Emission intensity

Short description: Emission rate of a pollutant

See also: Physics:Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources

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Carbon emission intensity of economies in kg of CO₂ per unit of GDP (2016)

An emission intensity (also carbon intensity or C.I.) is the emission rate of a given pollutant relative to the intensity of a specific activity, or an industrial production process; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced, or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product (GDP). Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted, the number of animals in animal husbandry, on industrial production levels, distances traveled or similar activity data. Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities. In some case the related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are used interchangeably. The jargon used can be different, for different fields/industrial sectors; normally the term "carbon" excludes other pollutants, such as particulate emissions. One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour (CIPK), which is used to compare emissions from different sources of electrical power.

## Contents

* 1 Methodologies
* 2 Estimating emissions
* 3 Electric generation
* 4 Carbon intensity of regions
* 4.1 Carbon intensity in Europe
* 5 Emission factors for greenhouse gas inventory reporting
* 6 Emission factors for air pollutant inventory reporting
* 7 Intensity targets
* 8 Sources of emission factors
* 8.1 Greenhouse gases
* 8.2 Air pollutants
* 9 Well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally
* 10 See also
* 11 References
* 12 External links

## Methodologies

Different methodologies can be used to assess the carbon intensity of a process. Among the most used methodologies there are:

* The whole life-cycle assessment (LCA): this includes not only the carbon emissions due to a specific process, but also those due to the production and end-of-life of materials, plants and machineries used for the considered process. This is a quite complex method, requiring a big set of variables.
* The well-to-wheels (WTW), commonly used in the Energy and Transport sectors: this is a simplified LCA considering the emissions of the process itself, the emissions due to the extraction and refining of the material (or fuel) used in the process (also "Upstream emissions"), but excluding the emissions due to the production and end-of-life of plants and machineries. This methodology is used, in the US, by the GREET model and in Europe in the JEC WTW .
* WTW-LCA hybrid methods, trying to fill in the gap between the WTW and LCA methods. In example, for an Electric Vehicle, an hybrid method considering also the GHG due to the manufacturing and the end of life of the battery gives GHG emissions 10–13% higher, compared to the WTW [1]
* Methods not considering LCA aspects but only the emissions occurring during a specific process; i.e. just the combustion of a fuel in a power plant, without considering the Upstream emissions.[2]

Different calculation methods can lead to different results. The results can largely vary also for different geographic regions and timeframes (see, in example, how C.I. of electricity varies, for different European countries, and how varied in a few years: from 2009 to 2013 the C.I. of electricity in the European Union fell on average by 20%,[3] So while comparing different values of Carbon Intensity it is important to correctly consider all the boundary conditions (or initial hypotheses) considered for the calculations. For example, Chinese oil fields emit between 1.5 and more than 40 g of CO2e per MJ with about 90% of all fields emitting 1.5–13.5 g CO2e.[4] Such highly skewed carbon intensity patterns necessitate disaggregation of seemingly homogeneous emission activities and proper consideration of many factors for understanding.[5]

An air pollution emission source

## Estimating emissions

Emission factors assume a linear relation between the intensity of the activity and the emission resulting from this activity:

Emissionpollutant = Activity * Emission Factorpollutant

Intensities are also used in projecting possible future scenarios such as those used in the IPCC assessments, along with projected future changes in population, economic activity and energy technologies. The interrelations of these variables is treated under the so-called Kaya identity.

The level of uncertainty of the resulting estimates depends significantly on the source category and the pollutant. Some examples:

* Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the combustion of fuel can be estimated with a high degree of certainty regardless of how the fuel is used as these emissions depend almost exclusively on the carbon content of the fuel, which is generally known with a high degree of precision. The same is true for sulphur dioxide (SO2), since sulphur contents of fuels are also generally well known. Both carbon and sulphur are almost completely oxidized during combustion and all carbon and sulphur atoms in the fuel will be present in the flue gases as CO2 and SO2 respectively.
* In contrast, the levels of other air pollutants and non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions from combustion depend on the precise technology applied when fuel is combusted. These emissions are basically caused by either incomplete combustion of a small fraction of the fuel (carbon monoxide, methane, non-methane volatile organic compounds) or by complicated chemical and physical processes during the combustion and in the smoke stack or tailpipe. Examples of these are particulates, NOx, a mixture of nitric oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO2).
* Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from agricultural soils are highly uncertain because they depend very much on both the exact conditions of the soil, the application of fertilizers and meteorological conditions.

## Electric generation

Main article: Physics:Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources

A literature review of numerous total life cycle energy sources CO
2 emissions per unit of electricity generated, conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2011, found that the CO
2 emission value, that fell within the 50th percentile of all total life cycle emissions studies were as follows.[6]

Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source[6] Technology | Description | 50th percentile
(g CO
2-eq/kWhe)

|
|

Hydroelectric | reservoir | 4
Wind | onshore | 12
Nuclear | various generation II reactor types | 16
Biomass | various | 230
Solar thermal | parabolic trough | 22
Geothermal | hot dry rock | 45
Solar PV | Polycrystalline silicon | 46
Natural gas | various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing | 469
Coal | various generator types without scrubbing | 1001
Emission factors of common fuels  Fuel/
Resource  | Thermal
g(CO2e)/MJth | Energy Intensity (min & max estimate)
W·hth/W·he | Electric (min & max estimate)
g(CO2)/kW·he

|
|
|

wood | 115[7] |  |
Peat | 106[8]
110[7] |  |
Coal | B:91.50–91.72
Br:94.33
88  | B:2.62–2.85[9]
Br:3.46[9]
3.01  | B:863–941[9]
Br:1,175[9]
955[10]
Oil | 73[11] | 3.40 | 893[10]
Natural gas | cc:68.20
oc:68.40
51[11] | cc:2.35 (2.20 – 2.57)[9]
oc:3.05 (2.81 – 3.46)[9] | cc:577 (491–655)[9]
oc:751 (627–891)[9]
599[10]
Geothermal
Power | 3~  |  | TL0–1[10]
TH91–122[10]
Uranium
Nuclear power |  | WL0.18 (0.16~0.40)[9]
WH0.20 (0.18~0.35)[9] | WL60 (10~130)[9]
WH65 (10~120)[9]
Hydroelectricity  |  | 0.046 (0.020 – 0.137)[9] | 15 (6.5 – 44)[9]
Conc. Solar Pwr  |  |  | 40±15#
Photovoltaics |  | 0.33 (0.16 – 0.67)[9] | 106 (53–217)[9]
Wind power  |  | 0.066 (0.041 – 0.12)[9] | 21 (13–40)[9]

Note: 3.6 MJ = megajoule(s) == 1 kW·h = kilowatt-hour(s), thus 1 g/MJ = 3.6 g/kW·h.

Legend: B = Black coal (supercritical)–(new subcritical), Br = Brown coal (new subcritical), cc = combined cycle, oc = open cycle, TL = low-temperature/closed-circuit (geothermal doublet), TH = high-temperature/open-circuit, WL = Light Water Reactors, WH = Heavy Water Reactors, #Educated estimate.

## Carbon intensity of regions

Greenhouse gas intensity in the year 2000, including land-use change. | Carbon intensity of GDP (using PPP) for different regions, 1982–2011. | Carbon intensity of GDP (using MER) for different regions, 1982–2011.

|
|

The following tables show carbon intensity of GDP in market exchange rates (MER) and purchasing power parities (PPP). Units are metric tons of carbon dioxide per thousand year 2005 US dollars. Data are taken from the US Energy Information Administration.[12] Annual data between 1980 and 2009 are averaged over three decades: 1980–89, 1990–99, and 2000–09.

Carbon intensity of GDP, measured in MER[12] | 1980–89 | 1990–99 | 2000–09

|
|
|

Africa | 1.13149 | 1.20702 | 1.03995
Asia & Oceania | 0.86256 | 0.83015 | 0.91721
Central & South America | 0.55840 | 0.57278 | 0.56015
Eurasia | NA | 3.31786 | 2.36849
Europe | 0.36840 | 0.37245 | 0.30975
Middle East | 0.98779 | 1.21475 | 1.22310
North America | 0.69381 | 0.58681 | 0.48160
World | 0.62170 | 0.66120 | 0.60725
Carbon intensity of GDP, measured in PPP[12] | 1980–89 | 1990–99 | 2000–09

|
|
|

Africa | 0.48844 | 0.50215 | 0.43067
Asia & Oceania | 0.66187 | 0.59249 | 0.57356
Central & South America | 0.30095 | 0.30740 | 0.30185
Eurasia | NA | 1.43161 | 1.02797
Europe | 0.40413 | 0.38897 | 0.32077
Middle East | 0.51641 | 0.65690 | 0.65723
North America | 0.66743 | 0.56634 | 0.46509
World | 0.54495 | 0.54868 | 0.48058

In 2009 CO2 intensity of GDP in the OECD countries reduced by 2.9% and amounted to 0.33 kCO2/$05p in the OECD countries.[13] ("$05p" = 2005 US dollars, using purchasing power parities). The USA posted a higher ratio of 0.41 kCO2/$05p while Europe showed the largest drop in CO2 intensity compared to the previous year (−3.7%). CO2 intensity continued to be roughly higher in non-OECD countries. Despite a slight improvement, China continued to post a high CO2 intensity (0.81 kCO2/$05p). CO2 intensity in Asia rose by 2% during 2009 since energy consumption continued to develop at a strong pace. Important ratios were also observed in countries in CIS and the Middle East.

### Carbon intensity in Europe

Total CO2 emissions from energy use were 5% below their 1990 level in 2007.[14] Over the period 1990–2007, CO2 emissions from energy use have decreased on average by 0.3%/year although the economic activity (GDP) increased by 2.3%/year. After dropping until 1994 (−1.6%/year), the CO2 emissions have increased steadily (0.4%/year on average) until 2003 and decreased slowly again since (on average by 0.6%/year). Total CO2 emissions per capita decreased from 8.7 t in 1990 to 7.8 t in 2007, that is to say a decrease by 10%. Almost 40% of the reduction in CO2 intensity is due to increased use of energy carriers with lower emission factors. Total CO2 emissions per unit of GDP, the “CO2 intensity”, decreased more rapidly than energy intensity: by 2.3%/year and 1.4%/year, respectively, on average between 1990 and 2007.[15]

However, while the reports from 2007 suggest that the CO2 emissions are going down recent studies find that the global emissions are rapidly escalating. According to the Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change report, conducted by the IPCC, it states that it 2019 the world emissions output was 59 gigatonnes.[16] This shows that global emissions has grown rapidly, increasing by about 2.1% each year compared from the previous decade.[16]

The Commodity Exchange Bratislava (CEB) has calculated carbon intensity for Voluntary Emissions Reduction projects carbon intensity in 2012 to be 0.343 tn/MWh.[17]

A 2024 report shows an increase of renewable energy production, reaching 50% of the energy mix [18]

According to data from the European Commission, in order to achieve the EU goal of decreasing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990, EU-based energy investment has to double from the previous decade to more than €400 billion annually this decade. This includes the roughly €300 billion in yearly investment required for energy efficiency and the roughly €120 billion required for power networks and renewable energy facilities.[19][20]

## Emission factors for greenhouse gas inventory reporting

One of the most important uses of emission factors is for the reporting of national greenhouse gas inventories under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The so-called Annex I Parties to the UNFCCC have to annually report their national total emissions of greenhouse gases in a formalized reporting format, defining the source categories and fuels that must be included.

The UNFCCC has accepted the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories,[21] developed and published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as the emission estimation methods that must be used by the parties to the convention to ensure transparency, completeness, consistency, comparability and accuracy of the national greenhouse gas inventories.[22] These IPCC Guidelines are the primary source for default emission factors. Recently IPCC has published the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. These and many more greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on IPCC's Emission Factor Database.[23] Commercially applicable organisational greenhouse gas emission factors can be found on the search engine, EmissionFactors.com.[24]

Particularly for non-CO2e emissions, there is often a high degree of uncertainty associated with these emission factors when applied to individual countries. In general, the use of country-specific emission factors would provide more accurate estimates of emissions than the use of the default emission factors. According to the IPCC, if an activity is a major source of emissions for a country ('key source'), it is 'good practice' to develop a country-specific emission factor for that activity.

## Emission factors for air pollutant inventory reporting

The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and the EU National Emission Ceilings Directive (2016) require countries to produce annual National Air Pollution Emission Inventories under the provisions of the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP).

The European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) Task Force of the European Environment Agency has developed methods to estimate emissions and the associated emission factors for air pollutants, which have been published in the EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook[25][26] on Emission Inventories and Projections TFEIP.[27]

## Intensity targets

Coal, being mostly carbon, emits a lot of CO
2 when burnt: it has a high CO
2 emission intensity. Natural gas, being methane (CH
4), has 4 hydrogen atoms to burn for each one of carbon and thus has medium CO
2 emission intensity.

## Sources of emission factors

### Greenhouse gases

* 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
* Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (reference manual).
* IPCC Emission Factor Database
* National Inventory Report: Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks in Canada .
* United Kingdom's emission factor database.

### Air pollutants

* AP 42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors US Environmental Protection Agency
* EMEP/CORIMAIR 2007 Emission Inventory Guidebook.
* Fugitive emissions leaks from ethylene and other chemical plants.

## Well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally

In an August 31, 2018 article by Masnadi et al. which was published by Science, the authors used "open-source oil-sector CI modeling tools" to "model well-to-refinery carbon intensity (CI) of all major active oil fields globally—and to identify major drivers of these emissions."[28] They compared 90 countries with the highest crude oil footprint.[28][29] The Science study, which was conducted by Stanford University found that Canadian crude oil is the "fourth-most greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive in the world" behind Algeria, Venezuela and Cameroon.[30][31]

Because oil deposits differ in carbon intensity, and because a substantial share of known oil reserves must remain unextracted to keep global warming below 2 °C or to limit overshooting of the 1.5 °C target, [32][33] the question of which oil deposits should be phased out is of significant importance. A 2026 study by Renaud Coulomb, Fanny Henriet et Léo Reitzmann[34] published in the Review of Economic Studies quantifies the additional emissions and economic costs associated with the historical extraction of high–carbon-intensity oil deposits. The study shows that accounting for heterogeneity in the carbon intensity of oil deposits could have reduced cumulative emissions by about 11 GtCO₂-equivalent between 1992 and 2018, without changing global oil demand, by avoiding the extraction of higher-carbon intensity deposits. These results imply the existence of a substantial supply-side ecological debt for major producers of high-carbon-intensity oil (e.g., Algeria, Canada, Venezuela). Looking forward, the study estimates that avoiding these high-carbon intensity deposits could avoid approximately 9.3 gigatonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions, valued at US$1.9 trillion, along a future demand pathway consistent with achieving net-zero emissions by 2050.

## See also

* Air pollution
* AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
* Carbon footprint
* Emission inventory
* Energy intensity
* Greenhouse gas and Greenhouse effect
* IPCC list of greenhouse gases
* Kaya identity
* List of countries by carbon intensity of GDP
* Low-carbon economy
* Low-carbon fuel standard
* Mobile emission reduction credit
* Radiative forcing
* Resource intensity
* Spheroidal carbonaceous particles
* Vehicle emission standard

## References

1. ↑ Moro A; Helmers E (2017). "A new hybrid method for reducing the gap between WTW and LCA in the carbon footprint assessment of electric vehicles". Int J Life Cycle Assess 22 (1): 4–14. doi:10.1007/s11367-015-0954-z. Bibcode: 2017IJLCA..22....4M.
2. ↑ This method is used by the International Energy Agency in the annual report: CO2 emissions from fuel combustion .
3. ↑ Moro A; Lonza L (2018). "Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 64: 5–14. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2017.07.012. PMID 30740029. Bibcode: 2018TRPD...64....5M.
4. ↑ Masnadi, M. (2018). "Well-to-refinery emissions and net-energy analysis of China's crude-oil supply". Nature Energy 3 (3): 220–226. doi:10.1038/s41560-018-0090-7. Bibcode: 2018NatEn...3..220M.
5. ↑ Höök, M (2018). "Mapping Chinese supply". Nature Energy 3 (3): 166–167. doi:10.1038/s41560-018-0103-6. Bibcode: 2018NatEn...3..166H. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-347592.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Moomaw, W., P. Burgherr, G. Heath, M. Lenzen, J. Nyboer, A. Verbruggen, 2011: Annex II: Methodology. In IPCC: Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (ref. page 10)
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Hillebrand, K. 1993. The Greenhouse Effects of Peat Production and Use Compared with Coal, Natural Gas and Wood. Technical Research Centre of Finland . Seai.ie
8. ↑ The CO2 emission factor of peat fuel 106 g CO2/MJ, . Imcg.net. Retrieved on 2011-05-09.
9. ↑ 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 9.12 9.13 9.14 9.15 9.16 9.17 Bilek, Marcela; Hardy, Clarence; Lenzen, Manfred; Dey, Christopher (August 2008). "Life-cycle energy balance and greenhouse gas emissions of nuclear energy: A review". Energy Conversion & Management 49 (8): 2178–2199. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2008.01.033. http://www.isa.org.usyd.edu.au/publications/documents/ISA_Nuclear_Report.pdf.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Fridleifsson, Ingvar B.; Bertani, Ruggero; Huenges, Ernst; Lund, John W.; Ragnarsson, Arni; Rybach, Ladislaus (2008-02-11). O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin. ed. "The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change". IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources (Luebeck, Germany): 59–80. http://iga.igg.cnr.it/documenti/IGA/Fridleifsson_et_al_IPCC_Geothermal_paper_2008.pdf. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Hanova, J; Dowlatabadi, H (9 November 2007), "Strategic GHG reduction through the use of ground source heat pump technology", Environmental Research Letters (UK: IOP Publishing) 2 (4): 044001 8pp, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/2/4/044001, ISSN 1748-9326, Bibcode: 2007ERL.....2d4001H
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 US EIA, "Carbon intensity", International Energy Statistics, US Energy Information Administration (EIA), http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=90&pid=44&aid=8, retrieved 21 December 2013 . Archived page. Public-domain source: 'U.S. Government publications are in the public domain and are not subject to copyright protection. You may use and/or distribute any of our data, files, databases, reports, graphs, charts, and other information products that are on our website or that you receive through our email distribution service. However, if you use or reproduce any of our information products, you should use an acknowledgment, which includes the publication date, such as: "Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration (Oct 2008)."' [1] and archived page.
13. ↑ "CO2 intensity – Map World CO2 Intensity by region – Enerdata". http://yearbook.enerdata.net/CO2-intensity-data.html.
14. ↑ "Energy Efficiency Trends & Policies – ODYSSEE-MURE". http://www.odyssee-indicators.org/.
15. ↑ This section deals with CO2 emissions from energy combustion published in official inventories from the European Environment Agency. The indicators are not expressed under normal climate conditions (i. e. with climate corrections) to comply with the official definition of CO2 inventories. CO2 emissions of final consumers include the emissions of auto producers.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Dickie, Gloria (2022-04-04). "Factbox: Key takeaways from the IPCC report on climate change mitigation" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/key-takeaways-ipcc-report-climate-change-mitigation-2022-04-04/.
17. ↑ Calculation of carbon intensity in 2012 kbb.sk, Slovakia
18. ↑ Nowtricity 2024 yearly report
19. ↑ Bank, European Investment (2023-02-02) (in EN). Energy Overview 2023. https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20220286-energy-overview-2023.
20. ↑ "2030 Climate Target Plan" (in en). 14 July 2021. https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/european-green-deal/2030-climate-target-plan_en.
21. ↑ Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (1996). "Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories". IPCC. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/invs6.html.
22. ↑ "FCCC/SBSTA/2004/8". http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2004/sbsta/08.pdf.
23. ↑ "Emission Factor Database – Main Page". IPCC. 2012. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/EFDB/main.php.
24. ↑ "Emission Factors". emissionfactors.com. 2012. http://emissionfactors.com/.
25. ↑ EMEP/CORINAIR Emission Inventory Guidebook.eea.europa.eu, 2016, retrieved 13.7.2018
26. ↑ "EMEP Home". http://www.emep.int/.
27. ↑ TFEIP, 2008-03-15 tfeip-secretariat
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Masnadi, Mohammad S.; El-Houjeiri, Hassan M.; Schunack, Dominik; Li, Yunpo; Englander, Jacob G.; Badahdah, Alhassan; Monfort, Jean-Christophe; Anderson, James E. et al. (August 31, 2018). "Global carbon intensity of crude oil production". Science 361 (6405): 851–853. doi:10.1126/science.aar6859. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 30166477. Bibcode: 2018Sci...361..851M. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1485127.
29. ↑ "AB barrels are not below the global average". Twitter. September 30, 2019. https://twitter.com/andrew_leach/status/1178837074096480256/photo/1.
30. ↑ "MIL-OSI New Zealand: How (and where) Greenpeace is campaigning for a world beyond oil". Foreign Affairs via Multimedia Investments Ltd (MIL) Open Source Intelligence (OSI). October 10, 2019. https://foreignaffairs.co.nz/2019/10/11/mil-osi-new-zealand-how-and-where-greenpeace-is-campaigning-for-a-world-beyond-oil/.
31. ↑ Markusoff, Jason (October 16, 2019). "Scrubbing the oil sands' record". Maclean's. https://www.macleans.ca/economy/scrubbing-the-oil-sands-record/. Retrieved October 23, 2019.
32. ↑ Welsby, Dan; Price, James; Pye, Steve; Ekins, Paul (8 September 2021). "Unextractable fossil fuels in a 1.5 °C world" (in en). Nature 597 (7875): 230–234. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03821-8. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 34497394. Bibcode: 2021Natur.597..230W.
33. ↑ McGlade, Christophe; Ekins, Paul (2015). "The geographical distribution of fossil fuels unused when limiting global warming to 2 °C". Nature 517 (7533): 187–190. doi:10.1038/nature14016. ISSN 1476-4687. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14016.
34. ↑ Coulomb, Renaud; Henriet, Fanny; Reitzmann, Léo (January 2026). "“Bad” Oil, “Worse” Oil, and Carbon Misallocation". The Review of Economic Studies 93 (1): 404–437. doi:10.1093/restud/rdaf018. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdaf018.

## External links

* Washington Post article with an example of change in carbon intensity
* A Note On Variations in UK Grid Electricity CO2e Intensity with Time
* IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios
* Statistical Energy Review 2012
* World Energy Council:Odyssee Database
* International Energy Agency: CO2 emissions from fuel combustion
* Electricity carbon intensity in European Member States: Impacts on GHG emissions of electric vehicles
* A hybrid LCA-WTW method to assess the carbon footprint of electric vehicles
* Carbon emissions intensity from different regions

* v
* t
* e

Global warming

Temperatures

* Geologic record
* Hiatus
* Historical climatology
* Instrumental record
* Proxy data
* Record of the past 1,000 years

Causes

| Human

* Attribution of recent climate change
* Aviation
* Black carbon
* Carbon dioxide
* Deforestation
* Fossil fuel
* Global dimming
* Greenhouse effect
* Infrared window
* Greenhouse gases
* Land use, land-use change, and forestry
* Tropospheric ozone

|

Natural|

* Bond events
* Climate variability
* AMO
* ENSO
* IOD
* PDO
* Global cooling
* Milankovitch cycles
* Orbital forcing
* Solar variation
* Volcanism

History

* History of climate change science
* Atmospheric thermodynamics
* Svante Arrhenius
* James Hansen
* Charles David Keeling

Effects and issues

| Physical|

* Abrupt climate change
* Anoxic event
* Arctic methane emissions
* Drought
* Ocean acidification
* Ozone depletion
* Physical impacts
* Retreat of glaciers since 1850
* Runaway climate change
* Sea level rise
* Season creep
* Shutdown of thermohaline circulation

|

Flora and fauna|

* Climate change and ecosystems
* Effects on plant biodiversity
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Society|

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* Industry and society

By country|

* Australia
* South Asia
* India
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Society and climate change

| General|

* Environmental ethics
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* Public opinion on global warming
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|

By country & region|

* Africa
* Arctic
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* Australia
* Bangladesh
* Belgium
* Canada
* China
* Europe
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* India
* Japan
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Politics

| General|

* Climate change denial
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* Global climate regime

|

International|

* Kyoto Protocol
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Regional policy|

* Clean Power Plan
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* List of climate change initiatives

Protest|

* Extinction Rebellion
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Mitigation

| Emissions reduction|

* Carbon credit
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* Carbon offset
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* Emissions trading
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|

Carbon-free energy|

* Efficient energy use
* Renewable energy
* Low-carbon economy
* Nuclear power
* Carbon capture and storage
* Energy transition

Personal|

* Individual action on climate change
* Simple living

Other|

* Carbon dioxide removal
* Climate change mitigation scenarios
* Climate engineering
* Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
* Reforestation
* Urban reforestation

Climate change adaptation

| Strategies|

* Desalination
* Drought tolerance
* Sustainable development
* Weather modification

|

Programmes|

* Land allocation decision support system

Background and theory

| Measurements|

* Satellite measurements

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Theory|

* Albedo
* Carbon sink
* Climate change (general concept)
* Climate sensitivity
* Cloud forcing
* Feedbacks
* Effective temperature
* Earth's energy budget
* Global warming potential
* Radiative forcing

Research|

* Paleoclimatology
* Paleotempestology
* Climate model

* Glossary
* Index
* Climate change
* Global warming
* Portal

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission intensity. Read more

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