Deep sea

Short description: Lowest layer in the ocean

Schematic representation of pelagic and benthic zones

The deep sea is broadly defined as the ocean depth where light begins to fade, at an approximate depth of 200 m (660 ft) or the point of transition from continental shelves to continental slopes.[1][2] Conditions within the deep sea are a combination of low temperatures, darkness, and high pressure.[3] The deep sea is considered the least explored Earth biome as the extreme conditions make the environment difficult to access and explore.[4]

Organisms living within the deep sea have a variety of adaptations to survive in these conditions.[5] Organisms can survive in the deep sea through a number of feeding methods including scavenging, predation and filtration, with a number of organisms surviving by feeding on marine snow.[6] Marine snow is organic material that has fallen from upper waters into the deep sea.[7]

In 1960, the bathyscaphe Trieste descended to the bottom of the Mariana Trench near Guam, at 10,911 m (35,797 ft; 6.780 mi), the deepest known spot in any ocean. If Mount Everest (8,848 m or 29,029 ft or 5.498 mi) were submerged there, its peak would be more than 2 km (1.2 mi) beneath the surface. After the Trieste was retired, the Japanese remote-operated vehicle (ROV) Kaikō was the only vessel capable of reaching this depth until it was lost at sea in 2003.[8] In May and June 2009, the hybrid-ROV Nereus returned to the Challenger Deep for a series of three dives to depths exceeding 10,900 m (35,800 ft; 6.8 mi).

## Contents

* 1 Environmental characteristics
* 1.1 Light
* 1.2 Pressure
* 1.3 Salinity
* 1.4 Temperature
* 2 Biology
* 2.1 Chemosynthesis
* 2.2 Adaptation to hydrostatic pressure
* 3 Exploration
* 4 See also
* 5 References
* 6 External links

## Environmental characteristics

### Light

Natural light does not penetrate the deep ocean, with the exception of the upper parts of the mesopelagic. Since photosynthesis is not possible, plants and phytoplankton cannot live in this zone, and as these are the primary producers of almost all of earth's ecosystems, life in this area of the ocean must depend on energy sources from elsewhere. Except for the areas close to the hydrothermal vents, this energy comes from organic material drifting down from the photic zone. The sinking organic material is composed of algal particulates, detritus, and other forms of biological waste, which is collectively referred to as marine snow.

### Pressure

### Salinity

Salinity is remarkably constant throughout the deep sea, at about 35 parts per thousand.[9] There are some minor differences in salinity, but none that are ecologically significant, except in largely landlocked seas like the Mediterranean and Red Seas .

### Temperature

The two areas of greatest temperature gradient in the oceans are the transition zone between the surface waters and the deep waters, the thermocline, and the transition between the deep-sea floor and the hot water flows at the hydrothermal vents. Thermoclines vary in thickness from a few hundred meters to nearly a thousand meters. Below the thermocline, the water mass of the deep ocean is cold and far more homogeneous. Thermoclines are strongest in the tropics, where the temperature of the epipelagic zone is usually above 20 °C (68 °F). From the base of the epipelagic, the temperature drops over several hundred meters to 5–6 °C at 1,000 meters (41–43 °F at 3,300 ft). It continues to decrease to the bottom, but the rate is much slower. The cold water stems from sinking heavy surface water in the polar regions.[9]

At any given depth, the temperature is practically unvarying over long periods of time, without seasonal changes and with very little interannual variability. No other habitat on earth has such a constant temperature.[10]

In hydrothermal vents the temperature of the water as it emerges from the "black smoker" chimneys may be as high as 400 °C (752 °F), being kept from boiling by the high hydrostatic pressure – thus being superheated water. The temperature may back down to 2 to 4 °C (36 to 39 °F) within a few meters.[11]

## Biology

Main article: Earth:Deep-sea community

Regions below the epipelagic are divided into further zones, beginning with the bathyal zone (also considered the continental slope) which spans from 200 to 3,000 meters (660 to 9,840 ft)[12] below sea level and is essentially transitional, containing elements from both the shelf above and the abyss below.[13] Below this zone, the deep sea consists of the abyssal zone (ocean depth between 3–6 km (1.9–3.7 mi)*)[14] and the hadal zone (6–11 km (3.7–6.8 mi)*).[15][16] Food consists of falling organic matter known as 'marine snow' and carcasses derived from the productive zone above, and is scarce both in terms of spatial and temporal distribution.[17]

The midwater fish have special adaptations to cope with these conditions—they are small, usually being under 25 centimetres (10 in); they have slow metabolisms and unspecialized diets, preferring to sit and wait for food rather than waste energy searching for it. They have elongated bodies with weak, watery muscles and skeletal structures. They often have extendable, hinged jaws with recurved teeth. Because of the sparse distribution and lack of light, finding a partner with which to breed is difficult, and many organisms are hermaphroditic. Because light is so scarce, fish often have larger than normal, tubular eyes with only rod cells.[18][19] Their upward field of vision allows them to seek out the silhouette of possible prey.[20] Prey fish however also have adaptations to cope with predation. These adaptations are mainly concerned with reduction of silhouettes, a form of camouflage. The two main methods by which this is achieved are reduction in the area of their shadow by lateral compression of the body,[21] and counter illumination via bioluminescence.[22][19] This is achieved by production of light from ventral photophores, which tend to produce such light intensity to render the underside of the fish of similar appearance to the background light. For more sensitive vision in low light, some fish have a retroreflector behind the retina.[23] Flashlight fish have this plus photophores, which combination they use to detect eyeshine in other fish (see tapetum lucidum).[24][25]

Organisms in the deep sea are almost entirely reliant upon sinking living and dead organic matter which falls at approximately 100 meters per day.[26] In addition, only about 1 to 3% of the production from the surface reaches the seabed, mostly in the form of marine snow. This ends up accumulating on the benthic floor, around 1 cm every 1,000 years. Larger food falls, such as whale carcasses, also occur and studies have shown that these may happen more often than currently believed. There are many scavengers that feed primarily or entirely upon large food falls and the distance between whale carcasses is estimated to only be 8 kilometers.[27] In addition, there are a number of filter feeders that feed upon organic particles using tentacles, such as Freyella elegans.[28]

Marine bacteriophages play an important role in cycling nutrients in deep sea sediments. They are extremely abundant (between 5×1012 and 1×1013 phages per square meter) in sediments around the world.[29]

Despite being so isolated, deep sea organisms have still been harmed by human interaction with the oceans. The London Convention[30] aims to protect the marine environment from dumping of wastes such as sewage sludge[31] and radioactive waste. A study found that at one region there had been a decrease in deep sea coral from 2007 to 2011, with the decrease being attributed to global warming and ocean acidification, and biodiversity estimated as being at the lowest levels in 58 years.[32] Ocean acidification is particularly harmful to deep sea corals because they are made of aragonite, an easily soluble carbonate, and because they are particularly slow growing and will take years to recover.[33] Deep sea trawling is also harming the biodiversity by destroying deep sea habitats which can take years to form.[34] Another human activity that has altered deep sea biology is mining. One study found that at one mining site fish populations had decreased at six months and at three years, and that after twenty six years populations had returned to the same levels as prior to the disturbance.[35]

### Chemosynthesis

There are a number of species that do not primarily rely upon dissolved organic matter for their food. These species and communities are found at hydrothermal vents at sea-floor spreading zones.[36][37] One example is the symbiotic relationship between the tube worm Riftia and chemosynthetic bacteria.[38] It is this chemosynthesis that supports the complex communities that can be found around hydrothermal vents. These complex communities are one of the few ecosystems on the planet that do not rely upon sunlight for their supply of energy.[39]

### Adaptation to hydrostatic pressure

Deep-sea fish have different adaptations in their proteins, anatomical structures, and metabolic systems to survive in the Deep sea, where the inhabitants have to withstand great amount of hydrostatic pressure. While other factors like food availability and predator avoidance are important, the deep-sea organisms must have the ability to maintain well-regulated metabolic system in the face of high pressures.[40] In order to adjust for the extreme environment, these organisms have developed unique characteristics.

Proteins are affected greatly by the elevated hydrostatic pressure, as they undergo changes in water organization during hydration and dehydration reactions of the binding events. This is due to the fact that most enzyme-ligand interactions form through charged or polar non-charge interactions. Because hydrostatic pressure affects both protein folding and assembly and enzymatic activity, the deep sea species must undergo physiological and structural adaptations to preserve protein functionality against pressure.[40][41]

Actin is a protein that is essential for different cellular functions. The α-actin serves as a main component for muscle fiber, and it is highly conserved across numerous different species. Some Deep-sea fish developed pressure tolerance through the change in mechanism of their α-actin. In some species that live in depths greater than 5 km (3.1 mi), C.armatus and C.yaquinae have specific substitutions on the active sites of α-Actin, which serves as the main component of muscle fiber.[42] These specific substitutions, Q137K and V54A from C.armatus or I67P from C.yaquinae are predicted to have importance in pressure tolerance.[42] Substitution in the active sites of actin result in significant changes in the salt bridge patterns of the protein, which allows for better stabilization in ATP binding and sub unit arrangement, confirmed by the free energy analysis and molecular dynamics simulation.[43] It was found that deep sea fish have more salt bridges in their actins compared to fish inhabiting the upper zones of the sea.[42]

In relations to protein substitution, specific osmolytes were found to be abundant in deep sea fish under high hydrostatic pressure. For certain chondrichthyans, it was found that Trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO) increased with depth, replacing other osmolytes and urea.[44] Due to the ability of TMAO being able to protect proteins from high hydrostatic pressure destabilizing proteins, the osmolyte adjustment serves are an important adaptation for deep sea fish to withstand high hydrostatic pressure.

Deep-sea organisms possess molecular adaptations to survive and thrive in the deep oceans. Mariana hadal snailfish developed modification in the Osteocalcin(burlap) gene, where premature termination of the gene was found.[41] Osteocalcin gene regulates bone development and tissue mineralization, and the frameshift mutation seems to have resulted in the open skull and cartilage-based bone formation.[41] Due to high hydrostatic pressure in the deep sea, closed skulls that organisms living on the surface develop cannot withstand the enforcing stress. Similarly, common bone developments seen in surface vertebrates cannot maintain their structural integrity under constant high pressure.[41]

## Exploration

Main article: Deep-sea exploration

It has been suggested that more is known about the Moon than the deepest parts of the ocean.[45] This is a common misconception based on a 1953 statement by George E.R. Deacon published in the Journal of Navigation, and largely refers to the scarce amount of seafloor bathymetry available at the time.[46] The similar idea that more people have stood on the moon than have been to the deepest part of the ocean is likewise problematic and dangerous.[46]File:Autonomous landers, Observing the deepest places on Earth.WebM

Still, the deep-sea remains one of the least explored regions on planet Earth.[47] Pressures even in the mesopelagic become too great for traditional exploration methods, demanding alternative approaches for deep-sea research. Baited camera stations, small crewed submersibles, and ROVs (remotely operated vehicles) are three methods utilized to explore the ocean's depths. Because of the difficulty and cost of exploring this zone, current knowledge is limited. Pressure increases at approximately one atmosphere for every 10 meters meaning that some areas of the deep sea can reach pressures of above 1,000 atmospheres. This not only makes great depths very difficult to reach without mechanical aids, but also provides a significant difficulty when attempting to study any organisms that may live in these areas as their cell chemistry will be adapted to such vast pressures.

## See also

* Earth:Deep ocean water - Cold, salty water deep below the surface of Earth's oceans
* Earth:Submarine landslide - Landslides that transport sediment across the continental shelf and into the deep ocean
* Earth:Nepheloid layer - Layer of water in deep sea
* Biogenous ooze

## References

1. ↑ Tyler, P. A. (2003). In Ecosystems of the World 28, Ecosystems of the Deep Sea. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 1–3.
2. ↑ "What is the "deep" ocean?: Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research" (in en-US). https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/deep-ocean.html.
3. ↑ Paulus, Eva (2021). "Shedding Light on Deep-Sea Biodiversity—A Highly Vulnerable Habitat in the Face of Anthropogenic Change". Frontiers in Marine Science 8. doi:10.3389/fmars.2021.667048. ISSN 2296-7745. Bibcode: 2021FrMaS...867048P.
4. ↑ Danovaro, Roberto; Corinaldesi, Cinzia; Dell'Anno, Antonio; Snelgrove, Paul V. R. (2017-06-05). "The deep-sea under global change" (in en). Current Biology 27 (11): R461–R465. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.02.046. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 28586679. Bibcode: 2017CBio...27.R461D.
5. ↑ Brown, Alastair; Thatje, Sven (2013). "Explaining bathymetric diversity patterns in marine benthic invertebrates and demersal fishes: physiological contributions to adaptation of life at depth" (in en). Biological Reviews 89 (2): 406–426. doi:10.1111/brv.12061. ISSN 1464-7931. PMID 24118851.
6. ↑ Higgs, Nicholas D.; Gates, Andrew R.; Jones, Daniel O. B. (2014-05-07). "Fish Food in the Deep Sea: Revisiting the Role of Large Food-Falls". PLOS ONE 9 (5). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0096016. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 24804731. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...996016H.
7. ↑ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is marine snow?" (in EN-US). https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/marinesnow.html.
8. ↑ Horstman, Mark (2003-07-09). "Hope floats for lost deep-sea explorer" (in en-AU). https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2003/07/09/897958.htm.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Claus Detlefsen. "About the Marianas" (in Danish) Ingeniøren / Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland, 2 November 2013. Accessed: 2 November 2013.
10. ↑ MarineBio (2018-06-17). "The Deep Sea" (in en-US). https://marinebio.org/oceans/deep-sea/.
11. ↑ Nybakken, James W. (2001). Marine Biology: An Ecological Approach (Fifth ed.). Benjamin Cummings. pp. 136–141. ISBN 0-321-03076-1.
12. ↑ Levin, Lisa A.; Dayton, Paul K. (1 November 2009). "Ecological theory and continental margins: where shallow meets deep" (in en). Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24 (11): 606–617. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.04.012. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 19692143. Bibcode: 2009TEcoE..24..606L. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534709001992. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
13. ↑ Gage, John D.; Tyler, Paul A. (18 April 1991) (in en). Deep-Sea Biology: A Natural History of Organisms at the Deep-Sea Floor. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33431-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=vqgfH9DXXNAC&q=zone&pg=PR11. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
14. ↑ Smith, Craig R.; De Leo, Fabio C.; Bernardino, Angelo F.; Sweetman, Andrew K.; Arbizu, Pedro Martinez (1 September 2008). "Abyssal food limitation, ecosystem structure and climate change" (in en). Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23 (9): 518–528. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.002. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 18584909. Bibcode: 2008TEcoE..23..518S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534708001900. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
15. ↑ Jamieson, Alan J.; Fujii, Toyonobu; Mayor, Daniel J.; Solan, Martin; Priede, Imants G. (1 March 2010). "Hadal trenches: the ecology of the deepest places on Earth" (in en). Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25 (3): 190–197. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.09.009. ISSN 0169-5347. PMID 19846236. Bibcode: 2010TEcoE..25..190J. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534709002997. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
16. ↑ Jamieson, Alan J.; Stewart, Heather A.; Weston, Johanna N. J.; Lahey, Patrick; Vescovo, Victor L. (2022). "Hadal Biodiversity, Habitats and Potential Chemosynthesis in the Java Trench, Eastern Indian Ocean". Frontiers in Marine Science 9. doi:10.3389/fmars.2022.856992. Bibcode: 2022FrMaS...956992J.
17. ↑ Robison, Bruce H.; Reisenbichler, Kim R.; Sherlock, Rob E. (2005-06-10). "Giant Larvacean Houses: Rapid Carbon Transport to the Deep Sea Floor" (in en). Science 308 (5728): 1609–1611. doi:10.1126/science.1109104. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 15947183. Bibcode: 2005Sci...308.1609R. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1109104.
18. ↑ Lupše, Nik; Cortesi, Fabio; Freese, Marko; Marohn, Lasse; Pohlmann, Jan-Dag; Wysujack, Klaus; Hanel, Reinhold; Musilova, Zuzana (9 December 2021). "Visual Gene Expression Reveals a cone-to-rod Developmental Progression in Deep-Sea Fishes". Molecular Biology and Evolution 38 (12): 5664–5677. doi:10.1093/molbev/msab281. PMID 34562090.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Warrant, Eric J.; Locket, N. Adam (August 2004). "Vision in the deep sea" (in en). Biological Reviews 79 (3): 671–712. doi:10.1017/S1464793103006420. ISSN 1469-185X. PMID 15366767. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/biological-reviews/article/abs/vision-in-the-deep-sea/3A8B971B023A9FDC48E4B863B3B801FF.
20. ↑ Collin, Shaun P.; Chapuis, Lucille; Michiels, Nico K. (2019). "Impacts of (extreme) depth on life in the deep-sea". Marine Extremes. Routledge. pp. 197–216. doi:10.4324/9780429491023-12. ISBN 978-0-429-49102-3. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429491023-12/impacts-extreme-depth-life-deep-sea-shaun-collin-lucille-chapuis-nico-michiels. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
21. ↑ Hoving, Henk-Jan T.; Freitas, Rui (February 2022). "Pelagic observations of the midwater scorpionfish Ectreposebastes imus (Setarchidae) suggests a role in trophic coupling between deep-sea habitats". Journal of Fish Biology 100 (2): 586–589. doi:10.1111/jfb.14944. PMID 34751439. Bibcode: 2022JFBio.100..586H.
22. ↑ Davis, Alexander L.; Sutton, Tracey T.; Kier, William M.; Johnsen, Sönke (10 June 2020). "Evidence that eye-facing photophores serve as a reference for counterillumination in an order of deep-sea fishes". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 287 (1928). doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.2918. PMID 32517614.
23. ↑ Palmer, Benjamin A.; Gur, Dvir; Weiner, Steve; Addadi, Lia; Oron, Dan (October 2018). "The Organic Crystalline Materials of Vision: Structure-Function Considerations from the Nanometer to the Millimeter Scale" (in en). Advanced Materials 30 (41). doi:10.1002/adma.201800006. PMID 29888511. Bibcode: 2018AdM....3000006P. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/adma.201800006. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
24. ↑ Hellinger, Jens; Jägers, Peter; Donner, Marcel; Sutt, Franziska; Mark, Melanie D.; Senen, Budiono; Tollrian, Ralph; Herlitze, Stefan (2017-02-08). De, Abhijit. ed. "The Flashlight Fish Anomalops katoptron Uses Bioluminescent Light to Detect Prey in the Dark" (in en). PLOS ONE 12 (2). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170489. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 28178297. Bibcode: 2017PLoSO..1270489H.
25. ↑ Cavallaro, Mauro; Guerrera, Maria Cristina; Abbate, Francesco; Levanti, Maria Beatrice; Laurà, Rosaria; Ammendolia, Giovanni; Malara, Danilo; Stipa, Maria Giulia et al. (October 2021). "Morphological, ultrastructural and immunohistochemical study on the skin ventral photophores of Diaphus holti Tåning, 1918 (Family: Myctophidae)" (in en). Acta Zoologica 102 (4): 405–411. doi:10.1111/azo.12348. ISSN 0001-7272. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/azo.12348.
26. ↑ "Marine Snow and Fecal Pellets". http://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=2387&archives=true.
27. ↑ R. N. Gibson, Harold (CON) Barnes, R. J. A. Atkinson, Oceanography and Marine Biology, An Annual Review. 2007. Volume 41. Published by CRC Press, 2004 ISBN 0-415-25463-9, ISBN 978-0-415-25463-2
28. ↑ "Discover - Natural History Museum". http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/earth/oceans/deep-ocean/session3/index.html.
29. ↑ Danovaro, Roberto; Antonio Dell'Anno; Cinzia Corinaldesi; Mirko Magagnini; Rachel Noble; Christian Tamburini; Markus Weinbauer (2008-08-28). "Major viral impact on the functioning of benthic deep-sea ecosystems". Nature 454 (7208): 1084–1087. doi:10.1038/nature07268. PMID 18756250. Bibcode: 2008Natur.454.1084D.
30. ↑ "London Convention". International Maritime Organization. http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Environment/LCLP/Pages/default.aspx.
31. ↑ Snelgrove, Paul; Grassle, Fred (1995-01-01). "What of the deep sea's future diversity?". Oceanus 38 (2). https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-18018331/what-of-the-deep-sea-s-future-diversity. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
32. ↑ Zimmerman, Alexander N.; Johnson, Claudia C.; Bussberg, Nicholas W.; Dalkilic, Mehmet M. (April 2020). "Stability and decline in deep-sea coral biodiversity, Gulf of Mexico and US West Atlantic". Coral Reefs 39 (2): 345–359. doi:10.1007/s00338-020-01896-9.
33. ↑ Ruttimann, Jacqueline (2006-08-31). "Oceanography: sick seas". Nature 442 (7106): 978–80. doi:10.1038/442978a. PMID 16943816. Bibcode: 2006Natur.442..978R.
34. ↑ Koslow, Tony (2011-11-20). "The silent deep: the discovery, ecology & conservation of the deep sea". Pacific Ecologist 20.
35. ↑ Drazen, Jeffery; Leitner, Astrid; Morningstar, Sage; Marcon, Yann; Greinert, Jens; Purser, Auntun (2019-01-01). "Observations of deep-sea fishes and mobile scavengers from the abyssal DISCOL experimental mining area". Biogeosciences 16 (16): 3133–3146. doi:10.5194/bg-16-3133-2019. ProQuest 2276806480. Bibcode: 2019BGeo...16.3133D.
36. ↑ Dover, Cindy Van (2000-03-26) (in en). The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04929-8. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691049298/the-ecology-of-deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents.
37. ↑ Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (November 2008). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life" (in en). Nature Reviews Microbiology 6 (11): 805–814. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1991. ISSN 1740-1534. PMID 18820700. Bibcode: 2008NRvM....6..805M. https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro1991.
38. ↑ Cavanaugh, F. J. Stewart and C. M. (2006). "Symbiosis of Thioautotrophic Bacteria with Riftia pachyptila | EndNote Click" (in en). Progress in Molecular and Subcellular Biology 41: 197–225. doi:10.1007/3-540-28221-1_10. PMID 16623395. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/3-540-28221-1_10. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
39. ↑ Jannasch, H. W. (1985). "The Chemosynthetic Support of Life and the Microbial Diversity at Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 225 (1240): 277–297. doi:10.1098/rspb.1985.0062.
40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Chapter Twelve. Adaptations to the Deep Sea". Biochemical Adaptation. Princeton University Press. 1984-12-31. pp. 450–495. doi:10.1515/9781400855414.450. ISBN 978-1-4008-5541-4.
41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Wang, Kun; Shen, Yanjun; Yang, Yongzhi; Gan, Xiaoni; Liu, Guichun; Hu, Kuang; Li, Yongxin; Gao, Zhaoming et al. (May 2019). "Morphology and genome of a snailfish from the Mariana Trench provide insights into deep-sea adaptation" (in en). Nature Ecology & Evolution 3 (5): 823–833. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0864-8. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 30988486. Bibcode: 2019NatEE...3..823W.
42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Wakai, Nobuhiko; Takemura, Kazuhiro; Morita, Takami; Kitao, Akio (2014-01-20). "Mechanism of Deep-Sea Fish α-Actin Pressure Tolerance Investigated by Molecular Dynamics Simulations" (in en). PLOS ONE 9 (1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085852. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 24465747. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...985852W.
43. ↑ Hata, Hiroaki; Nishiyama, Masayoshi; Kitao, Akio (2020-02-01). "Molecular dynamics simulation of proteins under high pressure: Structure, function and thermodynamics" (in en). Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects. Novel measurement techniques for visualizing 'live' protein molecules 1864 (2): 129395. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2019.07.004. ISSN 0304-4165. PMID 31302180. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304416519301758.
44. ↑ Yancey, Paul H.; Speers-Roesch, Ben; Atchinson, Sheila; Reist, James D.; Majewski, Andrew R.; Treberg, Jason R. (2017-11-27). "Osmolyte Adjustments as a Pressure Adaptation in Deep-Sea Chondrichthyan Fishes: An Intraspecific Test in Arctic Skates (Amblyraja hyperborea) along a Depth Gradient". Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 91 (2): 788–796. doi:10.1086/696157. ISSN 1522-2152. PMID 29315031. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/696157.
45. ↑ Tim Flannery, Where Wonders Await Us. New York Review of Books, December 2007
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Jamieson, Alan J; Singleman, Glenn; Linley, Thomas D; Casey, Susan (2020-12-21). "Fear and loathing of the deep ocean: why don't people care about the deep sea?". ICES Journal of Marine Science 78 (3): 797–809. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsaa234. ISSN 1054-3139.
47. ↑ Briand, F.; Snelgrove, P. (2003). "Mare Incognitum? An overview". CIESM Workshop Monographs 23: 5–27. [1]

## External links

| Scholia has a topic profile for Deep sea.

|

* Deep Sea Foraminifera – Deep Sea Foraminifera from 4400 meters depth, Antarctica – an image gallery and description of hundreds of specimens
* Deep Ocean Exploration on the Smithsonian Ocean Portal
* Deep-Sea Creatures Facts and images from the deepest parts of the ocean
* How Deep Is The Ocean Facts and infographic on ocean depth

* v
* t
* e

Physical oceanography

Waves|

* Airy wave theory
* Ballantine scale
* Benjamin–Feir instability
* Boussinesq approximation
* Breaking wave
* Clapotis
* Cnoidal wave
* Cross sea
* Dispersion
* Edge wave
* Equatorial waves
* Fetch
* Gravity wave
* Green's law
* Infragravity wave
* Internal wave
* Iribarren number
* Kelvin wave
* Kinematic wave
* Longshore drift
* Luke's variational principle
* Mild-slope equation
* Radiation stress
* Rogue wave
* Rossby wave
* Rossby-gravity waves
* Sea state
* Seiche
* Significant wave height
* Soliton
* Stokes boundary layer
* Stokes drift
* Stokes wave
* Swell
* Trochoidal wave
* Tsunami
* megatsunami
* Undertow
* Ursell number
* Wave action
* Wave base
* Wave height
* Wave power
* Wave radar
* Wave setup
* Wave shoaling
* Wave turbulence
* Wave–current interaction
* Waves and shallow water
* one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
* shallow water equations
* Wind wave
* model

Circulation|

* Atmospheric circulation
* Baroclinity
* Boundary current
* Coriolis force
* Coriolis–Stokes force
* Craik–Leibovich vortex force
* Downwelling
* Eddy
* Ekman layer
* Ekman spiral
* Ekman transport
* El Niño–Southern Oscillation
* General circulation model
* Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
* Geostrophic current
* Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
* Gulf Stream
* Halothermal circulation
* Humboldt Current
* Hydrothermal circulation
* Langmuir circulation
* Longshore drift
* Loop Current
* Modular Ocean Model
* Ocean dynamics
* Ocean gyre
* Princeton ocean model
* Rip current
* Subsurface currents
* Sverdrup balance
* Thermohaline circulation
* shutdown
* Upwelling
* Whirlpool
* World Ocean Circulation Experiment

Tides|

* Amphidromic point
* Earth tide
* Head of tide
* Internal tide
* Lunitidal interval
* Perigean spring tide
* Rip tide
* Rule of twelfths
* Slack water
* Tidal bore
* Tidal force
* Tidal power
* Tidal race
* Tidal range
* Tidal resonance
* Tide gauge
* Tideline
* Theory of tides

Landforms|

* Abyssal fan
* Abyssal plain
* Atoll
* Bathymetric chart
* Coastal geography
* Cold seep
* Continental margin
* Continental rise
* Continental shelf
* Contourite
* Guyot
* Hydrography
* Oceanic basin
* Oceanic plateau
* Oceanic trench
* Passive margin
* Seabed
* Seamount
* Submarine canyon
* Submarine volcano

Plate
tectonics|

* Convergent boundary
* Divergent boundary
* Fracture zone
* Hydrothermal vent
* Marine geology
* Mid-ocean ridge
* Mohorovičić discontinuity
* Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
* Oceanic crust
* Outer trench swell
* Ridge push
* Seafloor spreading
* Slab pull
* Slab suction
* Slab window
* Subduction
* Transform fault
* Volcanic arc

Ocean zones|

* Benthic
* Deep ocean water
* Deep sea
* Littoral
* Mesopelagic
* Oceanic
* Pelagic
* Photic
* Surf
* Swash

Sea level|

* Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
* Future sea level
* Global Sea Level Observing System
* North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
* Sea-level curve
* Sea level rise
* World Geodetic System

Acoustics|

* Deep scattering layer
* Hydroacoustics
* Ocean acoustic tomography
* Sofar bomb
* SOFAR channel
* Underwater acoustics

Satellites|

* Jason-1
* Jason-2 (Ocean Surface Topography Mission)
* Jason-3

Related|

* Argo
* Benthic lander
* Color of water
* DSV Alvin
* Marginal sea
* Marine energy
* Marine pollution
* Mooring
* National Oceanographic Data Center
* Ocean
* Ocean exploration
* Ocean observations
* Ocean reanalysis
* Ocean surface topography
* Ocean thermal energy conversion
* Oceanography
* Pelagic sediment
* Sea surface microlayer
* Sea surface temperature
* Seawater
* Science On a Sphere
* Thermocline
* Underwater glider
* Water column
* World Ocean Atlas

* Category
* Commons

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep sea. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Deep_sea&oldid=4301218"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template