mohammed, Kamaldeen; Salifu, Mohammed Gazali; Batung, Evans; Amoak, Daniel; Avoka, Vasco Ayere; Kansanga, Moses; Luginaah, Isaac (2022-11-01). "Spatial analysis of climatic factors and plasmodium falciparum malaria prevalence among children in Ghana". Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology 43. doi:10.1016/j.sste.2022.100537. ISSN 1877-5845. PMID 36460447. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1877584522000600.
37. ↑ Boafo, Yaw Agyeman; Ohemeng, Fidelia N. A.; Ayivor, Jesse; Ayitiah, Joseph Armah; Yirenya-Tawiah, Dzidzo et al. (14 June 2024). "Unraveling diarrheal disease knowledge, understanding, and management practices among climate change vulnerable coastal communities in Ghana" (in English). Frontiers in Public Health 12. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1352275. ISSN 2296-2565. PMID 38947353. This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
38. ↑ "National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy". UNEP/UNDP. November 2012. https://www.adaptation-undp.org/resources/naps-non-least-developed-countries-non-ldcs/ghanas-national-climate-change-adaptation.
39. ↑ "Ghana National Climate Change Policy". Green Growth Knowledge Platform. January 2013. https://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/national-documents/ghana-national-climate-change-policy.
40. ↑ "Ghana Taking on Climate Change: Ghana Country Climate Development Report (CCDR) video". The World Bank. 1 November 2022. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/video/2022/10/31/country-climate-and-development-report-ccdr-for-ghana.

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