Counterculture of the 1960s

The peace sign (or peace symbol), designed and first used in the UK by the organisation Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, later became synonymous with opposition to the Vietnam War.[1][2]

The counterculture of the 1960s refers to an anti-establishment cultural phenomenon that developed first in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US) and then spread throughout much of the Western world between the mid-1960s and the mid-1970s, with London, New York City, and San Francisco being hotbeds of early countercultural activity. The aggregate movement gained momentum as the Civil Rights Movement continued to grow, and would later become revolutionary with the expansion of the U.S. government's extensive military intervention in Vietnam.[3][4][5] As the 1960s progressed, widespread social tensions also developed concerning other issues, and tended to flow along generational lines regarding human sexuality, women's rights, traditional modes of authority, experimentation with psychoactive drugs, and differing interpretations of the American Dream. Many key movements related to these issues were born or advanced within the counterculture of the 1960s.[6]

As the era unfolded, new cultural forms and a dynamic subculture which celebrated experimentation, modern incarnations of Bohemianism, and the rise of the hippie and other alternative lifestyles, emerged. This embracing of creativity is particularly notable in the works of British Invasion bands such as The Beatles, and filmmakers whose works became far less restricted by censorship. In addition to the trendsetting Beatles, many other creative artists, authors, and thinkers, within and across many disciplines, helped define the counterculture movement.

Several factors distinguished the counterculture of the 1960s from the anti-authoritarian movements of previous eras. The post-World War II "baby boom"[7][8] generated an unprecedented number of potentially disaffected young people as prospective participants in a rethinking of the direction of American and other democratic societies.[9] Post-war affluence allowed many of the counterculture generation to move beyond a focus on the provision of the material necessities of life that had preoccupied their Depression-era parents.[10] The era was also notable in that a significant portion of the array of behaviors and "causes" within the larger movement were quickly assimilated within mainstream society, particularly in the US, even though counterculture participants numbered in the clear minority within their respective national populations.[11][12]

The counterculture era essentially commenced in earnest with the assassination of John F. Kennedy in November 1963. It became absorbed into the popular culture with the termination of US combat military involvement in Southeast Asia and the end of the draft in 1973, and ultimately with the resignation of President Richard Nixon in August 1974.

## Contents

* 1 Background
* 1.1 Post-war geopolitics
* 1.2 Social issues and calls to action
* 1.3 Emergent media
* 1.3.1 Television
* 1.3.2 New cinema
* 1.3.3 New radio
* 1.4 Changing lifestyles
* 1.4.1 Emergent middle-class drug culture
* 1.5 Law enforcement
* 1.6 In Western Europe
* 1.7 In Eastern Europe
* 1.8 In Australia
* 1.9 In Latin America
* 2 Movements
* 2.1 Civil Rights Movement
* 2.2 Free Speech
* 2.3 New Left
* 2.4 Anti-war
* 2.5 Anti-nuclear
* 2.6 Feminism
* 2.7 Free school movement
* 2.8 Environmentalism
* 2.9 Gay liberation
* 3 Culture and lifestyles
* 3.1 Hippies
* 3.2 Marijuana, LSD, and other recreational drugs
* 3.2.1 Psychedelic research and experimentation
* 3.2.2 Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters
* 3.2.3 Other psychedelics
* 3.3 Sexual revolution
* 3.4 Alternative media
* 3.5 Alternative disc sports (Frisbee)
* 3.6 Avant-garde art and anti-art
* 3.7 Music
* 3.8 Film
* 3.9 Technology
* 3.10 Religion, spirituality and the occult
* 4 Criticism and legacy
* 5 Key figures
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 7.1 Works cited
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Background

### Post-war geopolitics

Underwater atomic test "Baker", Bikini Atoll, Pacific Ocean, 1946

The Cold War between communist states and capitalist states involved espionage and preparation for war between powerful nations,[13][14] along with political and military interference by powerful states in the internal affairs of less powerful nations. Poor outcomes from some of these activities set the stage for disillusionment with, and distrust of, post-war governments.[15] Examples included harsh Soviet Union (USSR) responses to popular anti-communist uprisings, such as the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and Czechoslovakia's Prague Spring in 1968, and the botched US Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961. In the US, President Dwight D. Eisenhower's initial deception[16] over the nature of the 1960 U-2 incident resulted in the government being caught in a blatant lie at the highest levels, and contributed to a backdrop of growing distrust of authority among many who came of age during the period.[17][18][19] The Partial Test Ban Treaty divided the establishment within the US along political and military lines.[20][21][22] Internal political disagreements concerning treaty obligations in Southeast Asia (SEATO), especially in Vietnam, and debate as to how other communist insurgencies should be challenged, also created a rift of dissent within the establishment.[23][24][25] In the UK, the Profumo Affair also involved establishment leaders being caught in deception, leading to disillusionment and serving as a catalyst for liberal activism.[26] The Cuban Missile Crisis, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war in October 1962, was largely fomented by duplicitous speech and actions on the part of the Soviet Union.[27][28] The assassination of US President John F. Kennedy in November 1963, and the attendant theories concerning the event, led to further diminished trust in government, including among younger people.[29][30][31]

### Social issues and calls to action

Many social issues fueled the growth of the larger counterculture movement. One was a nonviolent movement in the United States seeking to resolve constitutional civil rights illegalities, especially regarding general racial segregation, longstanding disfranchisement of blacks in the South by white-dominated state government, and ongoing racial discrimination in jobs, housing, and access to public places in both the North and the South.

Free Speech activist Mario Savio on the steps of Sproul Hall, University of California, Berkeley, 1966

On college and university campuses, student activists fought for the right to exercise their basic constitutional rights, especially freedom of speech and freedom of assembly.[32]

Many counterculture activists became aware of the plight of the poor, and community organizers fought for the funding of anti-poverty programs, particularly in the South and within inner city areas in the United States.[33][34]

Environmentalism grew from a greater understanding of the ongoing damage caused by industrialization, resultant pollution, and the misguided use of chemicals such as pesticides in well-meaning efforts to improve the quality of life for the rapidly growing population.[35] Authors such as Rachel Carson played key roles in developing a new awareness among the global population of the fragility of our planet, despite resistance from elements of the establishment in many countries.[36]

The need to address minority rights of women, gay people, the handicapped, and many other neglected constituencies within the larger population came to the forefront as an increasing number of primarily younger people broke free from the constraints of 1950s orthodoxy and struggled to create a more inclusive and tolerant social landscape.[37][38]

The availability of new and more effective forms of birth control was a key underpinning of the sexual revolution. The notion of "recreational sex" without the threat of unwanted pregnancy radically changed the social dynamic and permitted both women and men much greater freedom in the selection of sexual lifestyles outside the confines of traditional marriage.[39] With this change in attitude, by the 1990s the ratio of children born out of wedlock rose from 5% to 25% for Whites and from 25% to 66% for African-Americans.[40]

### Emergent media

King's "I Have a Dream" speech, given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington

#### Television

For those born after World War II, the emergence of television as a source of entertainment and information—as well as the associated massive expansion of consumerism afforded by post-war affluence and encouraged by TV advertising—were key components in creating disillusionment for some younger people and in the formulation of new social behaviours, even as ad agencies heavily courted the "hip" youth market.[41][42] In the US, nearly real-time TV news coverage of the civil rights era's Birmingham Campaign, the "Bloody Sunday" event of the Selma to Montgomery marches, and graphic news footage from Vietnam brought horrifying, moving images of the bloody reality of armed conflict into living rooms for the first time.

#### New cinema

The breakdown of enforcement of the US Hays Code[43] concerning censorship in motion picture production, the use of new forms of artistic expression in European and Asian cinema, and the advent of modern production values heralded a new era of art-house, pornographic, and mainstream film production, distribution, and exhibition. The end of censorship resulted in a complete reformation of the western film industry. With new-found artistic freedom, a generation of exceptionally talented New Wave film makers working across all genres brought realistic depictions of previously prohibited subject matter to neighborhood theater screens for the first time, even as Hollywood film studios were still considered a part of the establishment by some elements of the counterculture.

#### New radio

A family watches television, c. 1958

By the later 1960s, previously under-regarded FM radio replaced AM radio as the focal point for the ongoing explosion of rock and roll music, and became the nexus of youth-oriented news and advertising for the counterculture generation.[44][45]

### Changing lifestyles

Communes, collectives, and intentional communities regained popularity during this era.[46] Early communities, such as the Hog Farm, Quarry Hill, and Drop City[47] in the US were established as straightforward agrarian attempts to return to the land and live free of interference from outside influences. As the era progressed, many people established and populated new communities in response to not only disillusionment with standard community forms, but also dissatisfaction with certain elements of the counterculture itself. Some of these self-sustaining communities have been credited with the birth and propagation of the international Green Movement.

The emergence of an interest in expanded spiritual consciousness, yoga, occult practices and increased human potential helped to shift views on organized religion during the era. In 1957, 69% of US residents polled by Gallup said religion was increasing in influence. By the late 1960s, polls indicated less than 20% still held that belief.[48]

The "Generation Gap", or the inevitable perceived divide in worldview between the old and young, was perhaps never greater than during the counterculture era.[49] A large measure of the generational chasm of the 1960s and early 1970s was born of rapidly evolving fashion and hairstyle trends that were readily adopted by the young, but often misunderstood and ridiculed by the old. These included the wearing of very long hair by men,[50] the wearing of natural or "Afro" hairstyles by black people, the donning of revealing clothing by women in public, and the mainstreaming of the psychedelic clothing and regalia of the short-lived hippie culture. Ultimately, practical and comfortable casual apparel, namely updated forms of T-shirts (often tie-dyed, or emblazoned with political or advertising statements), and Levi Strauss-branded blue denim jeans[51] became the enduring uniform of the generation. The fashion dominance of the counterculture effectively ended with the rise of the Disco and Punk Rock eras in the later 1970s, even as the global popularity of T-shirts, denim jeans, and casual clothing in general have continued to grow.

#### Emergent middle-class drug culture

In the western world, the ongoing criminal legal status of the recreational drug industry was instrumental in the formation of an anti-establishment social dynamic by some of those coming of age during the counterculture era. The explosion of marijuana use during the era, in large part by students on fast-expanding college campuses,[52] created an attendant need for increasing numbers of people to conduct their personal affairs in secret in the procurement and use of banned substances. The classification of marijuana as a narcotic, and the attachment of severe criminal penalties for its use, drove the act of smoking marijuana, and experimentation with substances in general, deep underground. Many began to live largely clandestine lives because of their choice to use such drugs and substances, fearing retribution from their governments.[53][54]

### Law enforcement

Anti-war protesters

The confrontations between college students (and other activists) and law enforcement officials became one of the hallmarks of the era. Many younger people began to show deep distrust of police, and terms such as "fuzz" and "pig" as derogatory epithets for police reappeared, and became key words within the counterculture lexicon. The distrust of police was based not only on fear of police brutality during political protests, but also on generalized police corruption - especially police manufacture of false evidence, and outright entrapment, in drug cases. In the US, the social tension between elements of the counterculture and law enforcement reached the breaking point in many notable cases, including: the Columbia University protests of 1968 in New York City,[55]Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag[56] but enormous war protests consisting of thousands of mostly younger people in every major US city, and elsewhere across the Western world, effectively united millions against the war, and against the war policy that prevailed under five US congresses and during two presidential administrations.

### In Western Europe

The counterculture movement took hold in Western Europe, with London, Amsterdam, Paris, Rome, Copenhagen and West Berlin rivaling San Francisco and New York as counterculture centers.

Carnaby Street, London, 1966

The UK Underground was a movement linked to the growing subculture in the US and associated with the hippie phenomenon, generating its own magazines and newspapers, fashion, music groups, and clubs. Underground figure Barry Miles said, "The underground was a catch-all sobriquet for a community of like-minded anti-establishment, anti-war, pro-rock'n'roll individuals, most of whom had a common interest in recreational drugs. They saw peace, exploring a widened area of consciousness, love and sexual experimentation as more worthy of their attention than entering the rat race. The straight, consumerist lifestyle was not to their liking, but they did not object to others living it. But at that time the middle classes still felt they had the right to impose their values on everyone else, which resulted in conflict."[57]

In the Netherlands, Provo was a counterculture movement that focused on "provoking violent responses from authorities using non-violent bait."[58]

In France, the General Strike centered in Paris in May 1968 united French students, and nearly toppled the government.[59]

Kommune 1 or K1 was a commune in West Germany, and was known for its bizarre staged events that fluctuated between satire and provocation. These events served as inspiration for the "Sponti" movement and other leftist groups. In the late summer of 1968, the commune moved into a deserted factory on Stephanstraße in order to reorient. This second phase of Kommune 1 was characterized by sex, music and drugs. Soon, the commune was receiving visitors from all over the world, including Jimi Hendrix.[60][61]

### In Eastern Europe

Mánička is a Czech term used for young people with long hair, usually males, in Czechoslovakia through the 1960s and 1970s. Long hair for males during this time was considered an expression of political and social attitudes in communist Czechoslovakia. From the mid-1960s, the long-haired and "untidy" persons (so called máničky or vlasatci (in English: Mops) were banned from entering pubs, cinema halls, theatres and using public transportation in several Czech cities and towns.[62] In 1964, the public transportation regulations in Most and Litvínov excluded long-haired máničky as displeasure-evoking persons. Two years later, the municipal council in Poděbrady banned máničky from entering cultural institutions in the town.[62] In August 1966, Rudé právo informed that máničky in Prague were banned from visiting restaurants of the I. and II. price category.[62]

In 1966, during a big campaign coordinated by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, around 4,000 young males were forced to cut their hair, often in the cells with the assistance of the state police.[63] On 19 August 1966, during a "safety intervention" organized by the state police, 140 long-haired people were arrested. As a response, the "community of long-haired" organized a protest in Prague. More than 100 people cheered slogans such as "Give us back our hair!" or "Away with hairdressers!". The state police arrested the organizers and several participants of the meeting. Some of them were given prison sentences.[62] According to the newspaper Mladá fronta Dnes, the Czechoslovak Ministry of Interior in 1966 even compiled a detailed map of the frequency of occurrence of long-haired males in Czechoslovakia.[64] In August 1969, during the first anniversary of the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia, the long-haired youth were one of the most active voices in the state protesting against the occupation.[62] Youth protesters have been labeled as "vagabonds" and "slackers" by the official normalized press.[62]

### In Australia

Oz number 31 cover

Oz magazine was first published as a satirical humour magazine between 1963 and 1969 in Sydney, Australia , and, in its second and better known incarnation, became a "psychedelic hippy" magazine from 1967 to 1973 in London. Strongly identified as part of the underground press, it was the subject of two celebrated obscenity trials, one in Australia in 1964 and the other in the United Kingdom in 1971.[65][66]

### In Latin America

Three radical icons of the sixties. Encounter between Simone de Beauvoir, Jean-Paul Sartre and Ernesto "Che" Guevara in Cuba, in 1960

In Mexico, rock music was tied into the youth revolt of the 1960s. Mexico City, as well as northern cities such as Monterrey, Nuevo Laredo, Ciudad Juárez, and Tijuana, were exposed to US music. Many Mexican rock stars became involved in the counterculture. The three-day Festival Rock y Ruedas de Avándaro, held in 1971, was organized in the valley of Avándaro near the city of Toluca, a town neighboring Mexico City, and became known as "The Mexican Woodstock". Nudity, drug use, and the presence of the US flag scandalized conservative Mexican society to such an extent that the government clamped down on rock and roll performances for the rest of the decade. The festival, marketed as proof of Mexico's modernization, was never expected to attract the masses it did, and the government had to evacuate stranded attendees en masse at the end. This occurred during the era of President Luis Echeverría, an extremely repressive era in Mexican history. Anything that could be connected to the counterculture or student protests was prohibited from being broadcast on public airwaves, with the government fearing a repeat of the student protests of 1968. Few bands survived the prohibition; though the ones that did, like Three Souls in My Mind (now El Tri), remained popular due in part to their adoption of Spanish for their lyrics, but mostly as a result of a dedicated underground following. While Mexican rock groups were eventually able to perform publicly by the mid-1980s, the ban prohibiting tours of Mexico by foreign acts lasted until 1989.[67]

The Cordobazo was a civil uprising in the city of Córdoba, Argentina, in the end of May 1969, during the military dictatorship of General Juan Carlos Onganía, which occurred a few days after the Rosariazo, and a year after the French May '68. Contrary to previous protests, the Cordobazo did not correspond to previous struggles, headed by Marxist workers' leaders, but associated students and workers in the same struggle against the military government.[68]

## Movements

Eugene McCarthy, anti-war candidate for the Democratic nomination for the US presidency in 1968

### Civil Rights Movement

The Civil Rights Movement, a key element of the larger counterculture movement, involved the use of applied nonviolence to assure that equal rights guaranteed under the US Constitution would apply to all citizens. Many states illegally denied many of these rights to African-Americans, and this was successfully addressed in the early and mid-1960s in several major nonviolent movements.[69][70]

### Free Speech

Much of the 1960s counterculture originated on college campuses. The 1964 Free Speech Movement at the University of California, Berkeley, which had its roots in the Civil Rights Movement of the southern United States, was one early example. At Berkeley a group of students began to identify themselves as having interests as a class that were at odds with the interests and practices of the University and its corporate sponsors. Other rebellious young people, who were not students, also contributed to the Free Speech Movement.[71]

### New Left

Main article: Social:New Left

The New Left is a term used in different countries to describe left-wing movements that occurred in the 1960s and 1970s in the Western world. They differed from earlier leftist movements that had been more oriented towards labour activism, and instead adopted social activism. The US "New Left" is associated with college campus mass protests and radical leftist movements. The British "New Left" was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of "Old Left" parties in the post-World War II period. The movements began to wind down in the 1970s, when activists either committed themselves to party projects, developed social justice organizations, moved into identity politics or alternative lifestyles, or became politically inactive.[72][73][74]

Herbert Marcuse, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory, was an influential libertarian socialist thinker on the radical student movements of the era[75] philosopher of the New Left[76]

The emergence of the New Left in the 1950s and 1960s led to a revival of interest in libertarian socialism.[77] The New Left's critique of the Old Left's authoritarianism was associated with a strong interest in personal liberty, autonomy (see the thinking of Cornelius Castoriadis) and led to a rediscovery of older socialist traditions, such as left communism, council communism, and the Industrial Workers of the World. The New Left also led to a revival of anarchism. Journals like Radical America and Black Mask in America, Solidarity, Big Flame and Democracy & Nature, succeeded by The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy,[78] in the UK, introduced a range of left libertarian ideas to a new generation. Social ecology, autonomism and, more recently, participatory economics (parecon), and Inclusive Democracy emerged from this.

A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.[79] Anarchism was influential in the counterculture of the 1960s[80][81][82] and anarchists actively participated in the late 60s students and workers revolts.[83] During the IX Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation in Carrara in 1965, a group decided to split off from this organization and created the Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica. In the 70s, it was mostly composed of "veteran individualist anarchists with a pacifism orientation, naturism, etc, ...".[84] In 1968, in Carrara, Italy the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France, the Italian and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile.[85][86] During the events of May 68 the anarchist groups active in France were Fédération anarchiste, Mouvement communiste libertaire, Union fédérale des anarchistes, Alliance ouvrière anarchiste, Union des groupes anarchistes communistes, Noir et Rouge, Confédération nationale du travail, Union anarcho-syndicaliste, Organisation révolutionnaire anarchiste, Cahiers socialistes libertaires, À contre-courant, La Révolution prolétarienne, and the publications close to Émile Armand.

The New Left in the United States also included anarchist, countercultural and hippie-related radical groups such as the Yippies who were led by Abbie Hoffman, The Diggers[87] and Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers. By late 1966, the Diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art.[88] The Diggers took their name from the original English Diggers led by Gerrard Winstanley[89] and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism.[90] On the other hand, the Yippies employed theatrical gestures, such as advancing a pig ("Pigasus the Immortal") as a candidate for President in 1968, to mock the social status quo.[91] They have been described as a highly theatrical, anti-authoritarian and anarchist[92] youth movement of "symbolic politics".[93] Since they were well known for street theater and politically themed pranks, many of the "old school" political left either ignored or denounced them. According to ABC News, "The group was known for street theater pranks and was once referred to as the 'Groucho Marxists'."[94]

### Anti-war

In Trafalgar Square, London in 1958,[95] in an act of civil disobedience, 60,000-100,000 protesters made up of students and pacifists converged in what was to become the "ban the Bomb" demonstrations.[96]

Opposition to the Vietnam War began in 1964 on United States college campuses. Student activism became a dominant theme among the baby boomers, growing to include many other demographic groups. Exemptions and deferments for the middle and upper classes resulted in the induction of a disproportionate number of poor, working-class, and minority registrants. Countercultural books such as MacBird by Barbara Garson and much of the counterculture music encouraged a spirit of non-conformism and anti-establishmentarianism. By 1968, the year after a large march to the United Nations in New York City and a large protest at the Pentagon were undertaken, a majority of people in the country opposed the war.[97]

### Anti-nuclear

Main article: Social:History of the anti-nuclear movement

A sign pointing to an old fallout shelter in New York City

The application of nuclear technology, both as a source of energy and as an instrument of war, has been controversial.[98][99][100][101][102]

Scientists and diplomats have debated the nuclear weapons policy since before the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945.[103] The public became concerned about nuclear weapons testing from about 1954, following extensive nuclear testing in the Pacific. In 1961, at the height of the Cold War, about 50,000 women brought together by Women Strike for Peace marched in 60 cities in the United States to demonstrate against nuclear weapons.[104][105] In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing.[106]

Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s,[107] and in the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to express their concerns.[108] In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl, Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America.[109] Nuclear power became an issue of major public protest in the 1970s.[110]

### Feminism

The role of women as full-time homemakers in industrial society was challenged in 1963, when US feminist Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, giving momentum to the women's movement and influencing what many called Second-wave feminism. Other activists, such as Gloria Steinem and Angela Davis, either organized, influenced, or educated many of a younger generation of women to endorse and expand feminist thought. Feminism gained further currency within the protest movements of the late 1960s, as women in movements such as Students for a Democratic Society rebelled against the "support" role they had been consigned to within the male-dominated New Left, as well as against manifestations and statements of sexism within some radical groups. The 1970 pamphlet Women and Their Bodies, soon expanded into the 1971 book Our Bodies, Ourselves, was particularly influential in bringing about the new feminist consciousness.[111]

### Free school movement

Main article: Social:Free school movement

### Environmentalism

Main article: Biology:Environmentalism

The cover of an early Whole Earth Catalog shows the Earth as seen by astronauts traveling back from the Moon

The 1960s counterculture embraced a back-to-the-land ethic, and communes of the era often relocated to the country from cities. Influential books of the 1960s included Rachel Carson's Silent Spring and Paul Ehrlich's The Population Bomb. Counterculture environmentalists were quick to grasp the implications of Ehrlich's writings on overpopulation, the Hubbert "peak oil" prediction, and more general concerns over pollution, litter, the environmental effects of the Vietnam War, automobile-dependent lifestyles, and nuclear energy. More broadly they saw that the dilemmas of energy and resource allocation would have implications for geo-politics, lifestyle, environment, and other dimensions of modern life. The "back to nature" theme was already prevalent in the counterculture by the time of the 1969 Woodstock festival, while the first Earth Day in 1970 was significant in bringing environmental concerns to the forefront of youth culture. At the start of the 1970s, counterculture-oriented publications like the Whole Earth Catalog and The Mother Earth News were popular, out of which emerged a back to the land movement. The 1960s and early 1970s counterculture were early adopters of practices such as recycling and organic farming long before they became mainstream. The counterculture interest in ecology progressed well into the 1970s: particularly influential were New Left eco-anarchist Murray Bookchin, Jerry Mander's criticism of the effects of television on society, Ernest Callenbach's novel Ecotopia, Edward Abbey's fiction and non-fiction writings, and E.F. Schumacher's economics book Small is Beautiful.

### Gay liberation

File:Stonewall Inn 1969.jpgThe Stonewall Inn, Greenwich Village, New York City, September 1969

The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of New York City . This is frequently cited as the first instance in US history when people in the gay community fought back against a government-sponsored system that persecuted sexual minorities, and became the defining event that marked the start of the Gay rights movement in the United States and around the world.

## Culture and lifestyles

### Hippies

After the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In in San Francisco organized by artist Michael Bowen, the media's attention on culture was fully activated.[112] In 1967, Scott McKenzie's rendition of the song "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)" brought as many as 100,000 young people from all over the world to celebrate San Francisco's "Summer of Love." While the song had originally been written by John Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas to promote the June 1967 Monterey Pop Festival, it became an instant hit worldwide (#4 in the United States, #1 in Europe) and quickly transcended its original purpose.

San Francisco's flower children, also called "hippies" by local newspaper columnist Herb Caen, adopted new styles of dress, experimented with psychedelic drugs, lived communally and developed a vibrant music scene. When people returned home from "The Summer of Love" these styles and behaviors spread quickly from San Francisco and Berkeley to many US and Canadian cities and European capitals. Some hippies formed communes to live as far outside of the established system as possible. This aspect of the counterculture rejected active political engagement with the mainstream and, following the dictate of Timothy Leary to "Turn on, tune in, drop out", hoped to change society by dropping out of it. Looking back on his own life (as a Harvard professor) prior to 1960, Leary interpreted it to have been that of "an anonymous institutional employee who drove to work each morning in a long line of commuter cars and drove home each night and drank martinis ... like several million middle-class, liberal, intellectual robots."

As members of the hippie movement grew older and moderated their lives and their views, and especially after US involvement in the Vietnam War ended in the mid-1970s, the counterculture was largely absorbed by the mainstream, leaving a lasting impact on philosophy, morality, music, art, alternative health and diet, lifestyle and fashion.

In addition to a new style of clothing, philosophy, art, music and various views on anti-war, and anti-establishment, some hippies decided to turn away from modern society and re-settle on ranches, or communes. The very first of communes in the United States was a seven-acre land in Southern Colorado, named Drop City. According to Timothy Miller,

> Drop City brought together most of the themes that had been developing in other recent communities-anarchy, pacifism, sexual freedom, rural isolation, interest in drugs, art-and wrapped them flamboyantly into a commune not quite like any that had gone before[113]

Many of the inhabitants practiced acts like reusing trash and recycled materials to build Geodesic domes for shelter and other various purposes; using various drugs like marijuana and LSD, and creating various pieces of Drop Art. After the initial success of Drop City, visitors would take the idea of communes and spread them. Another commune called "The Ranch" was very similar to the culture of Drop City, as well as new concepts like giving children of the commune extensive freedoms known as "children's rights".[114]

### Marijuana, LSD, and other recreational drugs

During the 1960s, this second group of casual lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) users evolved and expanded into a subculture that extolled the mystical and religious symbolism often engendered by the drug's powerful effects, and advocated its use as a method of raising consciousness. The personalities associated with the subculture, gurus such as Timothy Leary and psychedelic rock musicians such as the Grateful Dead, Pink Floyd, Jimi Hendrix, The Byrds, The 13th Floor Elevators, Ultimate Spinach, Janis Joplin, Crosby, Stills & Nash, The Doors, Blue Cheer, The Chambers Brothers, Country Joe and the Fish, Big Brother and the Holding Company, Jefferson Airplane and the Beatles, soon attracted a great deal of publicity, generating further interest in LSD.

The popularization of LSD outside of the medical world was hastened when individuals such as Ken Kesey participated in drug trials and liked what they saw. Tom Wolfe wrote a widely read account of these early days of LSD's entrance into the non-academic world in his book The Electric Kool Aid Acid Test, which documented the cross-country, acid-fueled voyage of Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters on the psychedelic bus "Furthur" and the Pranksters' later "Acid Test" LSD parties. In 1965, Sandoz laboratories stopped its still legal shipments of LSD to the United States for research and psychiatric use, after a request from the US government concerned about its use. By April 1966, LSD use had become so widespread that Time Magazine warned about its dangers.[115] In December 1966, the exploitation film Hallucination Generation was released.[116] This was followed by The Trip in 1967 and Psych-Out in 1968.

#### Psychedelic research and experimentation

As most research on psychedelics began in the 1940s and 50s, heavy experimentation made its effect in the 1960s during this era of change and movement. Researchers were gaining acknowledgment and popularity with their promotion of psychedelia. This really anchored the change that counterculture instigators and followers began. Most research was conducted at top collegiate institutes, such as Harvard University.

Timothy Leary and his Harvard research team had hopes for potential changes in society. Their research began with psilocybin mushrooms and was called the Harvard Psilocybin Project. In one study known as the Concord Prison Experiment, Leary investigated the potential for psilocybin to reduce recidivism in criminals being released from prison. After the research sessions, Leary did a follow-up. He found that "75% of the turned on prisoners who were released had stayed out of jail."[117] He believed he had solved the nation's crime problem. But with many officials skeptical, this breakthrough was not promoted.

Because of the personal experiences with these drugs Leary and his many outstanding colleagues, Aldous Huxley (The Doors of Perception) and Alan Watts (The Joyous Cosmology) believed that these were the mechanisms that could bring peace to not only the nation but the world. As their research continued the media followed them and published their work and documented their behavior, the trend of this counterculture drug experimentation began.[118]

Leary made attempts to bring more organized awareness to people interested in the study of psychedelics. He confronted the Senate committee in Washington and recommended for colleges to authorize the conduction of laboratory courses in psychedelics. He noted that these courses would "end the indiscriminate use of LSD and would be the most popular and productive courses ever offered".[119] Although these men were seeking an ultimate enlightenment, reality eventually proved that the potential they thought was there could not be reached, at least in this time. The change they sought for the world had not been permitted by the political systems of all the nations these men pursued their research in. Ram Dass states, "Tim and I actually had a chart on the wall about how soon everyone would be enlightened ... We found out that real change is harder. We downplayed the fact that the psychedelic experience isn't for everyone."[117]

Leary and his team's research got shut down at Harvard and everywhere they relocated around the globe. Their outlawish behavior and aggressive approach with these drugs did not settle well with the law. Officials did not agree with this chaotic promotion of peace.

Research with psychedelic drugs and those who conducted it was a radical understanding for the vast majority of the world. However, it did create a change. A ripple of curiosity was created as a result and the wave is continuing to swell.

#### Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters

Ken Kesey and his Merry Pranksters helped shape the developing character of the 1960s counterculture when they embarked on a cross-country voyage during the summer of 1964 in a psychedelic school bus named "Furthur". Beginning in 1959, Kesey had volunteered as a research subject for medical trials financed by the CIA's MK ULTRA project. These trials tested the effects of LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, and other psychedelic drugs. After the medical trials, Kesey continued experimenting on his own, and involved many close friends; collectively they became known as "The Merry Pranksters". The Pranksters visited Harvard LSD proponent Timothy Leary at his Millbrook, New York retreat, and experimentation with LSD and other psychedelic drugs, primarily as a means for internal reflection and personal growth, became a constant during the Prankster trip.

The Pranksters created a direct link between the 1950s Beat Generation and the 1960s psychedelic scene; the bus was driven by Beat icon Neal Cassady, Beat poet Allen Ginsberg was on board for a time, and they dropped in on Cassady's friend, Beat author Jack Kerouac - though Kerouac declined to participate in the Prankster scene. After the Pranksters returned to California, they popularized the use of LSD at so-called "Acid Tests", which initially were held at Kesey's home in La Honda, California, and then at many other West Coast venues. The cross country trip and Prankster experiments were documented in Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool Aid Acid Test, a masterpiece of New Journalism.

#### Other psychedelics

Experimentation with LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, MDA, marijuana, and other psychedelic drugs became a major component of 1960s counterculture, influencing philosophy, art, music and styles of dress. Jim DeRogatis wrote that peyote, a small cactus containing the psychedelic alkaloid mescaline, was widely available in Austin, Texas , a countercultural hub in the early 1960s.[120]

### Sexual revolution

Main article: Social:Sexual revolution

The sexual revolution (also known as a time of "sexual liberation") was a social movement that challenged traditional codes of behavior related to sexuality and interpersonal relationships throughout the Western world from the 1960s to the 1980s.[121] Sexual liberation included increased acceptance of sex outside of traditional heterosexual, monogamous relationships (primarily marriage).[122] Contraception and the pill, public nudity, the normalization of premarital sex, homosexuality and alternative forms of sexuality, and the legalization of abortion all followed.[123][124]

### Alternative media

Underground newspapers sprang up in most cities and college towns, serving to define and communicate the range of phenomena that defined the counterculture: radical political opposition to "The Establishment", colorful experimental (and often explicitly drug-influenced) approaches to art, music and cinema, and uninhibited indulgence in sex and drugs as a symbol of freedom. The papers also often included comic strips, from which the underground comix were an outgrowth.

### Alternative disc sports (Frisbee)

Frisbee and alternative 1960s disc sports icon, Ken Westerfield

As numbers of young people became alienated from social norms, they resisted and looked for alternatives. The forms of escape and resistance manifest in many ways including social activism, alternative lifestyles, dress, music and alternative recreational activities, including that of throwing a Frisbee. From hippies tossing the Frisbee at festivals and concerts came today's popular disc sports.[125][126] Disc sports such as disc freestyle, double disc court, disc guts, Ultimate and disc golf became this sport's first events.[127][128]

### Avant-garde art and anti-art

The Situationist International was a restricted group of international revolutionaries founded in 1957, and which had its peak in its influence on the unprecedented general wildcat strikes of May 1968 in France. With their ideas rooted in Marxism and the 20th-century European artistic avant-gardes, they advocated experiences of life being alternative to those admitted by the capitalist order, for the fulfillment of human primitive desires and the pursuing of a superior passional quality. For this purpose they suggested and experimented with the construction of situations, namely the setting up of environments favorable for the fulfillment of such desires. Using methods drawn from the arts, they developed a series of experimental fields of study for the construction of such situations, like unitary urbanism and psychogeography. They fought against the main obstacle on the fulfillment of such superior passional living, identified by them in advanced capitalism. Their theoretical work peaked on the highly influential book The Society of the Spectacle by Guy Debord. Debord argued in 1967 that spectacular features like mass media and advertising have a central role in an advanced capitalist society, which is to show a fake reality in order to mask the real capitalist degradation of human life. Raoul Vaneigem wrote The Revolution of Everyday Life which takes the field of "everyday life" as the ground upon which communication and participation can occur, or, as is more commonly the case, be perverted and abstracted into pseudo-forms.

Fluxus (a name taken from a Latin word meaning "to flow") is an international network of artists, composers and designers noted for blending different artistic media and disciplines in the 1960s. They have been active in Neo-Dada noise music, visual art, literature, urban planning, architecture, and design. Fluxus is often described as intermedia, a term coined by Fluxus artist Dick Higgins in a famous 1966 essay. Fluxus encouraged a "do-it-yourself" aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. As Fluxus artist Robert Filliou wrote, however, Fluxus differed from Dada in its richer set of aspirations, and the positive social and communitarian aspirations of Fluxus far outweighed the anti-art tendency that also marked the group.

In the 1960s, the Dada-influenced art group Black Mask declared that revolutionary art should be "an integral part of life, as in primitive society, and not an appendage to wealth."[129] Black Mask disrupted cultural events in New York by giving made up flyers of art events to the homeless with the lure of free drinks.[130] After, the Motherfuckers grew out of a combination of Black Mask and another group called Angry Arts. Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers (often referred to as simply "the Motherfuckers", or UAW/MF) was an anarchist affinity group based in New York City .

### Music

A small part of the crowd of 400,000, after the rain, Woodstock, United States, August 1969

The 60s were a leap in human consciousness. Mahatma Gandhi, Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, Che Guevara, Mother Teresa, they led a revolution of conscience. The Beatles, The Doors, Jimi Hendrix created revolution and evolution themes. The music was like Dalí, with many colors and revolutionary ways. The youth of today must go there to find themselves.

\- Carlos Santana[131]

During the early 1960s, Britain's new wave of musicians gained popularity and fame in the United States. Artists such as the Beatles paved the way for their compatriots to enter the US market.[132] The Beatles themselves were influenced by many artists, among them American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan, who was a lyrical inspiration as well as their introduction to marijuana.[133] Dylan's early career as a protest singer had been inspired by artists like Pete Seeger[134] and his hero Woody Guthrie.[135]: 25 Other folksingers, like Joan Baez and Peter, Paul and Mary, took the songs of the era to new audiences and public recognition.[136][137]

The music of the 1960s moved towards an electric, psychedelic version of rock, thanks largely to Bob Dylan's decision to play an electric guitar at the 1965 Newport Folk Festival.[138][139] The newly popularized electric sound of rock was then built upon and molded into psychedelic rock by artists like The 13th Floor Elevators[140] and British bands Pink Floyd and the Beatles.[141] The Beach Boys' 1966 album Pet Sounds also paved the way for later hippie acts, with Brian Wilson's writing interpreted as a "plea for love and understanding."[142] Pet Sounds served as a major source of inspiration for other contemporary acts, most notably directly inspiring the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The single "Good Vibrations" soared to number one globally, completely changing the perception of what a record could be.[143] It was during this period that the highly anticipated album Smile was to be released. However, the project collapsed and The Beach Boys released a downgraded version called Smiley Smile, which failed to make a big commercial impact but was also highly influential, most notably on The Who's Pete Townshend.

The Beatles went on to become the most prominent commercial exponents of the "psychedelic revolution" (e.g., Revolver, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Magical Mystery Tour) in the late 1960s.[144] In the United States , bands that exemplified the counterculture were becoming huge commercial and mainstream successes. These included The Mamas & the Papas (If You Can Believe Your Eyes and Ears), Big Brother and the Holding Company (Cheap Thrills), Jimi Hendrix (Are You Experienced), Jefferson Airplane (Surrealistic Pillow), The Doors (The Doors) and Sly and the Family Stone (Stand!). Bands and other musicians, such as the Grateful Dead, Neil Young (Canada), David Peel, Phil Ochs, The Fugs, Quicksilver Messenger Service, John Sebastian, Melanie, The Velvet Underground, Frank Zappa, Captain Beefheart, Santana, CSNY, Shocking Blue, Country Joe and the Fish, and The Holy Modal Rounders were considered key to the counterculture movement.[145][146]

While the hippie scene was born in California ,[147][148] an edgier scene emerged in New York City [149] that put more emphasis on avant-garde and art music. Bands such as The Velvet Underground came out of this underground music scene, which was predominantly centered at Andy Warhol's legendary Factory. The Velvet Underground supplied the music for the Exploding Plastic Inevitable, a series of multimedia events staged by Warhol and his collaborators in 1966 and 1967. The Velvet Underground's lyrics were considered risqué for the era, since they discussed sexual fetishism, transgender identities, and the use of hard drugs associated with Warhol's Factory and its superstars.[150]

The Jimi Hendrix Experience performs for the Dutch television show Fenklup in March 1967

Detroit's MC5 also came out of the underground rock music scene of the late 1960s. They introduced a more aggressive evolution of garage rock which was often fused with sociopolitical and countercultural lyrics of the era, such as in the song "Motor City Is Burning" (a John Lee Hooker cover adapting the story of the Detroit Race Riot of 1943 to the Detroit riot of 1967). MC5 had ties to radical leftist organizations such as "Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers" and John Sinclair's White Panther Party,[135]: 117 and MC5 performed a lengthy set before the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago , where an infamous riot subsequently broke out between police and students protesting the Vietnam War and the recent assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert Kennedy.[151] MC5, The Stooges and the aforementioned Velvet Underground, are now seen as an influence on the protopunk sound that would lead to punk rock and heavy metal music in the late 1970s.[152]

Another hotbed of the 1960s counterculture was Austin, Texas , with two of the era's legendary music venues-the Vulcan Gas Company and the Armadillo World Headquarters-and musical talent like Janis Joplin, the 13th Floor Elevators, Shiva's Headband, the Conqueroo, and, later, Stevie Ray Vaughan. Austin was also home to a large New Left activist movement, one of the earliest underground papers, The Rag, and cutting edge graphic artists like Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers creator Gilbert Shelton, underground comix pioneer Jack Jackson (Jaxon), and surrealist armadillo artist Jim Franklin.[153]

The 1960s was also an era of rock festivals, which played an important role in spreading the counterculture across the US.[154] The Monterey Pop Festival, which launched Hendrix's career in the US, was one of the first of these festivals.[155] Britain's 1968–1970 Isle of Wight Festivals drew big names such as The Who, The Doors, Joni Mitchell, Hendrix, Dylan, and others.[156] The 1969 Woodstock Festival in New York state became a symbol of the movement,[157] although the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival drew a larger crowd.[135]: 58 Some believe the era came to an abrupt end with the infamous Altamont Free Concert held by The Rolling Stones, in which heavy-handed security from the Hells Angels resulted in the stabbing of an audience member, apparently in self-defense, as the show descended into chaos.[158]

The Doors performing for Danish television in 1968

As the psychedelic revolution progressed, lyrics grew more complex, (such as Jefferson Airplane's "White Rabbit"[159]). Long-playing albums enabled artists to make more in-depth statements than could be made in just a single song (such as the Mothers of Invention's satirical Freak Out![160]). Even the rules governing single songs were stretched, and singles lasting longer than three minutes emerged, such as Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone", Arlo Guthrie's "Alice's Restaurant", and Iron Butterfly's 17-minute-long "In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida.".[139]

The 1960s saw the protest song gain a sense of political self-importance, with Phil Ochs's "I Ain't Marching Anymore" and Country Joe and the Fish's "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die-Rag" among the many anti-war anthems that were important to the era.[135]

Free jazz is an approach to jazz music that was first developed in the 1950s and 1960s. Although the music produced by free jazz composers varied widely, the common feature was a dissatisfaction with the limitations of bebop, hard bop, and modal jazz, which had developed in the 1940s and 1950s. Each in their own way, free jazz musicians attempted to alter, extend, or break down the conventions of jazz, often by discarding hitherto invariable features of jazz, such as fixed chord changes or tempos. While usually considered experimental and avant-garde, free jazz has also oppositely been conceived as an attempt to return jazz to its "primitive", often religious roots, and emphasis on collective improvisation. Free jazz is strongly associated with the 1950s innovations of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor and the later works of saxophonist John Coltrane. Other important pioneers included Charles Mingus, Eric Dolphy, Albert Ayler, Archie Shepp, Joe Maneri and Sun Ra. Although today "free jazz" is the generally used term, many other terms were used to describe the loosely defined movement, including "avant-garde", "energy music" and "The New Thing". During its early and mid-60s heyday, much free jazz was released by established labels such as Prestige, Blue Note and Impulse, as well as independents such as ESP Disk and BYG Actuel. Free improvisation or free music is improvised music without any rules beyond the logic or inclination of the musician(s) involved. The term can refer to both a technique (employed by any musician in any genre) and as a recognizable genre in its own right. Free improvisation, as a genre of music, developed in the U.S. and Europe in the mid to late 1960s, largely as an outgrowth of free jazz and modern classical musics. None of its primary exponents can be said to be famous within mainstream; however, in experimental circles, a number of free musicians are well known, including saxophonists Evan Parker, Anthony Braxton, Peter Brötzmann and John Zorn, drummer Christian Lillinger, trombonist George Lewis, guitarists Derek Bailey, Henry Kaiser and Fred Frith and the improvising groups The Art Ensemble of Chicago and AMM.

Allmusic Guide states that "until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate".[161] The term, "jazz-rock" (or "jazz/rock") is often used as a synonym for the term "jazz fusion". However, some make a distinction between the two terms. The Free Spirits have sometimes been cited as the earliest jazz-rock band.[162] During the late 1960s, at the same time that jazz musicians were experimenting with rock rhythms and electric instruments, rock groups such as Cream and the Grateful Dead were "beginning to incorporate elements of jazz into their music" by "experimenting with extended free-form improvisation". Other "groups such as Blood, Sweat & Tears directly borrowed harmonic, melodic, rhythmic and instrumentational elements from the jazz tradition".[163] The rock groups that drew on jazz ideas (like Soft Machine, Colosseum, Caravan, Nucleus, Chicago, Spirit and Frank Zappa) turned the blend of the two styles with electric instruments.[164] Since rock often emphasized directness and simplicity over virtuosity, jazz-rock generally grew out of the most artistically ambitious rock subgenres of the late 1960s and early 70s: psychedelia, progressive rock, and the singer-songwriter movement."[165] Miles Davis' Bitches Brew sessions, recorded in August 1969 and released the following year, mostly abandoned jazz's usual swing beat in favor of a rock-style backbeat anchored by electric bass grooves. The recording "... mixed free jazz blowing by a large ensemble with electronic keyboards and guitar, plus a dense mix of percussion."[166] Davis also drew on the rock influence by playing his trumpet through electronic effects and pedals. While the album gave Davis a gold record, the use of electric instruments and rock beats created a great deal of consternation amongst some more conservative jazz critics.

### Film

The counterculture was not only affected by cinema, but was also instrumental in the provision of era-relevant content and talent for the film industry. Bonnie and Clyde struck a chord with the youth as "the alienation of the young in the 1960s was comparable to the director's image of the 1930s."[167] Films of this time also focused on the changes happening in the world. A sign of this was the visibility that the hippie subculture gained in various mainstream and underground media. Hippie exploitation films are 1960s exploitation films about the hippie counterculture[168] with stereotypical situations associated with the movement such as marijuana and LSD use, sex and wild psychedelic parties. Examples include The Love-ins, Psych-Out, The Trip, and Wild in the Streets. The musical play Hair shocked stage audiences with full-frontal nudity. Dennis Hopper's "Road Trip" adventure Easy Rider (1969) became accepted as one of the landmark films of the era.[169][170] Medium Cool portrayed the 1968 Democratic Convention alongside the 1968 Chicago police riots which has led to it being labeled as "a fusion of cinema-vérité and political radicalism".[171] One film-studio attempt to cash in on the hippie trend was 1968's Psych-Out,[172] which is in contrast to the film version of Arlo Guthrie's Alice's Restaurant, which some say portrayed the generation as "doomed".[173] The music of the era was represented by films such as 1970s Woodstock, a documentary of the music festival.[174] (See also: List of films related to the hippie subculture) Inaugurated by the 1969 release of Andy Warhol's Blue Movie, the phenomenon of adult erotic films being publicly discussed by celebrities (like Johnny Carson and Bob Hope),[175] and taken seriously by critics (like Roger Ebert),[176][177] a development referred to, by Ralph Blumenthal of The New York Times , as "porno chic", and later known as the Golden Age of Porn, began, for the first time, in modern American culture.[175][178][179] According to award-winning author Toni Bentley, Radley Metzger's 1976 film The Opening of Misty Beethoven, based on the play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw (and its derivative, My Fair Lady), and due to attaining a mainstream level in storyline and sets,[180] is considered the "crown jewel" of this 'Golden Age'.[181][182]

In France the New Wave was a blanket term coined by critics for a group of French filmmakers of the late 1950s and 1960s, influenced by Italian Neorealism and classical Hollywood cinema. Although never a formally organized movement, the New Wave filmmakers were linked by their self-conscious rejection of classical cinematic form and their spirit of youthful iconoclasm and is an example of European art cinema. Many also engaged in their work with the social and political upheavals of the era, making their radical experiments with editing, visual style and narrative part of a general break with the conservative paradigm. The Left Bank, or Rive Gauche, group is a contingent of filmmakers associated with the French New Wave, first identified as such by Richard Roud.[183] The corresponding "right bank" group is constituted of the more famous and financially successful New Wave directors associated with Cahiers du cinéma (Claude Chabrol, François Truffaut, and Jean-Luc Godard).[183] Left Bank directors include Chris Marker, Alain Resnais, and Agnès Varda.[183] Roud described a distinctive "fondness for a kind of Bohemian life and an impatience with the conformity of the Right Bank, a high degree of involvement in literature and the plastic arts, and a consequent interest in experimental filmmaking", as well as an identification with the political left.[183] Other film "new waves" from around the world associated with the 1960s are New German Cinema, Czechoslovak New Wave, Brazilian Cinema Novo and Japanese New Wave. During the 1960s, the term "art film" began to be much more widely used in the United States than in Europe. In the U.S., the term is often defined very broadly, to include foreign-language (non-English) "auteur" films, independent films, experimental films, documentaries and short films. In the 1960s "art film" became a euphemism in the U.S. for racy Italian and French B-movies. By the 1970s, the term was used to describe sexually explicit European films with artistic structure such as the Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow). The 1960s was an important period in art film; the release of a number of groundbreaking films giving rise to the European art cinema which had countercultural traits in filmmakers such as Michelangelo Antonioni, Federico Fellini, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luis Buñuel and Bernardo Bertolucci.

### Technology

External video Counterculture technology prodigy and Apple co-founder Steve Jobs' 2005 Commencement Address at Stanford University on YouTube

Cultural historians–such as Theodore Roszak in his 1986 essay "From Satori to Silicon Valley" and John Markoff in his book What the Dormouse Said,[184] have pointed out that many of the early pioneers of personal computing emerged from within the West Coast counterculture. Many early computing and networking pioneers, after discovering LSD and roaming the campuses of UC Berkeley, Stanford, and MIT in the late 1960s and early 1970s, would emerge from this caste of social "misfits" to shape the modern world of technology, especially in Silicon Valley.

### Religion, spirituality and the occult

Many hippies rejected mainstream organized religion in favor of a more personal spiritual experience, often drawing on indigenous and folk beliefs. If they adhered to mainstream faiths, hippies were likely to embrace Buddhism, Daoism, Hinduism, Unitarian Universalism and the restorationist Christianity of the Jesus Movement. Some hippies embraced neo-paganism, especially Wicca. Wicca is a witchcraft religion which became more prominent beginning in 1951, with the repeal of the Witchcraft Act of 1735, after which Gerald Gardner and then others such as Charles Cardell and Cecil Williamson began publicising their own versions of the Craft. Gardner and others never used the term "Wicca" as a religious identifier, simply referring to the "witch cult", "witchcraft", and the "Old Religion". However, Gardner did refer to witches as "the Wica".[185] During the 1960s, the name of the religion normalised to "Wicca".[186][187] Gardner's tradition, later termed Gardnerianism, soon became the dominant form in England and spread to other parts of the British Isles. Following Gardner's death in 1964, the Craft continued to grow unabated despite sensationalism and negative portrayals in British tabloids, with new traditions being propagated by figures like Robert Cochrane, Sybil Leek and most importantly Alex Sanders, whose Alexandrian Wicca, which was predominantly based upon Gardnerian Wicca, albeit with an emphasis placed on ceremonial magic, spread quickly and gained much media attention.

In his 1991 book, Hippies and American Values, Timothy Miller described the hippie ethos as essentially a "religious movement" whose goal was to transcend the limitations of mainstream religious institutions. "Like many dissenting religions, the hippies were enormously hostile to the religious institutions of the dominant culture, and they tried to find new and adequate ways to do the tasks the dominant religions failed to perform."[188] In his seminal, contemporaneous work, The Hippie Trip, author Lewis Yablonsky notes that those who were most respected in hippie settings were the spiritual leaders, the so-called "high priests" who emerged during that era.[189]

One such hippie "high priest" was San Francisco State College instructor Stephen Gaskin. Beginning in 1966, Gaskin's "Monday Night Class" eventually outgrew the lecture hall, and attracted 1,500 hippie followers in an open discussion of spiritual values, drawing from Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu teachings. In 1970, Gaskin founded a Tennessee community called The Farm, and he still lists his religion as "Hippie."[190][191][192]

Recording "Give Peace a Chance". Left to right: Rosemary Leary (face not visible), Tommy Smothers (with back to camera), John Lennon, Timothy Leary, Yoko Ono, Judy Marcioni and Paul Williams, June 1, 1969.

Timothy Leary was an American psychologist and writer, known for his advocacy of psychedelic drugs. On September 19, 1966, Leary founded the League for Spiritual Discovery, a religion declaring LSD as its holy sacrament, in part as an unsuccessful attempt to maintain legal status for the use of LSD and other psychedelics for the religion's adherents based on a "freedom of religion" argument. The Psychedelic Experience was the inspiration for John Lennon's song "Tomorrow Never Knows" in The Beatles' album Revolver.[193] He published a pamphlet in 1967 called Start Your Own Religion to encourage just that (see below under "writings") and was invited to attend the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In a gathering of 30,000 hippies in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park In speaking to the group, he coined the famous phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out".[194]

The Principia Discordia is the founding text of Discordianism written by Greg Hill (Malaclypse the Younger) and Kerry Wendell Thornley (Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst). It was originally published under the title "Principia Discordia or How The West Was Lost" in a limited edition of five copies in 1965. The title, literally meaning "Discordant Principles", is in keeping with the tendency of Latin to prefer hypotactic grammatical arrangements. In English, one would expect the title to be "Principles of Discord."[195]

## Criticism and legacy

The lasting impact, including unintended consequences, creative output and general legacy of the counterculture era continue to be actively discussed, debated, despised and celebrated.

External video 2014: 1960s-Era Counterculture [2] University professors and authors Alice Echols and David Farber discuss the content and legacy of the counterculture on C-SPAN.

Even the notions of when the counterculture subsumed the Beat Generation, when it gave way to the successor generation, and what happened in between are open for debate. According to notable UK Underground and counterculture author Barry Miles, "It seemed to me that the Seventies was when most of the things that people attribute to the sixties really happened: this was the age of extremes, people took more drugs, had longer hair, weirder clothes, had more sex, protested more violently and encountered more opposition from the establishment. It was the era of sex and drugs and rock'n'roll, as Ian Dury said. The countercultural explosion of the 1960s really only involved a few thousand people in the UK and perhaps ten times that in the USA – largely because of opposition to the Vietnam war, whereas in the Seventies the ideas had spread out across the world.[196]

External video 1968: "Beat" author Jack Kerouac, an early critic of the hippies and the larger counterculture, debates with sociologist Lewis Yablonksy, musician Ed Sanders, and conservative commentator William F. Buckley, Jr. on US TV's Firing Line on YouTube

A Columbia University teaching unit on the counterculture era notes: "Although historians disagree over the influence of the counterculture on American politics and society, most describe the counterculture in similar terms. Virtually all authors—for example, on the right, Robert Bork in Slouching Toward Gomorrah: Modern Liberalism and American Decline (New York: Regan Books,1996) and, on the left, Todd Gitlin in The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam Books, 1987)—characterize the counterculture as self-indulgent, childish, irrational, narcissistic, and even dangerous. Even so, many liberal and leftist historians find constructive elements in it, while those on the right tend not to."[197]

The plaque honoring the victims of the August 1970 Sterling Hall bombing, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Screen legend John Wayne equated aspects of 1960s social programs with the rise of the welfare state, "... I know all about that. In the late Twenties, when I was a sophomore at USC, I was a socialist myself—but not when I left. The average college kid idealistically wishes everybody could have ice cream and cake for every meal. But as he gets older and gives more thought to his and his fellow man's responsibilities, he finds that it can't work out that way—that some people just won't carry their load ... I believe in welfare—a welfare work program. I don't think a fella should be able to sit on his backside and receive welfare. I'd like to know why well-educated idiots keep apologizing for lazy and complaining people who think the world owes them a living. I'd like to know why they make excuses for cowards who spit in the faces of the police and then run behind the judicial sob sisters. I can't understand these people who carry placards to save the life of some criminal, yet have no thought for the innocent victim."[198]

A small segment of the "Wall" at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial listing the names of the nearly 60,000 American war dead

Former liberal Democrat Ronald Reagan, who later became a conservative Governor of California and 40th President of the US, remarked about one group of protesters carrying signs, "The last bunch of pickets were carrying signs that said 'Make love, not war.' The only trouble was they didn't look capable of doing either."[199][200]

The "generation gap" between the affluent young and their often poverty-scarred parents was a critical component of 1960s culture. In an interview with journalist Gloria Steinem during the 1968 US presidential campaign, soon-to-be First Lady Pat Nixon exposed the generational chasm in worldview between Steinem, 20 years her junior, and herself after Steinem probed Mrs. Nixon as to her youth, role models, and lifestyle. A hardscrabble child of the Great Depression, Pat Nixon told Steinem, "I never had time to think about things like that, who I wanted to be, or who I admired, or to have ideas. I never had time to dream about being anyone else. I had to work. I haven't just sat back and thought of myself or my ideas or what I wanted to do ... I've kept working. I don't have time to worry about who I admire or who I identify with. I never had it easy. I'm not at all like you ... all those people who had it easy."[201]

In economic terms, it has been contended that the counterculture really only amounted to creating new marketing segments for the "hip" crowd.[202]

Even before the counterculture movement reached its peak of influence, the concept of the adoption of socially-responsible policies by establishment corporations was discussed by economist and Nobel laureate Milton Friedman (1962): "Few trends could so thoroughly undermine the very foundation of our free society as the acceptance by corporate officials of a social responsibility other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible. This is a fundamentally subversive doctrine. If businessmen do have a social responsibility other than making maximum profits for stockholders, how are they to know what it is? Can self-selected private individuals decide what the social interest is?"[203]

In the UK, commentator Peter Hitchens identified the counterculture as one of the contributing factors to what he saw as the malaise in British politics in 2009.[204]

In 2003, author and former Free Speech activist Greil Marcus was quoted, "What happened four decades ago is history. It's not just a blip in the history of trends. Whoever shows up at a march against war in Iraq, it always takes place with a memory of the efficacy and joy and gratification of similar protests that took place in years before ... It doesn't matter that there is no counterculture, because counterculture of the past gives people a sense that their own difference matters."[205]

When asked about the prospects of the counterculture movement moving forward in the digital age, former Grateful Dead lyricist and self-styled "cyberlibertarian" John Perry Barlow said, "I started out as a teenage beatnik and then became a hippie and then became a cyberpunk. And now I'm still a member of the counterculture, but I don't know what to call that. And I'd been inclined to think that that was a good thing, because once the counterculture in America gets a name then the media can coopt it, and the advertising industry can turn it into a marketing foil. But you know, right now I'm not sure that it is a good thing, because we don't have any flag to rally around. Without a name there may be no coherent movement."[206]

During the era, conservative students objected to the counterculture and found ways to celebrate their conservative ideals by reading books like J. Edgar Hoover's A Study of Communism, joining student organizations like the College Republicans, and organizing Greek events which reinforced gender norms.[207]

Free Speech advocate and social anthropologist Jentri Anders observed that a number of freedoms were endorsed within a countercultural community in which she lived and studied: "freedom to explore one's potential, freedom to create one's Self, freedom of personal expression, freedom from scheduling, freedom from rigidly defined roles and hierarchical statuses ..." Additionally, Anders believed some in the counterculture wished to modify children's education so that it didn't discourage, but rather encouraged, "aesthetic sense, love of nature, passion for music, desire for reflection, or strongly marked independence."[208][209]

In 2007, Merry Prankster Carolyn "Mountain Girl" Garcia commented, "I see remnants of that movement everywhere. It's sort of like the nuts in Ben and Jerry's ice cream -- it's so thoroughly mixed in, we sort of expect it. The nice thing is that eccentricity is no longer so foreign. We've embraced diversity in a lot of ways in this country. I do think it's done us a tremendous service."[210]

## Key figures

Jerry Rubin, University at Buffalo, March 10, 1970

The following people are well known for their involvement in 1960s era counterculture. Some are key incidental or contextual figures, such as Beat Generation figures who also participated directly in the later counterculture era. The primary area(s) of each figure's notability are indicated, per these figures' Wikipedia pages. This section is not intended be exhaustive, but rather a representative cross section of individuals active within the larger movement. Although many of the people listed are known for civil rights activism, some figures whose primary notability was within the realm of the Civil Rights Movement are listed elsewhere. This section is not intended to create associations between any of the listed figures beyond what is documented elsewhere. (see also: List of civil rights leaders; Key figures of the New Left; Timeline of 1960s counterculture).

* Muhammad Ali (athlete, conscientious objector)
* Saul Alinsky (author, activist)
* Richard Alpert (professor, spiritual teacher)
* Bill Ayers (activist, professor)
* Joan Baez (musician, activist)
* Sonny Barger (Hells Angel)
* Walter Bowart (newspaper publisher)
* Stewart Brand (environmentalist, author)
* Lenny Bruce (comedian, social critic)
* William S. Burroughs (author)
* George Carlin (comedian, social critic)
* Rachel Carson (author, environmentalist)
* Neal Cassady (Merry Prankster, literary inspiration)
* Cheech & Chong (comedians, social critics)
* Peter Coyote (Digger, actor)
* David Crosby (musician)
* Robert Crumb (underground comix artist)
* David Dellinger (pacifist, activist)
* Angela Davis (communist, activist)
* Rennie Davis (activist, community organizer)
* Emile de Antonio (documentary filmmaker)
* Bernardine Dohrn (activist)
* Bob Dylan (musician)
* Daniel Ellsberg (whistleblower)
* Bob Fass (radio host)
* Betty Friedan (feminist, author)
* Jane Fonda (actress, activist)
* Peter Fonda (actor, activist)
* Jerry Garcia (musician)
* Stephen Gaskin (author, activist, hippie)
* Allen Ginsberg (beat poet, activist)
* Todd Gitlin (activist)
* Dick Gregory (comedian, social critic, author, activist)
* Paul Goodman (novelist, playwright, poet)
* Wavy Gravy (hippie, activist)
* Bill Graham (concert promoter)
* Germaine Greer (feminist, author)
* Che Guevara (Marxist guerilla, revolutionary symbol)
* Alan Haber (activist)
* Tom Hayden (activist, politician)
* Hugh Hefner (publisher)
* Chet Helms (music manager, concert/event promoter)
* Jimi Hendrix (musician)
* Abbie Hoffman (Yippie, author)
* John 'Hoppy' Hopkins (publisher, activist, photographer)
* Dennis Hopper (actor, director)
* Jack Kerouac (author, early counterculture critic)
* Ken Kesey (author, Merry Prankster)
* Paul Krassner (author)
* William Kunstler (attorney, activist)
* Timothy Leary (professor, LSD advocate)
* John Lennon and Yoko Ono (musicians, artists, activists)
* Charles Manson (conspirator to mass murder)
* Eugene McCarthy (anti-war politician)
* Michael McClure (poet)
* Terence McKenna (author, Marijuana, Psilocybin, DMT advocate)
* Barry Miles (author, impresario)
* Madalyn Murray O'Hair (atheist, activist)
* Jim Morrison (singer, songwriter, poet)
* Ralph Nader (consumer advocate, author)
* Graham Nash (musician, activist)
* Jack Nicholson (screenwriter, actor)
* Phil Ochs (protest/topical singer)
* Richard Pryor (comedian, social critic)
* Jerry Rubin (Yippie, activist)
* Mark Rudd (activist)
* Ed Sanders (musician, activist)
* Mario Savio (free speech/student rights activist)
* John Searle (professor, free speech advocate)
* Pete Seeger (musician, activist)
* John Sinclair (poet, activist)
* Gary Snyder (poet, writer, environmentalist)
* Smothers Brothers (musicians, TV performers, activists)
* Owsley Stanley (drug culture chemist)
* Gloria Steinem (feminist, publisher)
* Hunter S. Thompson (journalist, author)
* Kurt Vonnegut (author, pacifist, humanist)
* Andy Warhol (artist)
* Leonard Weinglass (attorney)
* Alan Watts (philosopher)
* Neil Young (musician, activist)

## See also

* Freak scene
* Mod (subculture)
* Non-conformists of the 1930s
* Timeline of 1960s counterculture
* War on Drugs

## References

1. ↑ Liungman, Carl (1991). Dictionary of Symbols. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-87436-610-5.
2. ↑ Westcott, Kathryn (March 20, 2008). "World's best-known protest symbol turns 50". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/7292252.stm. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
3. ↑ Hirsch, E. D. (1993). The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-65597-9. p. 419. "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. in the 1960s and affected Europe before fading in the 1970s ... fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."
4. ↑ Anderson, Terry H. (1995). The Movement and the Sixties. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510457-8.
5. ↑ Landis, Judson R., ed (1973). Current Perspectives on Social Problems (Third ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-534-00289-3. "Culture is the "social heritage" of society. It includes the complex set of learned and shared beliefs, customs, skills, habits, traditions, and knowledge common to the members of society. Within a culture, there may be subcultures made up of specific groups that are somewhat separate from the rest of society because of distinct traits, beliefs, or interests."
6. ↑ "Counterculture". https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/POLSC301-9.1.3-Counterculture.pdf.
7. ↑ "Birth Rate Chart" (GIF). CNN (CNN). August 11, 2011. http://i2.cdn.turner.com/money/2011/08/11/pf/recession_birth_rate/chart-birth-rate-2.top.gif. "Annotated Chart of 20th Century US Birth Rates"
8. ↑ "Baby Boom population - U.S. Census Bureau - USA and by state". Boomerslife.org. http://www.boomerslife.org/baby_boom_population_us_census_bureau_by_state.htm. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
9. ↑ Churney, Linda (1979). "Student Protest in the 1960s". Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute: Curriculum Unit 79.02.03. http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1979/2/79.02.03.x.html. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "This unit focuses on student protest in the 60s".
10. ↑ Frank Kidner; Maria Bucur; Ralph Mathisen; Sally McKee; Theodore Weeks (December 27, 2007). Making Europe: People, Politics, and Culture, Volume II: Since 1550. Cengage Learning. pp. 831–. ISBN 978-0-618-00481-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=yIMSNu5OFHoC&pg=PA831.
11. ↑ Professor Joan Shelley Rubin; Professor Scott E. Casper (March 14, 2013). The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Cultural and Intellectual History. Oxford University Press. pp. 264–. ISBN 978-0-19-976435-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=_-lMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA264.
12. ↑ Roger Kimball (October 10, 2013). The Long March: How the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s Changed America. Encounter Books. pp. 82–. ISBN 978-1-59403-393-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=DqXNlJxslm4C&pg=PT82.
13. ↑ Corera, Gordon (August 5, 2009). "How vital were Cold War spies?". BBC (UK: BBC). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8184338.stm. "The world of espionage lies at the heart of the mythology of the Cold War."
14. ↑ "Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics". June 8, 2007. Archived from the original on June 8, 2007. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no2/intelligence-in-recent-public-literature.html. "This is a review of the book of same name by John Ehrman, a winner of Studies in Intelligence Annual awards. At pub date, Ehrman was an officer in the CIA's Directorate of Intelligence"
15. ↑ "Port Huron Statement of the Students for a Democratic Society, 1962". Coursesa.matrix.msu.edu. Archived from the original on July 5, 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20090705062937/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~hst306/documents/huron.html. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
16. ↑ Kessler, Glenn. "Presidential deceptions – and their consequences (video)". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/fact-checker/wp/2014/03/27/presidential-lies-and-consequences-video/. Retrieved May 2, 2014.
17. ↑ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-465-04195-4
18. ↑ "Avalon Project - The U-2 Incident 1960". Avalon.law.yale.edu. http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/u2.asp. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
19. ↑ "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Volume X, Part 1, Eastern Europe Region, Soviet Union, Cyprus May–July 1960: The U–2 Airplane Incident". US Department of State. https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1958-60v10p1/ch11. Retrieved June 23, 2014.
20. ↑ CTBTO. "1955–62: From peace movement to missile crisis". Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization. http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/history-1945-1993/1955-62-from-peace-movement-to-missile-crisis/. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "The international Peace Movement played an essential role throughout the Cold War in keeping the public informed on issues of disarmament and pressuring governments to negotiate arms control treaties"
21. ↑ CTBTO. "1963–77: Limits on nuclear testing". Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization. http://www.ctbto.org/the-treaty/history-1945-1993/1963-77-limits-on-nuclear-testing/. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "1963–77: Limits on nuclear testing"
22. ↑ "Of Treaties & Togas". TIME. August 30, 1963. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940699,00.html?promoid=googlep. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
23. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on April 29, 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20090429220959/http://womenincongress.house.gov/educational/essay3.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-13.
24. ↑ "1967 Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee". Fas.org. https://fas.org/irp/congress/2007_hr/1967executive.html. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
25. ↑ George F. Kennan, American Diplomacy, 1900–1950, Charles R. Walgreen Foundation Lectures, Mentor Books, New York, 1951, pp. 82–89
26. ↑ Bill Fawcett (December 4, 2012). Trust Me, I Know What I'm Doing: 100 More Mistakes That Lost Elections, Ended Empires, and Made the World What It Is Today. Penguin Group US. pp. 294–. ISBN 978-1-101-61352-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=e6tVsSHyLbAC&pg=PT294.
27. ↑ Hansen, James. "Soviet Deception in the Cuban Missile Crisis". https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no1/article06.html. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "Learning from the past"
28. ↑ Dobbs, Michael. "Cuban Missile Crisis (Times Topics)". The New York Times (New York, NY, US). https://www.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/c/cuban_missile_crisis/index.html. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "(JFK's) first reaction on hearing the news from National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy was to accuse the Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev of a double-cross"
29. ↑ "October 18, 2013 Public Trust in Government: 1958–2013" (Press release). Pew Charitable Trusts. www.people-press.org. October 18, 2013. "Sources: Pew Research Center, National Election Studies, Gallup, ABC/Washington Post, CBS/New York Times, and CNN Polls. From 1976 to 2010 the trend line represents a three-survey moving average. For party analysis, selected datasets obtained from searches of the iPOLL Databank provided by the Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut"
30. ↑ "American Experience | Oswald's Ghost". PBS. November 22, 1963. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/oswald/program/pt.html. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
31. ↑ "Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy". US Government. https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "JFK Assassination Records"
32. ↑ Elizabeth Stephens. "Free Speech Movement Chronology". Bancroft.berkeley.edu. http://bancroft.berkeley.edu/FSM/chron.html. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
33. ↑ "The Historical Development of Community Organizing". Trincoll.edu. Archived from the original on August 21, 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20090821210336/http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/tcn/valocchi.htm. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
34. ↑ Smith, Lillian (1964). Our Faces, Our Words (First (pbk) ed.). New York: Norton & Co.. p. 114. ISBN 9780393002515. "But there is something beyond rights, something not more important but more desperately urgent: bodily need. There are millions of Negroes in such desperate need in every town and country and city that talk of "rights" leaves them dull and dazed. The young protesters who come, in large part, from middle-class families have stumbled on this: to their stunned amazement they have found a primitive misery which pushes the phrase "civil rights" out of their vocabulary."
35. ↑ "International Data Base World Population Growth Rates: 1950–2050". US Department of Commerce. https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/worldgrgraph.php. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "The world population growth rate rose from about 1.5 percent per year from 1950 to 1951, to a peak of over 2 percent in the early 1960s due to reductions in mortality. Growth rates thereafter started to decline due to rising age at marriage as well as increasing availability and use of effective contraceptive methods. Note that changes in population growth have not always been steady. A dip in the growth rate from 1959 to 1960, for instance, was due to the Great Leap Forward in China. During that time, both natural disasters and decreased agricultural output in the wake of massive social reorganization caused China's death rate to rise sharply and its fertility rate to fall by almost half"
36. ↑ Muir, Patricia. "History of Pesticide Use". Oregon State College. http://people.oregonstate.edu/~muirp/pesthist.htm. Retrieved July 7, 2014. "Then, things began to temper the enthusiasm for pesticides. Notable among these was the publication of Rachel Carson's best selling book "Silent Spring," which was published in 1962. She (a scientist) issued grave warnings about pesticides, and predicted massive destruction of the planet's fragile ecosystems unless more was done to halt what she called the "rain of chemicals." In retrospect, this book really launched the environmental movement."
37. ↑ Skrentny, John (2002). The Minority Rights Revolution. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-674-00899-1
38. ↑ Editors of the New York Times (December 11, 1994). "In Praise of the Counterculture". The New York Times Company. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/12/11/opinion/in-praise-of-the-counterculture.html. Retrieved May 1, 2014.
39. ↑ "American Experience | The Pill". Pbs.org. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pill/. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
40. ↑ Musick, Kelly (April 1999). "Determinants of Planned and Unplanned Childbearing among Unmarried Women in the United States". Center for Demography and Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. http://www.ssc.wisc.edu/cde/cdewp/99-09.pdf. Retrieved January 13, 2015.
41. ↑ Thomas Frank (December 1, 1998). The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism. University of Chicago Press. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-226-26012-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=KHyIY2cctQIC&pg=PA132.
42. ↑ Gary L. Anderson; Kathryn G. Herr (April 13, 2007). Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice. SAGE Publications. pp. 1010–. ISBN 978-1-4522-6565-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=fy11AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT1010.
43. ↑ Mondello, Bob (August 8, 2008). "Remembering Hollywood's Hays Code, 40 Years On". npr.org. https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=93301189. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "... It took just two years ... for Midnight Cowboy to be re-rated from X to R, without a single frame being altered. Community standards had changed — as they invariably do"
44. ↑ Sterling, Christopher & Keith, Michael (2008). Sounds of Change: A History of FM Broadcasting in America. UNC Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3215-8
45. ↑ "The Quality that Made Radio Popular". US FCC. http://transition.fcc.gov/omd/history/radio/quality.html. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "It was not until the 1960s ... that the quality advantage of FM combined with stereo was enjoyed by most Americans"
46. ↑ "Flower Power". ushistory.org/Independence Hall Association. 2014. http://www.ushistory.org/us/57h.asp. Retrieved July 28, 2014. "Like the utopian societies of the 1840s, over 2000 rural communes formed during these turbulent times. Completely rejecting the capitalist system, many communes rotated duties, made their own laws, and elected their own leaders. Some were philosophically based, but others were influenced by new religions. Earth-centered religions, astrological beliefs, and Eastern faiths proliferated across American campuses. Some scholars labeled this trend as the Third Great Awakening."
47. ↑ "One of America's first 'hippies' dies at 94 after founding famous Vermont retreat". Daily Mail (UK). April 29, 2014. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2616390/One-Americas-hippies-dies-94-founding-infamous-retreat.html. Retrieved May 1, 2014.
48. ↑ "Questions and Answers About Americans' Religion". Gallup.com. http://www.gallup.com/poll/103459/Questions-Answers-About-Americans-Religion.aspx#. Retrieved August 31, 2013.
49. ↑ "Ask Steve: Generation Gap (Video)". History Channel/A&E. http://www.history.com/topics/1960s/videos/ask-steve-generation-gap#ask-steve-hippie-vs-yippie. Retrieved May 1, 2014. "Explore the existence of the generation gap that took place in the 1960s through this Ask Steve video. Steve Gillon explains there was even a larger gap between the Baby Boomers themselves than the Baby Boomers and the Greatest Generation. The massive Baby Boomers Generation was born between 1946 and 1964, consisting of nearly 78 million people. The Baby Boomers were coming of age in the 1960s, and held different cultural values than the Greatest Generation. The Greatest Generation lived in a time of self-denial, while the Baby Boomers were always seeking immediate gratification. However, the Baby Boomers were more divided amongst themselves. Not all of them were considered hippies and protesters. In fact, people under the age of 28 supported the Vietnam War in greater numbers than their parents. These divisions continue to play out today."
50. ↑ Edward Macan (November 11, 1996). Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture. Oxford University Press. pp. 127–. ISBN 978-0-19-988009-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=b98dJ3cYAksC&pg=PT127.
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52. ↑ Freedman, Mervin B.; Powelson, Harvey (January 31, 1966). "Drugs on Campus: Turned On & Tuned Out". The Nation (New York: Nation Co. LP): pp. 125–127. http://thenation.s3.amazonaws.com/pdf/drugsoncampus1966.pdf. "Within the last five years the ingestion of various drugs has become widespread on the American campus."
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54. ↑ "Decades of Drug Use: Data From the '60s and '70s". Gallup.com. http://www.gallup.com/poll/6331/Decades-Drug-Use-Data-From-60s-70s.aspx. Retrieved August 31, 2013.
55. ↑ "1968:Columbia in Crisis". Columbia University Libraries. https://exhibitions.cul.columbia.edu/exhibits/show/1968/timeline. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
56. ↑ "Generations Divide Over Military Action in Iraq - Pew Research Center for the People & the Press". People-press.org. October 17, 2002. http://people-press.org/commentary/?analysisid=57. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
57. ↑ Miles, Barry (January 30, 2011). "Spirit of the underground: the 60s rebel". Guardian News and Media Limited. https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2011/jan/30/underground-arts-60s-rebel-counterculture. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
58. ↑ Lee Tusman. Really Free Culture. PediaPress. pp. 159–. GGKEY:UWBUGNHU1F4. https://books.google.com/books?id=uauLZBSGcEIC&pg=PA159.
59. ↑ Steinfels, Peter (May 11, 2008). "Paris, May 1968: The revolution that never was (Analysis)". The New York Times Co.. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/11/world/europe/11iht-paris.4.12777919.html?_r=0. Retrieved July 1, 2014. "Regrettably or not, the fire of 1968 has died down. The memory has not."
60. ↑ Keith Richards: The Biography, by Victor Bockris
61. ↑ Joseph H. Berke (1969). Counter culture. Owen. https://books.google.com/books?id=7_wDAQAAIAAJ.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.4 62.5 Pokorná (2010)
63. ↑ Faltýnek, Vilém (2010-05-16). "Háro a Vraťe nám vlasy!" (in Czech). http://www.radio.cz/cz/clanek/127919. Retrieved 1 August 2010.
64. ↑ "Policejní akce Vlasatci - kniha Vraťte nám vlasy přináší nové dokumenty" (in Czech). Česká televize. http://www.ct24.cz/domaci/97481-policejni-akce-vlasatci-kniha-vratte-nam-vlasy-prinasi-nove-dokumenty/. Retrieved 3 August 2010.
65. ↑ Brennan, AnnMarie (July 2–5, 2013). Brown, Alexandra; Leach, Andrew. eds. Strategies of a Counter-Culture Oz Magazine and the Techniques of the Joke. 2. 595–. ISBN 978-0-9876055-0-4. http://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/536244/R03_04_Brennan_Strategies-of-a-Counterculture.pdf. Retrieved January 13, 2015.
66. ↑ Iain McIntyre (January 1, 2006). Tomorrow Is Today: Australia in the Psychedelic Era, 1966-1970. Wakefield Press. pp. 51–. ISBN 978-1-86254-697-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=AGiu7Typ4iQC&pg=PA51.
67. ↑ Zolov, Eric (1999). Refried Elvis: The Rise of the Mexican Counterculture. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21514-6.
68. ↑ Carmen Bernand, « D'une rive à l'autre », Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos, Materiales de seminarios, 2008 (Latin-Americanist Review published by the EHESS), Put on line on June 15, 2008. URL : http://nuevomundo.revues.org//index35983.html Accessed on July 28, 2008. (in French)
69. ↑ Bennett D. Hill; John Buckler; Clare Haru Crowston; Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks; Joe Perry (October 13, 2010). History of Western Society Since 1300 for Advanced Placement. Bedford/St. Martin's. pp. 963–. ISBN 978-0-312-64058-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=piuoOecytQEC&pg=PA963.
70. ↑ R. A. Lawson (2010). Jim Crow's Counterculture: The Blues and Black Southerners, 1890-1945. Louisiana State University Press. pp. 197–. ISBN 978-0-8071-3810-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=2pxcG08a90UC&pg=PA197.
71. ↑ "Free Speech Movement Archives Home Page - events from 1964 and beyond". FSM-A. http://www.fsm-a.org/. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
72. ↑ Herbert Marcuse (October 14, 2004). The New Left and the 1960s: Collected Papers of Herbert Marcuse. Routledge. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-1-134-77459-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=ML6GAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19.
73. ↑ Dimitri Almeida (April 27, 2012). The Impact of European Integration on Political Parties: Beyond the Permissive Consensus. Taylor & Francis. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-1-136-34039-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=oD7bKbo0FYEC&pg=PA53.
74. ↑ Tom Buchanan (January 30, 2012). Europe's Troubled Peace: 1945 to the Present. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-0-470-65578-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=cAHcBeZhm6UC&pg=PA102.
75. ↑ "During the 1960s, Marcuse achieved world renown as "the guru of the New Left," publishing many articles and giving lectures and advice to student radicals all over the world. He travelled widely and his work was often discussed in the mass media, becoming one of the few American intellectuals to gain such attention. Never surrendering his revolutionary vision and commitments, Marcuse continued to his death to defend the Marxian theory and libertarian socialism." Douglas Kellner "Marcuse, Herbert"
76. ↑ Douglas Kellner Herbert arcuse
77. ↑ Robin Hahnel, Economic Justice and Democracy: From Competition to Cooperation Part II ISBN 0-415-93344-7
78. ↑ The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. Inclusivedemocracy.org. Retrieved on December 28, 2011.
79. ↑ Thomas 1985, p. 4
80. ↑ John Patten (October 28, 1968). ""These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of 'official' anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade – and a spree of publishing activity.""Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network" by John Patten". Katesharpleylibrary.net. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110604120204/http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
81. ↑ "Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, 'Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade.'" "The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell
82. ↑ "While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science professor denounced what she saw as 'The Tyranny of Structurelessness.' Several groups have called themselves 'Amazon Anarchists.' After the Stonewall Rebellion, the New York Gay Liberation Front based their organization in part on a reading of Murray Bookchin's anarchist writings." "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. pg. 52
83. ↑ "Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties ... But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular ... By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein
84. ↑ "Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A ... Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se pr odujo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del pacto asociativo" clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica) . Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de comenzar en el seno del movimiento"El movimiento libertario en Italia" by Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977
85. ↑ London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968 International Institute of Social History, Accessed January 19, 2010
86. ↑ Short history of the IAF-IFA A-infos news project, Accessed January 19, 2010
87. ↑ John Campbell McMillian; Paul Buhle (2003). The new left revisited. Temple University Press. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-1-56639-976-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=U_Ohks41z2IC&pg=PA112. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
88. ↑ Lytle 2006, pp. 213, 215.
89. ↑ "Overview: who were (are) the Diggers?". http://www.diggers.org/overview.htm. Retrieved June 17, 2007.
90. ↑ Gail Dolgin; Vicente Franco (2007). American Experience: The Summer of Love. PBS. Retrieved April 23, 2007.
91. ↑ Holloway, David (2002). "Yippies". St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419101355/pg_2.
92. ↑ Abbie Hoffman, Soon to be a Major Motion Picture, page 128. Perigee Books, 1980.
93. ↑ Gitlin, Todd (1993). The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage. New York. p. 286.
94. ↑ "1969: Height of the Hippies - ABC News". Abcnews.go.com. http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/popup?id=3321269&contentIndex=1&page=9&start=false. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
95. ↑ "Why I'm back to ban the bomb". BBC News. April 11, 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/berkshire/3592623.stm.
96. ↑ "1960: Thousands protest against H-bomb". BBC News. April 18, 1960. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18/newsid_2909000/2909881.stm.
97. ↑ Gallup, Alec; Frank Newport (August 2006). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 2005. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 315–318. ISBN 978-0-7425-5258-6.
98. ↑ "Sunday Dialogue: Nuclear Energy, Pro and Con". New York Times. February 25, 2012. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/26/opinion/sunday/sunday-dialogue-nuclear-energy-pro-and-con.html.
99. ↑ Robert Benford. The Anti-nuclear Movement (book review) American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 89, No. 6, (May 1984), pp. 1456–1458.
100. ↑ James J. MacKenzie. Review of The Nuclear Power Controversy by Arthur W. Murphy The Quarterly Review of Biology, Vol. 52, No. 4 (December 1977), pp. 467–468.
101. ↑ Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 10–11.
102. ↑ Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press.
103. ↑ Jerry Brown and Rinaldo Brutoco (1997). Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age, Twayne Publishers, pp. 191–192.
104. ↑ Woo, Elaine (January 30, 2011). "Dagmar Wilson dies at 94; organizer of women's disarmament protesters". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-dagmar-wilson-20110130,0,5499397.story.
105. ↑ Hevesi, Dennis (January 23, 2011). "Dagmar Wilson, Anti-Nuclear Leader, Dies at 94". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/24/us/24wilson.html.
106. ↑ Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy, Longman, p. 54–55.
107. ↑ Garb, Paula (1999). "Review of Critical Masses". Journal of Political Ecology 6. http://jpe.library.arizona.edu/volume_6/wellockvol6.htm.
108. ↑ Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy, Longman, p. 52.
109. ↑ Stephen Mills and Roger Williams (1986). Public Acceptance of New Technologies Routledge, pp. 375–376.
110. ↑ Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, pp. 95–96.
111. ↑ "The Counterculture of the 1960s" (in en). https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/history/us-history-ii/the-new-frontier-and-the-great-society/the-counterculture-of-the-1960s.
112. ↑ Martin A. Lee, Acid Dreams The CIA, LSD, and the Sixties Rebellion, Grove Press 1985, Pgs. 157–163 ISBN 978-0-394-62081-7
113. ↑ Matthews, M. (2010) Droppers: America's First Hippie Commune, Drop City. University of Oklahoma Press. p56.
114. ↑ Berger, B. (1981). The Survival of a Counterculture: Ideological work and everyday life among rural communards. University of California Press. p. 64.
115. ↑ "Drugs: The Dangers of LSD". TIME. April 22, 1966. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899158,00.html. Retrieved April 20, 2010.
116. ↑ Hallucination Generation on IMDb
117. ↑ 117.0 117.1 Lattin, Don. The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil Killed the Fifties and Ushered in a New Age for America. New York: HarperOne, 2010. Print.
118. ↑ Leary, Timothy. Flashbacks: An Autobiography. Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, 1983. Print.
119. ↑ Young, Warren R., and Joseph R. Hixson. LSD on Campus. New York: Dell Pub., 1966. Print.
120. ↑ J. DeRogatis, Turn On Your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock (Milwaukie, MI: Hal Leonard, 2003), ISBN 0-634-05548-8, p. 71.
121. ↑ Allyn 2000 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAllyn2000 (help)[full citation needed]
122. ↑ Escoffier 2003 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEscoffier2003 (help)[full citation needed]
123. ↑ Germaine Greer and The Female Eunuch
124. ↑ "Abc-Clio". Greenwood.com. http://www.greenwood.com/catalog/GR9913.aspx. Retrieved November 5, 2011.
125. ↑ Gavin, Tristan (September 19, 2013). "Frisbee Don't Sell Out". Pioneer Opinion. http://whitmanpioneer.com/opinion/2013/09/19/frisbee-dont-sell-out/. Retrieved October 25, 2014.
126. ↑ Jordan Holtzman-Conston (2010). Countercultural Sports in America: The History and Meaning of Ultimate Frisbee. Waltham, Mass. ISBN 978-3838311951.
127. ↑ "World Flying Disc Federation". http://wfdf.org/. Retrieved October 19, 2014.
128. ↑ "World Flying Disc Federation". Archived from the original on October 19, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131019095944/http://wfdf.org/history-stats/history-of-fyling-disc. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
129. ↑ Hinderer, Eve. Ben Morea: art and anarchism
130. ↑ Stewart Home. "The Assault on Culture: Utopian currents from Lettrisme to Class War". Introduction to the Lithuanian edition. (Ist edition Aporia Press and Unpopular Books, London 1988.) ISBN 978-0-948518-88-1. "In the sixties Black Mask disrupted reified cultural events in New York by making up flyers giving the dates, times and location of art events and giving these out to the homeless with the lure of the free drink that was on offer to the bourgeoisie rather than the lumpen proletariat; I reused the ruse just as effectively in London in the 1990s to disrupt literary events."
131. ↑ Carlos Santana: I'm Immortal interview by Punto Digital, October 13, 2010
132. ↑ R. Shuker, 1998, p. 34[full citation needed]
133. ↑ P. Brown and S. Gaines, 1984, p. 134[full citation needed]
134. ↑ J. Cott, 2007, p. 376[full citation needed]
135. ↑ 135.0 135.1 135.2 135.3 Dogget, Peter (4 October 2007). There's A Riot Going On: Revolutionaries, Rock Stars, and the Rise and Fall of '60s Counter-Culture. Canongate Books. ISBN 9781847676450. https://books.google.com/books?id=emI9LXJ47KUC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
136. ↑ Gilliland 1969, show 19. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGilliland1969 (help)
137. ↑ A. J. Matusow, 1984, p. 295[full citation needed]
138. ↑ Gilliland 1969, show 32. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGilliland1969 (help)
139. ↑ 139.0 139.1 H. Sounes, 2002, p. 218[full citation needed]
140. ↑ M. C. Strong, 1997, p. 276[full citation needed]
141. ↑ Shuker, 1998, p. 234[full citation needed]
142. ↑ J. Derogatis, 1996, p. 19[full citation needed]
143. ↑ Gilliland 1969, show 37. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGilliland1969 (help)
144. ↑ "1) Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band". Rolling Stone. November 1, 2003. https://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/6595610/1_sgt_peppers_lonely_hearts_club_band. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
145. ↑ M. C. Strong, 2002[full citation needed]
146. ↑ Gilliland 1969, shows 33-45. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGilliland1969 (help)
147. ↑ Gilliland 1969, shows 41-42. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGilliland1969 (help)
148. ↑ Shuker, 1998, p. 72[full citation needed]
149. ↑ B. Longhurst, 1995, p. 108[full citation needed]
150. ↑ Derogatis, 1996, p. 44[full citation needed]
151. ↑ D. Snowman, 1978, p. 155[full citation needed]
152. ↑ Shuker, 1998, p. 237[full citation needed]
153. ↑ Jim DeRogatis, Turn On Your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock (Milwaukie, MI: Hal Leonard, 2003), ISBN 0-634-05548-8.
154. ↑ Mankin, Bill (March 4, 2012). "We Can All Join In: How Rock Festivals Helped Change America". Like the Dew: A Journal of Southern Culture and Politics. http://likethedew.com/2012/03/04/we-can-all-join-in-how-rock-festivals-helped-change-america/. Retrieved March 19, 2012.
155. ↑ Derogatis, 1996, p. 95[full citation needed]
156. ↑ Sounes, 2002, p. 296[full citation needed]
157. ↑ Kilgannon, Corey (March 17, 2009). "3 Days of Peace and Music, 40 Years Later". New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/19/arts/artsspecial/19love.html.
158. ↑ Matusow, 1986, p. 305[full citation needed]
159. ↑ Matusow, 1986, p. 297[full citation needed]
160. ↑ Strong, 1997, p. 317[full citation needed]
161. ↑ https://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d299
162. ↑ Unterberger 1998, pg. 329
163. ↑ The Jazz/Rock Fusion Page:a site is dedicated to Jazz Fusion and related genres with a special emphasis on Jazz/Rock fusion
164. ↑ N. Tesser, The Playboy Guide to Jazz, (Plume, 1998), ISBN 0452276489, P. 178
165. ↑ https://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/d2776
166. ↑ Jazzitude | History of Jazz Part 8: Fusion
167. ↑ M. A. Jackson and J. E. O'Connor, 1980, P237
168. ↑ "Mondo Mod Worlds Of Hippie Revolt (And Other Weirdness)". Thesocietyofthespectacle.com. April 5, 2009. http://thesocietyofthespectacle.com/2009/04/mondo-mod-worlds-of-hippie-revolt-and-other-weirdness/. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
169. ↑ P. Biskind, 1999, P74[full citation needed]
170. ↑ Edge, Simon (October 23, 2013). "Jack Nicholson the original Hollywood bad boy". Northern & Shell. http://www.express.co.uk/news/showbiz/440238/Jack-Nicholson-the-original-Hollywood-bad-boy. Retrieved May 1, 2014.
171. ↑ J. Pym, 2002, P741[full citation needed]
172. ↑ J. Pym, 2002, P932[full citation needed]
173. ↑ J. Hoberman, 2003, P237[full citation needed]
174. ↑ P. Biskind, 1999, P150[full citation needed]
175. ↑ 175.0 175.1 Corliss, Richard (March 29, 2005). "That Old Feeling: When Porno Was Chic". http://content.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1043267,00.html. Retrieved January 27, 2016.
176. ↑ Ebert, Roger (June 13, 1973). "The Devil In Miss Jones - Film Review". http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/the-devil-in-miss-jones-1973. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
177. ↑ Ebert, Roger (November 24, 1976). "Alice in Wonderland:An X-Rated Musical Fantasy". RogerEbert.com. http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/alice-in-wonderland-1976. Retrieved February 26, 2016.
178. ↑ Blumenthal, Ralph (January 21, 1973). "Porno chic; 'Hard-core' grows fashionable-and very profitable". The New York Times Magazine. https://www.nytimes.com/1973/01/21/archives/pornochic-hardcore-grows-fashionableand-very-profitable.html. Retrieved January 20, 2016.
179. ↑ Porno Chic (Jahsonic.com)
180. ↑ Mathijs, Ernest; Mendik, Xavier (2007). The Cult Film Reader. Open University Press. ISBN 978-0335219230. [page needed]
181. ↑ Bentley, Toni (June 2014). "The Legend of Henry Paris". http://www.playboy.com/articles/the-legend-of-henry-paris. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
182. ↑ Bentley, Toni (June 2014). "The Legend of Henry Paris" (PDF). http://www.tonibentley.com/pdfarticles/playboy/RadleyMetzger_AuteuroftheErotic_ToniBentley.pdf. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
183. ↑ 183.0 183.1 183.2 183.3 "The Left Bank Revisited: Marker, Resnais, Varda", Harvard Film Archive, [1] Access date: August 16, 2008.
184. ↑ "From Satori to Silicon Valley" \- Roszak, Stanford
185. ↑ Gardner, Gerald B (1999) [1954]. Witchcraft Today. Lake Toxaway, NC: Mercury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8065-2593-8. OCLC 44936549.
186. ↑ Hutton 1999, p. vii.
187. ↑ Seims, Melissa (2008). "Wica or Wicca? – Politics and the Power of Words". The Cauldron (129). http://www.thewica.co.uk/wica_or_wicca.htm.
188. ↑ Miller, Timothy (1991). Hippies and American Values. Univ Tennessee Press; 1st edition. ISBN 9780870496943. https://books.google.com/?id=e7F31yYxOMAC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&q=hippie as a religious movements. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
189. ↑ The Hippie Trip, Lewis Yablonsky, p. 298
190. ↑ "Communal Religions". Thefarm.org. October 6, 1966. Archived from the original on May 11, 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120511184303/http://www.thefarm.org/lifestyle/miller.html. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
191. ↑ "New Book Tells Inside Story Of Biggest Hippie Commune In U.S. - Toke of the Town - cannabis news, views, rumor and humor". Toke of the Town. December 23, 2010. http://www.tokeofthetown.com/2010/12/new_book_tells_inside_story_of_biggest_hippie_comm.php. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
192. ↑ Stephen Gaskin (2005). Monday Night Class. Amazon.com. ISBN 9781570671814.
193. ↑ Sante, Luc (June 26, 2006). "The Nutty Professor". The New York Times Book Review. https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/25/books/review/25sante.html. Retrieved July 12, 2008.
194. ↑ Greenfield, Robert (2006). Timothy Leary: A Biography. ISBN 9780151005000. https://books.google.com/?id=eFaq_I24teQC&pg=PA641. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
195. ↑ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 1, 2006). "Publisher alters, then copyrights Principia Discordia". Boing Boing. http://www.boingboing.net/2006/11/01/publisher-alters-the.html.
196. ↑ Miles, Barry. "In the Seventies: Adventures in the Counterculture (Comments from the Author's Website)". Barry Miles. http://barrymiles.co.uk/all-books/in-the-seventies/. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
197. ↑ George, Jason (2004). "The Legacy of the Counterculture". Columbia University. http://caho-test.cc.columbia.edu/pcp/14203.html. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
198. ↑ Roberts, Randy; Olsen, James Stuart (1997). John Wayne:America. Bison Books. p. 580. ISBN 978-0803289703.
199. ↑ Rather, Dan; Vries, Lloyd (June 7, 2004). "Text & Video: Ronald Reagan, Master Storyteller". CBS Interactive. http://www.cbsnews.com/news/ronald-reagan-master-storyteller/. Retrieved May 28, 2014.
200. ↑ Jarecki, Eugene (2011). "American Idol - Reagan". BBC Four. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jz4BvgTKQIE. Retrieved June 18, 2014.
201. ↑ Halberstam, David (1993). The Fifties (First ed.). New York: Random House/Villard. p. 324. ISBN 978-0-679-41559-6.
202. ↑ "The selling of the counterculture (Book Review: The Rebel Sell)". The Economist Newspaper Limited. May 6, 2005. http://www.economist.com/node/4027702. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
203. ↑ Silk, Leonard; Silk, Mark (1980). The American Establishment. New York: Basic Books. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-465-00134-7.
204. ↑ Hitchens, Peter (2009). The Broken Compass: How British Politics Lost its Way. Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd.. ISBN 978-1-84706-405-9. \- see conclusion, 'The Broken Compass'
205. ↑ Leland, John (March 23, 2003). "A Movement, Yes, but No Counterculture". The New York Times Co.. https://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/23/style/a-movement-yes-but-no-counterculture.html?. Retrieved May 22, 2014.
206. ↑ Dickinson, Tim (February 14, 2003). "Cognitive Dissident: John Perry Barlow". Mother Jones via Utne Reader. http://www.utne.com/community/cognitivedissidentjohnperrybarlow.aspx#axzz32SGxVXXx. Retrieved May 22, 2014.
207. ↑ Rolland-Diamond, Caroline (2016). "Another Side of the Sixties: Festive Practices on College Campuses and the Making of a Conservative Youth Movement". Revue Française d'Études Américaines 1 (146): 39–53. http://www.cairn.info/article.php?ID_ARTICLE=RFEA_146_0039&WT.mc_id=RFEA_146. Retrieved October 24, 2016.
208. ↑ Jentri Anders, Beyond Counterculture, Washington State University Press, 1990, ISBN 978-0-87422-060-5 & ISBN 978-0-87422-060-5
209. ↑ Kitchell, 1990
210. ↑ Selvin, Joel (May 23, 2007). "SUMMER OF LOVE: 40 YEARS LATER". San Francisco Chronicle/Hearst. http://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/SUMMER-OF-LOVE-40-YEARS-LATER-Just-a-season-2559193.php#photo-2702198. Retrieved May 23, 2014.

### Works cited

* Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820744-3. OCLC 41452625.
* Lytle, Mark H. (2006), America's Uncivil Wars: The Sixties Era from Elvis to the Fall of Richard Nixon, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-517496-0 .
* Thomas, Paul (1985). Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7102-0685-5.

## Further reading

* Jackson, Rebecca. "The 1960s: A Bibliography". Iowa State University Library. http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rjackson/webbibl.html.
* Lemke-Santangelo, Gretchen (2009). Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1633-6.
* Reich, Charles A. (1995) [1970]. The Greening of America (25th anniversary ed.). Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-517-88636-6.
* Roche, Nancy McGuire, "The Spectacle of Gender: Representations of Women in British and American Cinema of the Nineteen-Sixties" (PhD dissertation. Middle Tennessee State University, 2011). DA3464539.
* Roszak, Theodore (1968). The Making of a Counter Culture. University of California.
* Street, Joe, "Dirty Harry's San Francisco," The Sixties: A Journal of History, Politics, and Culture, 5 (June 2012), 1–21.
* "American Experience: Primary Resources: Truth about Indochina, 1954". PBS. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/jfk-indochina/.
* Shribman, David (November 9, 2013). "If JFK had lived". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://www.post-gazette.com/opinion/david-shribman/2013/11/10/If-JFK-had-lived/stories/201311100060.
* Roberts, Sam (September 21, 2008). "A Spy Confesses, and Still Some Weep for the Rosenbergs". New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/21/weekinreview/21roberts.html.
* Weber, Bruce (March 24, 2011). "Leonard I. Weinglass, Lawyer, Dies at 77; Defended Renegades and the Notorious". New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/25/us/25weinglass.html.
* Perrone, James E. (2004). Music of the Counterculture Era. Greenwood Publishing Group.. ISBN 978-0-313-32689-9.
* Miller, Richard J. (2013). "Timothy Leary's liberation, and the CIA's experiments! LSD's amazing, psychedelic history (Excerpt)". Salon.com.. http://www.salon.com/2013/12/14/timothy_learys_liberation_and_the_cias_experiments_lsds_amazing_psychedelic_history/.
* Weekes, Julia Ann (October 31, 2008). "Warhol's Pop Politics". Smithsonian Magazine. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/Warhol-Pop-Politics.html.
* Rasmussen, Cecilia (August 5, 2007). "Closing of club ignited the 'Sunset Strip riots'". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2007/aug/05/local/me-then5.
* Kitchell, Mark, Berkeley in the Sixties (1990 Film Documentary), Libra Films

## External links

* Lisa Law Photographic Exhibition at Smithsonian Institution (with commentary)
* John Hoyland, Power to the People, The Guardian, 15 March 2008
* 1960s archive with photographs of be-ins and protests
* The 1960s: Years that Shaped a Generation
* Online archive of underground publications from the 1960s counterculture
* Scott Stephenson (2014) LSD and the American Counterculture, Burgmann Journal

* v
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* Datura
* Hyoscyamus niger
* Mandragora officinarum
* Dimenhydrinate
* Diphenhydramine

Cannabinoids|

* JWH-018
* THC
* Cannabis
* Hashish
* Hash oil
* Marijuana

Oneirogens|

* Calea zacatechichi
* Silene capensis

Club drugs|

* Cocaine
* Quaaludes
* MDMA (Ecstasy)
* Nitrous oxide
* Poppers

Drug culture|

| Cannabis culture|

* 420
* Cannabis cultivation
* Cannabis smoking
* Head shop
* Legal history of cannabis in the United States
* Legality of cannabis
* Marijuana Policy Project
* Medical cannabis
* NORML
* Cannabis and religion
* Stoner film

|

Coffee culture|

* Coffee break
* Coffeehouse
* Latte art
* Tea house

Drinking culture|

* Bartending
* Beer culture
* Beer festival
* Binge drinking
* Diethyl ether
* Drinking games
* Drinking song
* Happy hour
* Hip flask
* Nightclub
* Pub
* Pub crawl
* Sommelier
* Sports bar
* Tailgate party
* Wine bar
* Wine tasting

Psychedelia|

* Psychonautics
* Art
* Drug
* Era
* Experience
* Literature
* Music
* Microdosing
* Therapy

Smoking culture|

* Cigarette card
* Fashion cigarettes
* Cloud-chasing
* Loosie
* Smokeasy
* Smoking fetishism
* Tobacco smoking

Other|

* Club drug
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Dance party
* Drug paraphernalia
* Drug tourism
* Entheogen
* Hippie
* Needle sharing
* Nootropic
* Party and play
* Poly drug use
* Rave
* Religion and drugs
* Self-medication
* Sex and drugs
* Whoonga

Drug
production
and trade|

| Drug
production|

* Coca production in Colombia
* Drug precursors
* Opium production in Afghanistan
* Rolling meth lab

|

Drug trade|

* Illegal drug trade
* Colombia
* Darknet market
* Drug distribution
* Beer shop
* Cannabis shop
* Liquor store
* Liquor license

Issues with
drug use|

* Abuse
* Date rape drug
* Impaired driving
* Drug harmfulness
* Effects of cannabis
* Addiction
* Dependence
* Prevention
* Opioid replacement therapy
* Rehabilitation
* Responsible use
* Drug-related crime
* Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
* Long-term effects of cannabis
* Neurotoxicity
* Overdose
* Passive smoking
* of tobacco or other substances

Legality of
drug use|

| International|

* 1961 Narcotic Drugs
* 1971 Psychotropic Substances
* 1988 Drug Trafficking
* Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs

|

State level|

* Drug policy
* Decriminalization
* Prohibition
* Supply reduction
* Policy reform
* Demand reduction
* Drug Policy Alliance
* Harm reduction
* Law Enforcement Action Partnership
* Liberalization
* Latin America
* Students for Sensible Drug Policy
* Transform Drug Policy Foundation

Drug policy
by country|

* Australia
* Canada
* Germany
* India
* Netherlands
* Portugal
* Slovakia
* Soviet Union
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* United States
* Just Say No
* Office of National Drug Control Policy
* School district drug policies
* California
* Colorado
* Maryland
* Virginia

Other|

* Arguments for and against drug prohibition
* Capital punishment for drug trafficking
* Cognitive liberty
* Designer drug
* Drug court
* Drug possession
* Drug test
* Narc
* Politics of drug abuse
* War on Drugs
* Mexican Drug War
* Plan Colombia
* Philippine Drug War
* Zero tolerance

Lists of
countries by...|

* Alcohol legality
* Alcohol consumption
* Anabolic steroid legality
* Cannabis legality
* Annual use
* Lifetime use
* Cigarette consumption
* Cocaine legality
* Cocaine use
* Methamphetamine legality
* Opiates use
* Psilocybin mushrooms legality
* Salvia legality

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