Environmental health

Short description: Public health branch focused on environmental impacts on human health

Not to be confused with Ecological health, Ecosystem health, or Environmental medicine.

Template:Public health sidebar

Conceptual map illustrating the connections among nonhuman nature, ecosystem services, environmental ethics, environmental justice, and public health Environmental health indicator (2016). It consists of three categories: health impacts, air quality, and water and sanitation. The health impacts category includes the environmental risk exposure indicator.

Environmental health is the branch of public health concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment affecting human health. Its study determines the requirements for a healthy environment, with the goal of effective control over the factors that affect health.[1] The major sub-disciplines of environmental health are environmental science, toxicology, environmental epidemiology, and environmental and occupational medicine.[2]

## Contents

* 1 Definitions
* 1.1 WHO definitions
* 1.2 Other considerations
* 2 Disciplines
* 2.1 Pediatric environmental health
* 3 Concerns
* 3.1 Air quality
* 3.1.1 Outdoor air quality
* 3.1.2 Indoor air quality
* 3.2 Climate change and its effects on health
* 3.3 Environmental racism
* 3.4 Noise pollution
* 3.5 Safe drinking water
* 3.6 Hazardous materials management
* 3.7 Microplastic pollution
* 3.8 Soil pollution
* 4 One Health and the Triple Planetary Crisis
* 4.1 Introduction
* 4.2 Background Information
* 4.3 Epidemiology and Statistics
* 4.4 Preventive Strategies
* 5 Information and mapping
* 6 Environmental health profession
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links

## Definitions

### WHO definitions

Environmental health was defined in a 1989 document by the World Health Organization (WHO) as: Those aspects of human health and disease that are determined by factors in the environment.[3] It is also referred to as the theory and practice of accessing and controlling factors in the environment that can potentially affect health.[4]

As of 2016[update], the WHO website on environmental health states that "Environmental health addresses all the physical, chemical, and biological factors external to a person, and all the related factors impacting behaviours. It encompasses the assessment and control of those environmental factors that can potentially affect health. It is targeted towards preventing disease and creating health-supportive environments. This definition excludes behaviour not related to environment, as well as behaviour related to the social and cultural environment, as well as genetics."[5][6][7]

Environmental health also looks at how exposure to things like air pollution, water contamination, and chemicals can affect people's health over time.[8]

### Other considerations

The term environmental medicine may be seen as a medical specialty, or branch of the broader field of environmental health.[9][10] Terminology is not fully established, and in many European countries they are used interchangeably.[11]

Other terms referring to or concerning environmental health include environmental public health and health protection.[12]

## Disciplines

Five basic disciplines generally contribute to the field of environmental health, with some overlap between them:

* Environmental epidemiology studies the relationship between environmental exposures (including exposure to chemicals, radiation, microbiological agents, etc.) and human health. Observational studies, which simply observe exposures that people have already experienced, are common in environmental epidemiology because humans cannot ethically be exposed to agents that are known or suspected to cause disease. While the inability to use experimental study designs is a limitation of environmental epidemiology, this discipline directly observes effects on human health rather than estimating effects from animal studies.[13] Environmental epidemiology is the study of the effect on human health of physical, biologic, and chemical factors in the external environment, broadly conceived. Also, examining specific populations or communities exposed to different ambient environments, Epidemiology in our environment aims to clarify the relationship that exist between physical, biologic or chemical factors and human health.[14]
* Toxicology studies how environmental exposures lead to specific health outcomes, generally in animals, as a means to understand possible health outcomes in humans. Toxicology has the advantage of being able to conduct randomized controlled trials and other experimental studies because they can use animal subjects. However, there are many differences in animal and human biology, and there can be a lot of uncertainty when interpreting the results of animal studies for their implications for human health.[15]
* Exposure science studies human exposure to environmental contaminants by both identifying and quantifying exposures. Exposure science can be used to support environmental epidemiology by better describing environmental exposures that may lead to a particular health outcome, identify common exposures whose health outcomes may be better understood through a toxicology study, or can be used in a risk assessment to determine whether current levels of exposure might exceed recommended levels. Exposure science has the advantage of being able to very accurately quantify exposures to specific chemicals, but it does not generate any information about health outcomes like environmental epidemiology or toxicology.[16]
* Environmental engineering applies scientific and engineering principles for protection of human populations from the effects of adverse environmental factors; protection of environments from potentially deleterious effects of natural and human activities; and general improvement of environmental quality.[17]
* Environmental law includes the network of treaties, statutes, regulations, common and customary laws addressing the effects of human activity on the natural environment.[18][19]

Information from epidemiology, toxicology, and exposure science can be combined to conduct a risk assessment for specific chemicals, mixtures of chemicals or other risk factors to determine whether an exposure poses significant risk to human health (exposure would likely result in the development of pollution-related diseases). This can in turn be used to develop and implement environmental health policy that, for example, regulates chemical emissions, or imposes standards for proper sanitation.[20] Intervention strategies from engineering and law can be combined to provide monitoring and risk management of exposure, and achieve the objective of protecting human health.[21]

### Pediatric environmental health

Children's environmental health is the academic discipline that studies how environmental exposures in early life—chemical, biological, nutritional, and social—influence health and development in childhood and across the entire human life span.[22] Pediatric environmental health is based on the recognition that children are not "little adults." Infants and children have unique patterns of exposure and vulnerabilities. Environmental risks of infants and children are qualitatively and quantitatively different from those of adults. Pediatric environmental health is highly interdisciplinary. It spans and brings together general pediatrics and numerous pediatric subspecialties as well as epidemiology, occupational and environmental medicine, medical toxicology, industrial hygiene, and exposure science.

## Concerns

Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution[23][24][25] FEMA/EPA Hazardous Materials Team removing hazards left in the wake of Hurricane Katrina, 2005

File:How is our sick planet making us sick.webm Environmental health concerns include:

* Biosafety.
* Disaster preparedness and response.
* Food safety, including in agriculture, transportation, food processing, wholesale and retail distribution and sale.
* Housing, including substandard housing abatement and the inspection of jails and prisons.
* Childhood lead poisoning prevention.
* Land use planning, including smart growth.
* Liquid waste disposal, including city waste water treatment plants and on-site waste water disposal systems, such as septic tank systems and chemical toilets.
* Medical waste management and disposal.
* Occupational health and industrial hygiene.
* Radiological health, including exposure to ionizing radiation from X-rays or radioactive isotopes.
* Recreational water illness prevention, including from swimming pools, spas and ocean and freshwater bathing places.
* Solid waste management, including landfills, recycling facilities, composting and solid waste transfer stations.
* Toxic chemical exposure whether in consumer products, housing, workplaces, air, water or soil.
* Toxins from molds and algal blooms.
* Vector control, including the control of mosquitoes, rodents, flies, cockroaches and other animals that may transmit pathogens.

According to recent estimates in Europe, about 5 to 10% of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost are due to environmental causes. By far the most important factor is fine particulate matter pollution in urban air.[26] Similarly, environmental exposures have been estimated to contribute to 4.9 million (8.7%) deaths and 86 million (5.7%) DALYs globally.[27] In the United States, Superfund sites created by various companies have been found to be hazardous to human and environmental health in nearby communities. It was this perceived threat, raising the specter of miscarriages, mutations, birth defects, and cancers that most frightened the public.[28]

### Air quality

Air quality includes ambient outdoor air quality and indoor air quality. Large concerns about air quality include environmental tobacco smoke, air pollution by forms of chemical waste, and other concerns.

#### Outdoor air quality

Air pollution is globally responsible for over 6.5 million deaths each year, as of 2022.[29][30] Air pollution is often a risk-factor for diseases like lung cancer, respiratory infections, asthma, heart disease, and other forms of respiratory-related illnesses.[31] Reducing air pollution, and thus developing air quality, has been found to decrease adult mortality.[32]

A Mumbai factory releasing air pollution.

Common products responsible for emissions include road traffic, energy production, household combustion, aviation and motor vehicles, and other forms of pollutants.[33][34] These pollutants are responsible for the burning of fuel, which can release harmful particles into the air that humans and other living organisms can inhale or ingest.[35]

Air pollution is associated with adverse health effects like respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, related illnesses, and even death.[36] The risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and the amount of exposure that affects a person.[37] For example, a child who plays outdoor sports will have a higher likelihood of outdoor air pollution exposure than an adult who tends to spend more time indoors, whether at work or elsewhere.[37] Environmental health officials work to detect individuals who are at higher risks of consuming air pollution, detect risk factors present in communities, work to decrease overall community exposure.[38]

#### Indoor air quality

Household air pollution contributes to diseases that kill almost 4.3 million people every year, as of 2014.[39] Indoor air pollution contributes to risk factors for diseases like heart disease, pulmonary disease, stroke, pneumonia, and other associated illnesses.[39] For vulnerable populations, such as children and elderly populations, who spend large amounts of their time indoors, poor indoor air quality can be dangerous.[40]

Burning fuels like coal or kerosene inside homes can cause dangerous chemicals to be released into the air.[39] Dampness and mold in houses can cause diseases, but few studies have been performed on mold in schools and workplaces.[41] Environmental tobacco smoke is considered to be a leading contributor to indoor air pollution since exposure to second and third-hand smoke is a common risk factor.[42] Tobacco smoke contains over 60 carcinogens, where 18% are known human carcinogens.[43] Exposure to these chemicals can lead to exacerbation of asthma, the development of cardiovascular diseases and cardiopulmonary diseases, and an increase in the likelihood of cancer development.[44]

### Climate change and its effects on health

Climate change, in addition to its other effects, makes extreme weather events more likely, including ozone smog events, dust storms, and elevated aerosol levels, all due to extreme heat, drought, winds, and rainfall.[45][46] These extreme weather events can increase the likelihood of undernutrition, mortality, food insecurity, and climate-sensitive infectious diseases in vulnerable populations.[47] The effects of climate change are felt by the whole world, but disproportionately affect disadvantaged populations who are subject to climate change vulnerability.[48]

Water runoff in Maryland, USA.

Climate impacts can affect exposure to water-borne pathogens through increased rates of runoff, frequent heavy rains, and the effects of severe storms.[49] Extreme weather events and storm surges can also exceed the capacity of water infrastructure, which can increase the likelihood that populations will be exposed to these contaminants.[49][50] Exposure to these contaminants are more likely in low-income communities, where they have inadequate infrastructure to respond to climate disasters and are less likely to recover from infrastructure damage as quickly.[51]

Problems like the loss of homes, loved ones, and previous ways of life, are often what people face after a climate disaster occurs. These events can lead to vulnerability in the form of housing affordability stress, lower household income, lack of community attachment, grief, and anxiety around another disaster occurring.[48]

### Environmental racism

Certain groups of people can be put at a higher risk for environmental hazards like air, soil and water pollution. This often happens due to marginalization, economic and political processes, and racism. Environmental racism uniquely affects different groups globally, however generally the most marginalized groups of any region are most affected. These marginalized groups are frequently put next to pollution sources like major roadways, toxic waste sites, landfills, and chemical plants.[52] In a 2021 study, it was found that racial and ethnic minority groups in the United States are exposed to disproportionately high levels of particulate air pollution.[53] Racial housing policies that exist in the United States continue to exacerbate racial minority exposure to air pollution at a disproportionate rate, even as overall pollution levels have declined.[53] Likewise, in a 2022 study, it was shown that implementing policy changes that favor wealth redistribution could double as climate change mitigation measures.[54] For populations who are not subject to wealth redistribution measures, this means more money will flow into their communities while climate effects are mitigated.[53][54]

### Noise pollution

Airplane flying over a residential district.

Noise pollution is usually environmental, machine-created sound that can disrupt activities or communication between humans and other forms of life. Exposure to persistent noise pollution can cause numerous ailments like hearing impairment, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular problems, annoyance, problems with communication and other diseases.[55] For American minorities that live in neighborhoods of low socioeconomic status, they often experience higher levels of noise pollution compared to their higher socioeconomic counterparts.[56]

Noise pollution can cause or exacerbate cardiovascular diseases, which can further attribute to a larger range of diseases, increase stress levels, and cause sleep disturbances.[56] Noise pollution is also responsible for many reported cases of hearing loss, tinnitus, and other forms of hypersensitivity(stress/irritability) or lack thereof to sound(present or subconscious from continuous exposure).[56] These conditions can be dangerous to children and young adults who consistently experience noise pollution, as many of these conditions can develop into long-term problems, including physical and mental health issues.[56]

Children who attend school in noisy traffic zones have shown to have 15% lower memory development compared to other students who attended schools in quiet traffic zones, according to a Barcelona study.[57] This is consistent with research that suggests that children who are exposed to regular aircraft noise "have inadequate performance on standardised achievement tests."[58]

Exposure to persistent noise pollution can cause one to develop hearing impairments, like tinnitus or impaired speech discrimination.[59] One of the largest factors in worsened mental health due to noise pollution is annoyance.[60][61] Annoyance due to environmental factors has been found to increase stress reactions and overall feelings of stress among adults.[55] The level of annoyance felt by an individual varies, but contributes to worsened mental health significantly.[61]

Noise exposure also contributes to sleep disturbances, which can cause daytime sleepiness and an overall lack of sleep, which contributes to worsened health.[61] Daytime sleepiness has been linked to several reports of declining mental health and other health issues, job insecurities and further social and environmental factors declining.

### Safe drinking water

Well installation for safe drinking water.

Access to safe drinking water is considered a "basic human need for health and well-being" by the United Nations.[62] According to their reports, over 2 billion people worldwide live without access to safe drinking water.[63] In 2017, almost 22 million Americans drank from water systems that were in violation of public health standards.[64] Globally, over 2 billion people drink feces-contaminated water, which poses the greatest threat to drinking water safety.[65] Contaminated drinking water could transmit diseases like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, diarrhea and polio.[65]

Harmful chemicals in drinking water can negatively affect health. Unsafe water management practices can increase the prevalence of water-borne diseases and sanitation-related illnesses.[66][67] Inadequate disinfecting of wastewater in industrial and agricultural centers can also infect hundreds of millions of people with contaminated water.[65] Chemicals like fluoride and arsenic can benefit humans when the levels of these chemicals are controlled;but other, more dangerous chemicals like lead and metals can be harmful to humans.[65]

In America, communities of color can be subject to poor-quality water.[68] In communities in America with large Hispanic and black populations, there is a correlated rise in SDWA health violations.[68] Populations who have experienced lack of safe drinking water, like populations in Flint, Michigan, are more likely to distrust tap water in their communities.[51] Populations to experience this are commonly low-income, communities of color.[69]

### Hazardous materials management

Hazardous materials management, including hazardous waste management, contaminated site remediation, the prevention of leaks from underground storage tanks and the prevention of hazardous materials releases to the environment and responses to emergency situations resulting from such releases. When hazardous materials are not managed properly, waste can pollute nearby water sources and reduce air quality.[70]

According to a study done in Austria, people who live near industrial sites are "more often unemployed, have lower educations levels, and are twice as likely to be immigrants.[71] With the interest of environmental health in mind, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act was passed in the United States in 1976 that covered how to properly manage hazardous waste.[72]

There are a variety of occupations that work with hazardous materials and help manage them so that everything is disposed of correctly. These professionals work in various sectors, including government agencies, private industry, consulting firms, and non-profit organizations, all with the common goal of ensuring the safe handling of hazardous materials and waste. These positions include but are not limited to Environmental Health and Safety Specialists, Waste collectors, Medical Professionals, and Emergency Responders.[73] Handling waste, especially hazardous materials is considered one of the most dangerous occupations in the world.[74] Often, these workers may not have all of information about the specific hazardous materials they encounter, making their jobs even more dangerous. The sudden exposure to materials they are not properly prepared to handle can lead to severe consequences.[75] This emphasizes the importance of training, safety protocols, and the use of personal protective equipment for those working with hazardous waste.

### Microplastic pollution

This section is an excerpt from Microplastics and human health[ edit ]

### Soil pollution

This section is an excerpt from Soil contamination § Exposure pathways[ edit ]

## One Health and the Triple Planetary Crisis

The One Health triad illustrating the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, a framework essential for addressing the triple planetary crisis.

### Introduction

The "triple planetary crisis"—comprising climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss—poses a unified threat to world stability and human health. The One Health method is the principal framework in public health for addressing these interconnected challenges, highlighting the interdependence of human health, domestic and wild animals, plants, and the broader environment. By 2026, global policy has evolved to acknowledge these environmental changes as fundamental factors influencing 21st-century disease patterns.[76]

### Background Information

The triple planetary crisis underscores the urgency of ecological collapse. Traditionally, environmental health emphasised localised sanitation; however, the contemporary global landscape necessitates a planetary health approach. Human activity damages ecosystems, hence eliminating the natural barriers that inhibit zoonotic spread. This deterioration is intensified by global warming; as of 2026, studies reveal that compound drought-heatwave occurrences have surged approximately eightfold since the early 2000s, undermining the biophysical systems essential for health security.[77]

### Epidemiology and Statistics

Epidemiological data from 2025 and 2026 indicates a notable rise in mortality associated with environmental factors:

·  Air Pollution: The 2025 State of Global Air report blames 7.9 million deaths in 2023 on air pollution. This estimate, for the first time, incorporates the impact of dementia, revealing that prolonged exposure to P M 2.5 correlates with more than 625,000 yearly fatalities attributed to the condition.[78]

·  Climate-Driven Hazards: The 2025 Lancet Countdown reported that 12 out of 20 critical health indicators attained unprecedented levels in 2024. Droughts and heatwaves resulted in an additional 124 million individuals experiencing moderate or severe food insecurity .[79]

### Preventive Strategies

Addressing these crises through a One Health perspective necessitates a shift towards "upstream" prevention. Essential strategies encompass:

·  Decarbonization: Eradicating reliance on fossil fuels to reduce the millions of annual fatalities attributed to outdoor air pollution.

·  Integrated Surveillance: Fortifying global networks to track antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and pathogens across human, animal, and environmental reservoirs, including wastewater.[80]

·  Nature-Based Solutions: Safeguarding biodiversity to serve as a natural safeguard against disease emergence and to bolster climate resilience.

## Information and mapping

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP)[81] is a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site that includes open access to resources produced by US government agencies and organizations, maintained under the umbrella of the Specialized Information Service at the United States National Library of Medicine. TEHIP was responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET),[82] an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases including the Hazardous Substances Data Bank, that was open access. TOXNET was retired in 2019.[83]

There are many environmental health mapping tools. TOXMAP is a geographic information system (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services[84] of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs. TOXMAP is a resource funded by the US federal government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from the NLM's Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)[85] and PubMed, and from other authoritative sources.

## Environmental health profession

Environmental health professionals may be known as environmental health officers, public health inspectors, environmental health specialists or environmental health practitioners. Researchers and policy-makers also play important roles in how environmental health is practiced in the field. In many European countries, physicians and veterinarians are involved in environmental health.[86] Many countries require graduate degrees and professional licenses to practice environmental health.[87]

The environmental health profession had its modern-day roots in the sanitary and public health movement of the United Kingdom. This was epitomized by Sir Edwin Chadwick, who was instrumental in the repeal of the poor laws, and in 1884 was the founding president of the Association of Public Sanitary Inspectors, now called the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health.[88]

## See also

*   * EcoHealth
* Environmental disease
* Environmental medicine
* Environmental toxicology
* Epigenetics
* Exposure science
* Healing environments
* Health effects from noise
* Heavy metals
* Indoor air quality
* Industrial and organizational psychology
* Livability
* NIEHS
* Nightingale's environmental theory
* One Health
* Pollution
* Volatile organic compound

Journals:

* List of environmental health journals

## References

1. ↑ Dovjak, Mateja; Kukec, Andreja (2019), "Health Outcomes Related to Built Environments" (in en), Creating Healthy and Sustainable Buildings (Cham: Springer International Publishing): pp. 43–82, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19412-3_2, ISBN 978-3-030-19411-6
2. ↑ Kelley, Timothy (2008-07-21). "The ecology of environmental health". Environmental Health Insights 2 (1): 25–26. doi:10.1177/117863020800200001. ISSN 1178-6302. PMID 21572828. Bibcode: 2008EnvHI...200200K.
3. ↑ "What is environmental health?" (in en-US). https://www.ehinz.ac.nz/indicators/overview/what-is-environmental-health/#:~:text=Environmental health refers to aspects,psychosocial factors in the environment.
4. ↑ von Schirnding, Yasmin E.R. (February 2015). "11.5 Environmental health practice". in Detels, Roger. Oxford Textbook of Global Public Health (6 ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 1523–1541. doi:10.1093/med/9780199661756.003.0240. ISBN 978-0-19-966175-6. https://academic.oup.com/book/35585/chapter-abstract/306374236. Retrieved 2024-08-12.
5. ↑ "Health topics: Environmental health". https://www.who.int/topics/environmental_health/en/.
6. ↑ Brooks, Bryan W.; Gerding, Justin A.; Landeen, Elizabeth; Bradley, Eric; Callahan, Timothy; Cushing, Stephanie; Hailu, Fikru; Hall, Nancy et al. (2019). "Environmental Health Practice Challenges and Research Needs for U.S. Health Departments". Environmental Health Perspectives 127 (12): 125001. doi:10.1289/EHP5161. ISSN 1552-9924. PMID 31799881. Bibcode: 2019EnvHP.127l5001B.
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23. ↑ "World Resources Institute: August 2008 Monthly Update: Air Pollution's Causes, Consequences and Solutions". http://earthtrends.wri.org/updates/node/325.
24. ↑ "Overview of Waterborne Disease Trends". http://www.waterhealthconnection.org/chapter3.asp.
25. ↑ "Potential Health Effects of Pesticides". Pennsylvania State University. http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uo198.pdf.
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31. ↑ "7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution" (in en). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/25-03-2014-7-million-premature-deaths-annually-linked-to-air-pollution.
32. ↑ Rovira, Joaquim; Domingo, José L.; Schuhmacher, Marta (2020). "Air quality, health impacts and burden of disease due to air pollution (PM10, PM2.5, NO2 and O3): Application of AirQ+ model to the Camp de Tarragona County (Catalonia, Spain)". Science of the Total Environment 703. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135538. PMID 31759725. Bibcode: 2020ScTEn.70335538R.
33. ↑ Prüss-Üstün, Annette; Wolf, J.; Corvalán, Carlos F.; Bos, R.; Neira, Maria Purificación (2016) (in en). ﻿Preventing disease through healthy environments: a global assessment of the burden of disease from environmental risks﻿ (Report). World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-156519-6. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/204585.
34. ↑ US EPA, OAR (2015-09-10). "Overview of Air Pollution from Transportation" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/transportation-air-pollution-and-climate-change/overview-air-pollution-transportation.
35. ↑ "Air Pollution and Your Health" (in en). https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/air-pollution.
36. ↑ Abdo, Nour; Khader, Yousef S.; Abdelrahman, Mostafa; Graboski-Bauer, Ashley; Malkawi, Mazen; Al-Sharif, Munjed; Elbetieha, Ahmad M. (2016-06-01). "Respiratory health outcomes and air pollution in the Eastern Mediterranean Region: a systematic review". Reviews on Environmental Health 31 (2): 259–280. doi:10.1515/reveh-2015-0076. ISSN 2191-0308. PMID 27101544. Bibcode: 2016RvEH...31.0076A.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Vallero, Daniel (2014-08-13). Fundamentals of Air Pollution. Amsterdam Boston: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-401733-7.
38. ↑ Manisalidis, Ioannis; Stavropoulou, Elisavet; Stavropoulos, Agathangelos; Bezirtzoglou, Eugenia (2020-02-20). "Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review" (in English). Frontiers in Public Health 8. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014. ISSN 2296-2565. PMID 32154200. Bibcode: 2020FrPH....8...14M.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 "Public health round-up". Bulletin of the World Health Organization 92 (12): 852–853. 2014-12-01. doi:10.2471/BLT.14.011214. ISSN 0042-9686.
40. ↑ Cincinelli, Alessandra; Martellini, Tania (2017-10-25). "Indoor Air Quality and Health". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 14 (11): 1286. doi:10.3390/ijerph14111286. ISSN 1660-4601. PMID 29068361.
41. ↑ Lanthier-Veilleux, Mathieu; Baron, Geneviève; Généreux, Mélissa (2016-11-18). "Respiratory Diseases in University Students Associated with Exposure to Residential Dampness or Mold". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13 (11): 1154. doi:10.3390/ijerph13111154. ISSN 1660-4601. PMID 27869727.
42. ↑ Mueller, Daniel; Uibel, Stefanie; Braun, Markus; Klingelhoefer, Doris; Takemura, Masaya; Groneberg, David A (2011). "Tobacco smoke particles and indoor air quality (ToPIQ) - the protocol of a new study". Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology 6 (1): 35. doi:10.1186/1745-6673-6-35. ISSN 1745-6673. PMID 22188808.
43. ↑ Hoffmann, Dietrich; Hoffmann, Ilse (October 2001). "The Changing Cigarette: Chemical Studies and Bioassays". in Shopland, Donald. Risks Associated with Smoking Cigarettes with Low Machine-Measured Yields of Tar and Nicotine (13 ed.). National Cancer Institute. pp. 160–170. https://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/sites/default/files/2020-06/m13_5.pdf.
44. ↑ Vidale, Simone; Bonanomi, A.; Guidotti, M.; Arnaboldi, M.; Sterzi, R. (2010-04-30). "Air pollution positively correlates with daily stroke admission and in hospital mortality: a study in the urban area of Como, Italy". Neurological Sciences 31 (2): 179–182. doi:10.1007/s10072-009-0206-8. ISSN 1590-3478. PMID 20119741.
45. ↑ Paton-Walsh, Clare; Rayner, Peter; Simmons, Jack; Fiddes, Sonya L.; Schofield, Robyn; Bridgman, Howard; Beaupark, Stephanie; Broome, Richard et al. (2019-12-04). "A Clean Air Plan for Sydney: An Overview of the Special Issue on Air Quality in New South Wales". Atmosphere 10 (12): 774. doi:10.3390/atmos10120774. ISSN 2073-4433. Bibcode: 2019Atmos..10..774P.
46. ↑ Keywood, Melita; Cope, Martin; Meyer, C.P. Mick; Iinuma, Yoshi; Emmerson, Kathryn (2015). "When smoke comes to town: The impact of biomass burning smoke on air quality". Atmospheric Environment 121: 13–21. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.03.050. Bibcode: 2015AtmEn.121...13K.
47. ↑ Romanello, Marina; McGushin, Alice; Di Napoli, Claudia; Drummond, Paul; Hughes, Nick; Jamart, Louis; Kennard, Harry; Lampard, Pete et al. (2021-10-30). "The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: code red for a healthy future" (in en). The Lancet 398 (10311): 1619–1662. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6. PMID 34687662.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Li, Ang; Toll, Mathew; Martino, Erika; Wiesel, Ilan; Botha, Ferdi; Bentley, Rebecca (2023). "Vulnerability and recovery: Long-term mental and physical health trajectories following climate-related disasters". Social Science & Medicine 320. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115681. PMID 36731303.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "Climate Impacts on Human Health" (in en). https://climatechange.chicago.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-human-health.
50. ↑ Crimmins, A.; Balbus, J.; Gamble, J.L.; Beard, C.B.; Bell, J.E.; Dodgen, D.; Eisen, R.J.; Fann, N. et al. (2016). ﻿The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment﻿ (Report). doi:10.7930/j0r49nqx.
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 "Creating The Healthiest Nation: Water and Health Equity". https://www.apha.org/-/media/files/pdf/factsheets/waterhealthequity_factsheet2022_finalversion.pdf.
52. ↑ Kaufman, Joel D.; Hajat, Anjum (2021-05-20). "Confronting Environmental Racism" (in en). Environmental Health Perspectives 129 (5). doi:10.1289/EHP9511. ISSN 0091-6765. PMID 34014764. Bibcode: 2021EnvHP.129e1001K.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Tessum, Christopher W.; Paolella, David A.; Chambliss, Sarah E.; Apte, Joshua S.; Hill, Jason D.; Marshall, Julian D. (2021-04-28). "PM2.5 polluters disproportionately and systemically affect people of color in the United States". Science Advances 7 (18). doi:10.1126/sciadv.abf4491. ISSN 2375-2548. PMID 33910895. Bibcode: 2021SciA....7.4491T.
54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 Adua, Lazarus (2022-03-01). "Super polluters and carbon emissions: Spotlighting how higher-income and wealthier households disproportionately despoil our atmospheric commons". Energy Policy 162. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112768. ISSN 0301-4215. Bibcode: 2022EnPol.16212768A. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421521006340.
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Basner, Mathias; Babisch, Wolfgang; Davis, Adrian; Brink, Mark; Clark, Charlotte; Janssen, Sabine; Stansfeld, Stephen (2014-04-12). "Auditory and non-auditory effects of noise on health". Lancet 383 (9925): 1325–1332. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61613-X. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 24183105. Bibcode: 2014Lanc..383.1325B.
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 "Urban noise pollution is worst in poor and minority neighborhoods and segregated cities" (in en-us). 2017-10-07. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/urban-noise-pollution-worst-poor-minority-neighborhoods-segregated-cities.
57. ↑ Foraster, Maria; Esnaola, Mikel; López-Vicente, Mónica; Rivas, Ioar; Álvarez-Pedrerol, Mar; Persavento, Cecilia; Sebastian-Galles, Nuria; Pujol, Jesus et al. (2022-06-02). "Exposure to road traffic noise and cognitive development in schoolchildren in Barcelona, Spain: A population-based cohort study". PLOS Medicine 19 (6). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004001. ISSN 1549-1676. PMID 35653430.
58. ↑ Basner, Mathias; Clark, Charlotte; Hansell, Anna; Hileman, James I.; Janssen, Sabine; Shepherd, Kevin; Sparrow, Victor (2017). "Aviation Noise Impacts: State of the Science". Noise & Health 19 (87): 41–50. doi:10.4103/nah.NAH_104_16. ISSN 1463-1741. PMID 29192612.
59. ↑ Passchier-Vermeer, W; Passchier, W F (March 2000). "Noise exposure and public health.". Environmental Health Perspectives 108 (Suppl 1): 123–131. doi:10.1289/ehp.00108s1123. ISSN 0091-6765. PMID 10698728. Bibcode: 2000EnvHP.108S.123P.
60. ↑ Hammersen, Friederike; Niemann, Hildegard; Hoebel, Jens (2016-09-26). "Environmental Noise Annoyance and Mental Health in Adults: Findings from the Cross-Sectional German Health Update (GEDA) Study 2012". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 13 (10): 954. doi:10.3390/ijerph13100954. ISSN 1660-4601. PMID 27681736. Bibcode: 2016IJERP..13..954H.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 Basner, Mathias; Babisch, Wolfgang; Davis, Adrian; Brink, Mark; Clark, Charlotte; Janssen, Sabine; Stansfeld, Stephen (2014). "Auditory and non-auditory effects of noise on health". The Lancet 383 (9925): 1325–1332. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61613-X. PMID 24183105. Bibcode: 2014Lanc..383.1325B.
62. ↑ Martin. "Water and Sanitation" (in en-US). https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/.
63. ↑ "SDG Indicators — SDG Indicators". United Nations. https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/.
64. ↑ "Drinking Water and Public Health in the United States". https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2020/01/13/drinking-water-and-public-health-in-the-united-states.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 65.3 "Drinking-water" (in en). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water.
66. ↑ Omole, David; Ndambuki, Julius (2014-08-12). "Sustainable Living in Africa: Case of Water, Sanitation, Air Pollution and Energy". Sustainability 6 (8): 5187–5202. doi:10.3390/su6085187. ISSN 2071-1050. Bibcode: 2014Sust....6.5187O.
67. ↑ Emenike, C. P.; Tenebe, I. T.; Omole, D. O.; Ngene, B. U.; Oniemayin, B. I.; Maxwell, O.; Onoka, B. I. (2017-04-01). "Accessing safe drinking water in sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and challenges in South–West Nigeria". Sustainable Cities and Society 30: 263–272. doi:10.1016/j.scs.2017.01.005. ISSN 2210-6707. Bibcode: 2017SusCS..30..263E. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2210670716301500.
68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Switzer, David; Teodoro, Manuel P. (September 2017). "The Color of Drinking Water: Class, Race, Ethnicity, and Safe Drinking Water Act Compliance" (in en). Journal AWWA 109 (9): 40–45. doi:10.5942/jawwa.2017.109.0128. ISSN 0003-150X. Bibcode: 2017JAWWA.109i..40S. https://awwa.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.5942/jawwa.2017.109.0128.
69. ↑ Patel, Anisha I.; Schmidt, Laura A. (2017). "Water Access in the United States: Health Disparities Abound and Solutions Are Urgently Needed". American Journal of Public Health 107 (9): 1354–1356. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2017.303972. ISSN 0090-0036. PMID 28787195.
70. ↑ Shen, Thomas T. (1985). "Air pollution assessment of toxic emissions from hazardous waste lagoons and landfills". Environment International 11 (1): 71–76. doi:10.1016/0160-4120(85)90104-7. Bibcode: 1985EnInt..11...71S.
71. ↑ Glatter-Götz, Helene; Mohai, Paul; Haas, Willi; Plutzar, Christoph (2019-07-01). "Environmental inequality in Austria: do inhabitants' socioeconomic characteristics differ depending on their proximity to industrial polluters?". Environmental Research Letters 14 (7): 074007. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab1611. ISSN 1748-9326. Bibcode: 2019ERL....14g4007G.
72. ↑ US EPA, OLEM (2015-11-25). "Learn the Basics of Hazardous Waste" (in en). https://www.epa.gov/hw/learn-basics-hazardous-waste.
73. ↑ Atlas, Mark K. (October 2001). "Safe and Sorry: Risk, Environmental Equity, and Hazardous Waste Management Facilities" (in en). Risk Analysis 21 (5): 939–954. doi:10.1111/0272-4332.215163. ISSN 0272-4332. PMID 11798128. Bibcode: 2001RiskA..21..939A. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/0272-4332.215163.
74. ↑ Fazzo, L.; Minichilli, F.; Santoro, M.; Ceccarini, A.; Della Seta, M.; Bianchi, F.; Comba, P.; Martuzzi, M. (2017-10-11). "Hazardous waste and health impact: a systematic review of the scientific literature". Environmental Health 16 (1): 107. doi:10.1186/s12940-017-0311-8. ISSN 1476-069X. PMID 29020961. Bibcode: 2017EnvHe..16..107F.
75. ↑ Tshivhase, Shonisani E.; Mashau, Ntsieni S.; Ngobeni, Takalani; Ramathuba, Dorah U. (2022-12-09). "Occupational health and safety hazards among solid waste handlers at a selected municipality South Africa" (in English). Health SA Gesondheid 27: 8. doi:10.4102/hsag.v27i0.1978. ISSN 2071-9736. PMID 36570087. PMC 9772716. https://hsag.co.za/index.php/hsag/article/view/1978.
76. ↑ WHO (2026). "Joint statement on the renewed Quadripartite Memorandum of Understanding regarding cooperation on One Health until 2030". https://www.who.int/news/item/03-02-2026-joint-statement-on-the-renewed-quadripartite-memorandum-of-understanding-regarding-cooperation-on-one-health-until-2030.
77. ↑ Kim, Y.J.; Yeh, S.W.; Wang, G.; Ng, B. (2026-03-06). "Nonlinear increase of compound drought-heatwave events since the early 2000s". Science Advances 12 (10). doi:10.1126/sciadv.aea3038. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aea3038. Retrieved 2026-03-21.
78. ↑ Health Effects Institute (2025-06-18). "State of Global Air 2025: New Report Shows Nearly 9 of 10 Global Air Pollution Deaths are From Noncommunicable Diseases" (in en). Health Effects Institute. https://www.healthdata.org/news-events/newsroom/news-releases/new-report-shows-nearly-9-10-global-air-pollution-deaths-are.
79. ↑ World Health Organization (2025-10-29). "Climate inaction is claiming millions of lives every year, warns new Lancet Countdown report" (in en). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/29-10-2025-climate-inaction-is-claiming-millions-of-lives-every-year--warns-new-lancet-countdown-report.
80. ↑ UNEP (2025) (in en). ﻿Global Environment Outlook (GEO-7): Investing in Planetary Health﻿ (Report). Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme. https://www.unep.org/resources/global-environment-outlook-7. Retrieved 2026-03-21.
81. ↑ "TEHIP". United States National Library of Medicine. http://sis.nlm.nih.gov/enviro.html.
82. ↑ "TOXNET". United States National Library of Medicine. http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/.
83. ↑ "TOXNET Update: New Locations for TOXNET Content". https://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/techbull/tb.html.
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87. ↑ States, Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Assess Training Needs for Occupational Safety and Health Personnel in the United (2000), "Occupational Safety and Health Professionals" (in en), Safe Work in the 21st Century: Education and Training Needs for the Next Decade's Occupational Safety and Health Personnel (National Academies Press (US)), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225528/, retrieved 2023-10-19
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## Further reading

* Andrew M. Pope; David P. Rall (1995). Committee on Curriculum Development in Environmental Medicine at the Institute of Medicine. ed. Environmental Medicine – Integrating a Missing Element into Medical Education. National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-05140-1. http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=4795.
* Kate Davies (2013). The Rise of the U.S. Environmental Health Movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-2137-6. https://archive.org/details/riseofusenvironm0000davi.
* White, Franklin; Stallones, Lorann; Last, John M. (2013). Global Public Health: Ecological Foundations. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-975190-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=iE8SXPGGbeMC.
* Jouko Tuomisto (2005). "Arsenic to zoonoses – One hundred questions about the environment and health". Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos (National Institute for Health and Welfare, Finland). http://en.opasnet.org/w/Arsenic_to_zoonoses/Contents.
* "Environment and Health A to Z". NIEHS. 2023. http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/materials/environment_and_health_a_to_z_508.pdf.
* Patrick Sogno, Claudia Traidl-Hoffmann, Claudia Kuenzer: Earth Observation Data Supporting Non-Communicable Disease Research: A Review. Remote Sensing (12), 2020, P. 1-34. doi: 10.3390/rs12162541. ISSN 2072-4292.

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