Reef

A reef is a ridge or shoal of rock, coral, or similar relatively stable material lying beneath the surface of a natural body of water.[1] Many reefs result from natural, abiotic (non-living) processes such as deposition of sand or wave erosion planing down rock outcrops. However, reefs such as the coral reefs of tropical waters are formed by biotic (living) processes, dominated by corals and coralline algae. Artificial reefs, such as shipwrecks and other man-made underwater structures, may occur intentionally or as the result of an accident. These are sometimes designed to increase the physical complexity of featureless sand bottoms to attract a more diverse range of organisms. They provide shelter to various aquatic animals which help prevent extinction.[2] Another reason reefs are put in place is for aquaculture, and fish farmers who are looking to improve their businesses sometimes invest in them.[3] Reefs are often quite near to the surface, but not all definitions require this.[1]

Earth's largest coral reef system is the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, at a length of over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 miles).[4]

## Contents

* 1 Coral Bleaching
* 2 Global Coral Bleaching Events
* 3 Impacts of Coral Bleaching
* 4 Conservation and Mitigation Efforts
* 5 Etymology
* 6 Classification
* 6.1 Biotic
* 6.1.1 Mounds
* 6.2 Geologic
* 6.2.1 Structures
* 6.3 Artificial
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Sources
* 10 External links

## Coral Bleaching

Bleached Coral

When corals are exposed to high-stress events such as temperature change, air exposure, sun exposure, and nutrient availability, the zooxanthellae algae that live within the coral's tissues are expelled, leaving the coral colorless- or bleached. The most common coral stressor is exposure to heat.[5][6]

The loss of energy-producing algae leaves the coral exposed, weak, and nutrient deficient. This affects the coral's ability to provide for marine ecosystems.[7] The algae are unable to return back to the coral's tissues so long as the stress event that caused the initial bleaching still remains. If the stress event is not mitigated, the coral will eventually die. Corals are important species in marine ecosystems. Corals act as resources for a third of marine populations, using them for habitat, protection, and spawning grounds.[8]

## Global Coral Bleaching Events

A global coral bleaching event is a significant period of mass coral bleaching in reefs across the globe. Coral reefs and the monitoring of bleaching activity in them is primarily overseen by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN)​, International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI)[9], and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (for the United States).[10]

In February 2023, significant coral bleaching was observed in reefs, which continued until April 2024, with bleaching observed across at least 83 different countries. This major event was classified by the ICRI and the NOAA as our 4th major global coral bleaching event.[11][12] The first 3 bleaching events occurred across 18 years, the first event observed in 1998, and the 3rd event occurring in late 2015 to early 2016.[13] 84% of the world's reefs have been affected by bleaching during the recent 4th global bleaching event. During the 1st global bleaching event in 1998, only 21% of the world's reefs saw bleaching impacts.

## Impacts of Coral Bleaching

Coral reefs act as a barrier for coastlines, blocking forceful waves and storms from causing extreme damage to shores and the buildings and people that live on them. With the depletion of coral reefs, these coastlines are significantly more vulnerable to damages from storms, potentially costing lives and millions of dollars in property damages.[14]

## Conservation and Mitigation Efforts

The main conservation and mitigation efforts for coral reefs are identifying high-risk areas and observing for emergency events, so that emergency response is possible and quick. Repopulating coral, mitigating stress environments, and improving existing water quality are all main ways of reviving and protecting our world's coral reefs.[15][16]

## Etymology

The word "reef" traces its origins back to the Old Norse word rif, meaning "rib" or "reef". Rif comes from the Proto-Germanic term ribją meaning "rib".[17]

## Classification

Reefs may be classified in terms of their origin, geographical location, depth, and topography. For example a tropical coral fringing reef, or a temperate rocky intertidal reef.

### Biotic

Part of Great Barrier Reef

A variety of biotic reef types exists, including oyster reefs and sponge reefs, but the most massive and widely distributed are tropical coral reefs.[1] Although corals are major contributors to the framework and bulk material comprising a coral reef, the organisms most responsible for reef growth against the constant assault from ocean waves are calcareous algae, especially, although not entirely, coralline algae.

Oyster larvae prefer to settle on adult oysters and thereby develop layers building upwards. These eventually form a fairly massive hard stony calcium carbonate structure on which other reef organisms like sponges and seaweeds can grow and provide a habitat for mobile benthic organisms.[1]

These biotic reef types take on additional names depending upon how the reef lies in relation to the land, if any. Reef types include fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. A fringing reef is a reef that is attached to a landmass. Whereas, a barrier reef forms a calcareous barrier around a landmass, resulting in a lagoon between the shore and the reef. Conversely, an atoll is a ring reef with no land present.

The reef front, facing the ocean, is a high energy locale. Whereas, the internal lagoon will be at a lower energy with fine grained sediments.

#### Mounds

Both mounds and reefs are considered to be varieties of organosedimentary buildups, which are sedimentary features, built by the interaction of organisms and their environment. These interactions have a synoptic relief and whose biotic composition differs from that found on and beneath the surrounding sea floor. However, reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework, as what is seen on coral reefs. Corals and calcareous algae grow on top of one another, forming a three-dimensional framework that is modified in various ways by other organisms and inorganic processes.

Conversely, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal framework. Instead, they are built by microorganisms or by organisms that also lack a skeletal framework. A microbial mound might be built exclusively or primarily by cyanobacteria. Examples of biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in the Great Salt Lake in Utah, United States, and in Shark Bay on the coast of Western Australia.[18]

Cyanobacteria do not have skeletons, and individual organisms are microscopic. However, they can encourage the precipitation or accumulation of calcium carbonate to produce distinct sediment bodies in composition that have relief on the seafloor. Cyanobacterial mounds were most abundant before the evolution of shelly macroscopic organisms, but they still exist today. Stromatolites, for instance, are microbial mounds with a laminated internal structure. Whereas, bryozoans and crinoids, common contributors to marine sediments during the Mississippian period, produce a different kind of mound. Although bryozoans are small and crinoid skeletons disintegrate, bryozoan and crinoid meadows can persist over time and produce compositionally distinct bodies of sediment with depositional relief. [19]

The Proterozoic Belt Supergroup contains evidence of possible microbial mat and dome structures similar to stromatolite reef complexes.[20]

### Geologic

Rocky reefs are underwater outcrops of rock projecting above the adjacent unconsolidated surface with varying relief. They can be found in depth ranges from intertidal to deep water and provide a substrate for a large range of sessile benthic organisms, and shelter for a large range of mobile organisms.[21] They are often located in sub-tropical, temperate, and sub-polar latitudes.

#### Structures

Fossil brain coral (Diploria) at the Windley Key Fossil Reef Geological State Park. US Quarter near top for scale.

Ancient reefs buried within stratigraphic sections are of considerable interest to geologists because they provide paleo-environmental information about the location in Earth's history. In addition, reef structures within a sequence of sedimentary rocks provide a discontinuity which may serve as a trap or conduit for fossil fuels or mineralizing fluids to form petroleum or ore deposits.[22]

Corals, including some major extinct groups Rugosa and Tabulata, have been important reef builders through much of the Phanerozoic since the Ordovician Period. However, other organism groups, such as calcifying algae, especially members of the red algae (Rhodophyta), and molluscs (especially the rudist bivalves during the Cretaceous Period) have created massive structures at various times.

During the Cambrian Period, the conical or tubular skeletons of Archaeocyatha, an extinct group of uncertain affinities (possibly sponges), built reefs.[23] Other groups, such as the Bryozoa, have been important interstitial organisms, living between the framework builders. The corals which build reefs today, the Scleractinia, arose after the Permian–Triassic extinction event that wiped out the earlier rugose corals (as well as many other groups). They became increasingly important reef builders throughout the Mesozoic Era.[24] They may have arisen from a rugose coral ancestor.

Rugose corals built their skeletons of calcite and have a different symmetry from that of the scleractinian corals, whose skeletons are aragonite.[25] However, there are some unusual examples of well-preserved aragonitic rugose corals in the Late Permian. In addition, calcite has been reported in the initial post-larval calcification in a few scleractinian corals. Nevertheless, scleractinian corals (which arose in the middle Triassic) may have arisen from a non-calcifying ancestor independent of the rugosan corals (which disappeared in the late Permian).

### Artificial

An artificial reef is a human-created underwater structure, typically built to promote marine life in areas with a generally featureless bottom, to control erosion, block ship passage, block the use of trawling nets,[26] or improve surfing.[27]

Many reefs are built using objects that were built for other purposes, for example by sinking oil rigs (through the Rigs-to-Reefs program), scuttling ships, or by deploying rubble or construction debris. Other artificial reefs are purpose built (e.g. the reef balls and Electrified Reefs). Shipwrecks become artificial reefs on the seafloor. Regardless of construction method, artificial reefs generally provide stable hard surfaces where algae and invertebrates such as barnacles, corals, and oysters attach; the accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish.

## See also

* Earth:Coral reef - Outcrop of rock in the sea formed by the growth and deposit of stony coral skeletons
* Earth:Placer (geography) - Submerged bank or reef
* Earth:Pseudo-atoll - Island that encircles a lagoon

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Resource Library: Encyclopedic Entry: Reef". Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. 30 September 2011. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/reef/.
2. ↑ Gilby, Ben L.; Olds, Andrew D.; Peterson, Charles H.; Connolly, Rod M.; Voss, Christine M.; Bishop, Melanie J.; Elliott, Michael; Grabowski, Jonathan H. et al. (September 2018). "Maximizing the benefits of oyster reef restoration for finfish and their fisheries". Fish and Fisheries 19 (5): 931–947. doi:10.1111/faf.12301. ISSN 1467-2960. Bibcode: 2018FiFi...19..931G. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/faf.12301.
3. ↑ Geographic, National. "Reef" (in en). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/reef/.
4. ↑ "World Heritage places - The Great Barrier Reef, Queensland - World Heritage Values" (in en). http://www.environment.gov.au/heritage/places/world/great-barrier-reef/values.html.
5. ↑ "What is coral bleaching?" (in EN-US). https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html.
6. ↑ Zandonella, Catherine (November 2, 2016). "When corals met algae: Symbiotic relationship crucial to reef survival dates to the Triassic" (in en). https://www.princeton.edu/news/2016/11/02/when-corals-met-algae-symbiotic-relationship-crucial-reef-survival-dates-triassic.
7. ↑ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "What is coral bleaching?" (in EN-US). https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html.
8. ↑ Voolstra, Christian R.; Peixoto, Raquel S.; Ferrier-Pagès, Christine (2023-04-05). "Mitigating the ecological collapse of coral reef ecosystems: Effective strategies to preserve coral reef ecosystems: Effective strategies to preserve coral reef ecosystems". EMBO reports 24 (4). doi:10.15252/embr.202356826. ISSN 1469-3178. PMID 36862379.
9. ↑ "GCRMN – Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network" (in en-US). https://gcrmn.net/.
10. ↑ "NOAA confirms 4th global coral bleaching event | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration" (in en). 2024-04-15. https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/noaa-confirms-4th-global-coral-bleaching-event.
11. ↑ "NOAA confirms 4th global coral bleaching event | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration" (in en). 2024-04-15. https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/noaa-confirms-4th-global-coral-bleaching-event.
12. ↑ "The Fourth Global Coral Bleaching Event - International Coral Reef Initiative" (in en-US). https://icriforum.org/4gbe/.
13. ↑ "NOAA declares third ever global coral bleaching event | National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration" (in en). 2015-10-08. https://www.noaa.gov/media-release/noaa-declares-third-ever-global-coral-bleaching-event.
14. ↑ "Coral bleaching: What to know & how to stop it" (in en-us). https://www.worldwildlife.org/resources/explainers/everything-you-need-to-know-about-coral-bleachingand-how-we-can-stop-it/.
15. ↑ Fisheries, NOAA (2026-02-24). "Restoring Coral Reefs | NOAA Fisheries" (in en). https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/habitat-conservation/restoring-coral-reefs.
16. ↑ "Coral bleaching: What to know & how to stop it" (in en-us). https://www.worldwildlife.org/resources/explainers/everything-you-need-to-know-about-coral-bleachingand-how-we-can-stop-it/.
17. ↑ Guus Kroonen (2013). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic. https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-proto-germanic/page/406/mode/2up.
18. ↑ Wood, Rachel (15 December 2001). "Are reefs and mud mounds really so different?". Sedimentary Geology. Carbonate Mounds: sedimentation, organismal response, and diagenesis 145 (3): 161–171. doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(01)00146-4. ISSN 0037-0738. Bibcode: 2001SedG..145..161W. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0037073801001464.
19. ↑ crossref (in en). Chooser. doi:10.2307/3514838. https://chooser.crossref.org/. Retrieved 20 April 2024.
20. ↑ Schieber, Jürgen (1998). "Possible indicators of microbial mat deposits in shales and sandstones: examples from the Mid-Proterozoic Belt Supergroup, Montana, U.S.A.". Sedimentary Geology 120 (1): 105–124. doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(98)00029-3. Bibcode: 1998SedG..120..105S. https://sepm04.sitehost.iu.edu/PDF/JS-J24-microbial_mat_challenge.
21. ↑ "Rocky Reef on the West Coast". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/west-coast/habitat-conservation/rocky-reef-west-coast.
22. ↑ Gorokhovich, Yuri. "Coastal Geology: Shorelines" (in en). https://pressbooks.cuny.edu/gorokhovich/chapter/coastal-geology-shorelines/.
23. ↑ "Archaeocyathans". https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/archaeo.html#:~:text=The first archaeocyaths appear roughly,creation of the first reefs..
24. ↑ Pruss, Sara B.; Bottjer, David J. (1 September 2005). "The reorganization of reef communities following the end-Permian mass extinction". Comptes Rendus Palevol 4 (6): 553–568. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2005.04.003. ISSN 1631-0683. Bibcode: 2005CRPal...4..553P. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S163106830500045X.
25. ↑ "Rugose Coral" (in en). 30 June 2021. https://www.colorado.edu/cumuseum/2021/06/30/rugose-coral.
26. ↑ Gray, Denis D. (2 June 2018). "Cambodia volunteers step up battle against illegal fishing". Nikkei Asia. https://asia.nikkei.com/Life-Arts/Life/Cambodia-volunteers-step-up-battle-against-illegal-fishing.
27. ↑ "Optimism at Boscombe surf reef's opening day". Bournemouthecho.co.uk. 3 November 2009. http://www.bournemouthecho.co.uk/news/features/surfreef/surfreefstories/4716058.Optimism_at_Boscombe_surf_reef___s_opening_day/.

## Sources

* Shears N.T. (2007) Biogeography, community structure and biological habitat types of subtidal reefs on the South Island West Coast, New Zealand. Science for Conservation 281. p 53. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. [1]
* "General Information on Reefs." General Information on Reefs – Reef & Ocean Ecology Lab. Accessed 1 February 2024. [2]
* "Coral Reefs ~ Marinebio Conservation Society." MarineBio Conservation Society, 10 November 2023. [3]

## External links

| The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Reefs

|

* Reef Rescue – Smithsonian Ocean Portal
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* Walter Steyn
* Tanya Streeter
* William Trubridge
* Devrim Cenk Ulusoy
* Danai Varveri
* Alessia Zecchini
* Nataliia Zharkova

Hazards|

* Barotrauma
* Drowning
* Freediving blackout
* Deep-water blackout
* Shallow-water blackout
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Historical|

* Ama
* Octopus wrestling
* Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming

Organisations|

* AIDA International
* Scuba Schools International
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Freediving Association
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* Performance Freediving International

Professional diving

| Occupations|

* Ama
* Commercial diving
* Commercial offshore diving
* Hazmat diving
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Diving safety officer
* Diving supervisor
* Haenyeo
* Media diving
* Underwater photography
* Underwater videography
* Military diving
* Army engineer diver
* Clearance diver
* Frogman
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Scientific diving
* Underwater archaeology

|

Underwater work|

* Commercial offshore diving
* Dive guide
* Diver training
* Recreational diver training
* Hyperbaric welding
* Nondestructive testing
* Pearl hunting
* Police diving
* Public safety diving
* Salvage diving
* Scientific diving
* Sponge diving
* Submarine pipeline
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater demolition
* Underwater photography
* Underwater search and recovery
* Underwater videography

Tools & equipment|

* Abrasive waterjet
* Airlift
* In-water surface cleaning
* Brush cart
* Cavitation cleaning
* Pressure washing
* Lifting bag
* Remotely operated underwater vehicle
* Silt screw
* Snoopy loop
* Thermal lance
* Tremie
* Water jetting

Underwater
weapons|

* Limpet mine
* Speargun
* Hawaiian sling
* Polespear

| Underwater
firearm|

* Gyrojet
* Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun
* Powerhead
* Underwater pistols
* Heckler & Koch P11
* SPP-1 underwater pistol
* Underwater revolvers
* AAI underwater revolver
* Underwater rifles
* ADS amphibious rifle
* APS underwater rifle
* ASM-DT amphibious rifle

|

Recreational diving

| Specialties|

* Altitude diving
* Cave diving
* Deep diving
* Ice diving
* Muck diving
* Open-water diving
* Rebreather diving
* Sidemount diving
* Solo diving
* Technical diving
* Wreck diving

|

Diver
organisations|

* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* Woodville Karst Plain Project (WKPP)

Diving tourism
industry|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Scuba diving tourism
* Shark tourism
* Sinking ships for wreck diving sites

Recreational
dive sites|

| Reef diving
regions|

* Arrecifes de Cozumel National Park
* Great Barrier Reef
* iSimangaliso Marine Protected Area
* Poor Knights Islands
* Table Mountain National Park Marine Protected Area

|

Reef dive
sites|

* Artificial reef
* Gibraltar Artificial Reef
* Shark River Reef
* Osborne Reef
* Palancar Reef
* Underwater artworks
* Cancún Underwater Museum
* Christ of the Abyss
* The Diver
* Molinere Underwater Sculpture Park

Wreck diving
regions|

* Chuuk Lagoon
* Maritime Heritage Trail – Battle of Saipan
* Whitefish Point Underwater Preserve
* Wreck Alley, San Diego

Wreck dive
sites|

* HMS A1
* HMS A3
* Engineering:USS Aaron Ward
* Abessinia
* Aeolian Sky
* Albert C. Field
* Andrea Doria
* Antilla
* Antilles
* Aquila
* Engineering:USS Arkansas
* HMS Boadicea
* Bianca C.
* Booya
* HMSAS Bloemfontein
* Breda
* HMAS Brisbane
* Bungsberg
* HMAS Canberra
* Carl D. Bradley
* Carnatic
* SMS Dresden
* Dunraven
* Eastfield
* HMT Elk
* Ellengowan
* RMS Empress of Ireland
* HMS Falmouth
* Fifi
* SS Francisco Morazan
* Fujikawa Maru
* Fumizuki
* SATS General Botha
* USNS General Hoyt S. Vandenberg
* HMS Ghurka
* Glen Strathallan
* SAS Good Hope
* Gothenburg
* Herzogin Cecilie
* Hilma Hooker
* Hispania
* HMS Hood
* HMAS Hobart
* Igara
* James Eagan Layne
* Captain Keith Tibbetts
* King Cruiser
* SMS Kronprinz
* Kyarra
* HMS Laforey
* USAT Liberty
* Louis Sheid
* Engineering:USS LST-507
* SMS Markgraf
* Mikhail Lermontov
* HMS M2
* Maine
* Maloja
* HMS Maori
* Marguerite
* SS Mauna Loa
* USAT Meigs
* Mendi
* USCGC Mohawk
* Mohegan
* RMS Moldavia
* HMS Montagu
* MV RMS Mulheim
* Nagato
* Oceana
* Engineering:USS Oriskany
* Oslofjord
* P29
* P31
* Pedernales
* Persier
* HMAS Perth
* SAS Pietermaritzburg
* Piłsudski
* Pool Fisher
* HMS Port Napier
* Preußen
* President Coolidge
* PS Queen Victoria
* Radaas
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* RMS Rhone
* Rondo
* Rosehill
* Error: {{Ship}} missing prefix (help)
* Royal Charter
* Rozi
* HMS Safari
* Salem Express
* Engineering:USS Saratoga
* Engineering:USS Scuffle
* HMS Scylla
* HMS Sidon
* Engineering:USS Spiegel Grove
* Stanegarth
* Stanwood
* Stella
* HMAS Swan
* Engineering:USS Tarpon
* Thesis
* Thistlegorm
* Toa Maru
* Torrey Canyon
* SAS Transvaal
* Tulagi
* Tulamben
* U-40
* U-352
* U-1195
* Um El Faroud
* Varvassi
* Walter L M Russ
* Washingtonian (1913)
* HMNZS Wellington
* Engineering:USS Yancey
* Yongala
* Zenobia
* Zealandia
* Zingara

Cave diving
sites|

* Devil's Throat at Punta Sur
* Engelbrecht
* Fossil Cave
* Piccaninnie Ponds
* Pollatoomary
* Sistema Ox Bel Ha
* Sistema Sac Actun
* Sistema Dos Ojos
* Sistema Nohoch Nah Chich

Freshwater
dives|

* Ewens Ponds
* Little Blue Lake

Training sites|

* Capernwray Dive Centre
* National Diving and Activity Centre
* Stoney Cove

Open ocean
diving|

* Blue-water diving
* Black-water diving

Diving safety

* Ergonomics of diving equipment
* Human factors in diving safety
* Life support system
* Safety-critical system

| Diving hazards|

* Trait anxiety
* Cold shock response
* Decompression
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Nitrogen narcosis
* Overconfidence effect
* Oxygen toxicity
* Panic
* Penetration diving
* Seasickness
* Silt out
* Single point of failure
* Task loading
* Uncontrolled decompression

|

Consequences|

* Barotrauma
* Decompression sickness
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Hypoxia
* Hypercapnia
* Hypothermia

Risk
management|

* Checklist
* Hazard identification and risk assessment
* Hazard analysis
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Risk control
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Incident pit
* Lockout-tagout
* Permit To Work
* Redundancy
* Safety data sheet
* Situation awareness
* Diving team
* Bellman
* Chamber operator
* Diver's attendant
* Diving supervisor
* Diving systems technician
* Life support technician
* Stand-by diver
* Equipment safety
* Breathing gas quality
* Testing and inspection of diving cylinders
* Hydrostatic test
* Sustained load cracking
* Diving regulators
* Breathing performance of regulators
* Occupational safety and health
* Approaches to safety
* Job safety analysis
* Risk assessment
* Toolbox talk
* Housekeeping
* Association of Diving Contractors International
* Code of practice
* Contingency plan
* Diving regulations
* Emergency procedure
* Emergency response plan
* Evacuation plan
* Hazardous Materials Identification System
* Hierarchy of hazard controls
* Administrative controls
* Engineering controls
* Hazard elimination
* Hazard substitution
* Personal protective equipment
* International Marine Contractors Association
* Occupational hazard
* Biological hazard
* Chemical hazard
* Physical hazard
* Psychosocial hazard
* Occupational hygiene
* Exposure assessment
* Occupational exposure limit
* Workplace health surveillance
* Safety culture
* Code of practice
* Health and safety representative
* Operations manual
* Safety meeting
* Standard operating procedure

Diving
procedures|

* Ascending and descending
* Emergency ascent
* Boat diving
* Canoe and kayak diving
* Buddy diving
* Decompression
* Decompression practice
* Pyle stop
* Ratio decompression
* Dive briefing
* Dive log
* Dive planning
* Scuba gas planning
* Diver communications
* Diving hand signals
* Diving line signals
* Diver voice communications
* Diver rescue
* Diver training
* Doing It Right
* Drift diving
* Gas blending for scuba diving
* Night diving
* Solo diving
* Water safety

Incidents|

| Diver rescues|

* Tham Luang cave rescue

|

Early diving|

* John Day (carpenter)
* Charles Spalding
* Ebenezer Watson

Freediving|

* Loïc Leferme
* Audrey Mestre
* Nicholas Mevoli
* Natalia Molchanova

Professional
diving|

* Johnson Sea Link accident
* Offshore diving incidents
* Byford Dolphin diving bell accident
* Drill Master diving accident
* Star Canopus diving accident
* Venture One diving accident
* Waage Drill II diving accident
* Wildrake diving accident
* Professional diver fatalities
* Roger Baldwin
* John Bennett
* Victor F. Guiel Jr.
* Craig M. Hoffman
* Peter Henry Michael Holmes
* Edwin Clayton Link
* Gerard Anthony Prangley
* Pier Skipness
* Robert John Smyth
* Albert D. Stover
* Richard A. Walker
* Lothar Michael Ward
* Joachim Wendler
* Death of Bradley Westell
* Arne Zetterström

Scuba diving
fatalities|

* Ricardo Armbruster
* Allan Bridge
* David Bright
* Berry L. Cannon
* Cotton Coulson
* Cláudio Coutinho
* E. Yale Dawson
* Deon Dreyer
* Milan Dufek
* Sheck Exley
* Maurice Fargues
* Guy Garman
* Steve Irwin
* Jim Jones
* Henry Way Kendall
* Artur Kozłowski
* Chris and Chrissy Rouse
* Kirsty MacColl
* Agnes Milowka
* François de Roubaix
* Dave Shaw
* Wesley C. Skiles
* Dewey Smith
* Rob Stewart
* Esbjörn Svensson
* Josef Velek

Diving medicine

| Diving
disorders|

* List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders
* Cramps
* Motion sickness
* Surfer's ear

| Pressure
related|

* Aerosinusitis
* Air embolism
* Alternobaric vertigo
* Barodontalgia
* Barostriction
* Barotrauma
* Compression arthralgia
* Decompression illness
* Dental barotrauma
* Dysbarism
* Pulmonary barotrauma

| Oxygen|

* Freediving blackout
* Hyperoxia
* Hypoxia
* Oxygen toxicity

|

Inert gases|

* Avascular necrosis
* Decompression sickness
* Isobaric counterdiffusion
* Taravana
* Dysbaric osteonecrosis
* High-pressure nervous syndrome
* Hydrogen narcosis
* Nitrogen narcosis

Carbon dioxide|

* Hypercapnia
* Hypocapnia

Breathing gas
contaminants|

* Carbon monoxide poisoning

Immersion
related|

* Asphyxia
* Drowning
* Hypothermia
* Immersion diuresis
* Instinctive drowning response
* Laryngospasm
* Salt water aspiration syndrome
* Swimming-induced pulmonary edema

Treatment|

* Demand valve oxygen therapy
* First Aid
* Hyperbaric medicine
* Hyperbaric treatment schedules
* In-water recompression
* Oxygen therapy
* Therapeutic recompression

Personnel|

* Diving Medical Examiner
* Diving Medical Practitioner
* Diving Medical Technician
* Hyperbaric nursing

Screening|

* Atrial septal defect
* Fitness to dive
* Psychological fitness to dive

Research|

| Researchers in
diving physiology
and medicine|

* Arthur J. Bachrach
* Albert R. Behnke
* Paul Bert
* George F. Bond
* Robert Boyle
* Albert A. Bühlmann
* John R. Clarke
* Guybon Chesney Castell Damant
* William Paul Fife
* John Scott Haldane
* Robert William Hamilton Jr.
* Leonard Erskine Hill
* Brian Andrew Hills
* Felix Hoppe-Seyler
* Christian J. Lambertsen
* Simon Mitchell
* Charles Momsen
* John Rawlins R.N.
* Charles Wesley Shilling
* Edward D. Thalmann
* Jacques Triger

|

Diving medical
research
organisations|

* Aerospace Medical Association
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Diving Diseases Research Centre (DDRC)
* Diving Medical Advisory Council (DMAC)
* European Diving Technology Committee (EDTC)
* European Underwater and Baromedical Society (EUBS)
* National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology
* Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory
* Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine
* Rubicon Foundation
* South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society (SPUMS)
* Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association (SAUHMA)
* Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society (UHMS)
* United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU)

Law

* Civil liability in recreational diving
* Duty of care
* List of legislation regulating underwater diving
* Investigation of diving accidents

History of underwater diving

* Aqua-Lung
* History of decompression research and development
* History of scuba diving
* List of researchers in underwater diving
* Porpoise regulator
* Standard diving dress
* Timeline of diving technology
* Underwater diving in popular culture
* Vintage scuba

Publications

| Manuals|

* NOAA Diving Manual
* U.S. Navy Diving Manual
* Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival

|

Standards and
Codes of Practice|

* DIN 7876

General non-fiction|

* The Darkness Beckons
* Goldfinder
* The Last Dive
* Shadow Divers

Training and registration

| Diver
training|

* Diving instructor
* Diving school
* Occupational diver training
* Commercial diver training
* Military diver training
* Public safety diver training
* Scientific diver training
* Competence and assessment
* Competency-based learning
* Skill assessment
* Refresher training (diving)
* Diver training standard
* Recreational diver training
* Introductory diving
* Skills
* Diver navigation
* Diver trim
* Ear clearing
* Frenzel maneuver
* Valsalva maneuver
* Finning techniques
* Scuba skills
* Buddy breathing
* Low impact diving
* Diamond Reef System
* Surface-supplied diving skills
* Underwater searches
* Teaching methods
* Muscle memory
* Overtraining
* Stress exposure training

|

Organisations|

* European Underwater Federation (EUF)
* International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum (IDRCF)
* International Diving Schools Association (IDSA)
* International Marine Contractors Association (IMCA)
* List of diver certification organizations
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* Universal Referral Program
* World Recreational Scuba Training Council (WRSTC)

| Commercial diver
certification
authorities|

* Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme (ADAS)
* Commercial diver registration in South Africa
* Divers Institute of Technology
* Health and Safety Executive (HSE)
* Department of Employment and Labour

|

Commercial diving
schools|

* Divers Academy International

Free-diving
certification
agencies|

* AIDA International (AIDA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Performance Freediving International (PI)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)

Recreational scuba
certification
agencies|

* American Canadian Underwater Certifications (ACUC)
* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée (ANMP)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn (CFT)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association for Handicapped Divers (IAHD)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* International Diving Educators Association (IDEA)
* Israeli Diving Federation (TIDF)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Academy of Scuba Educators (NASE)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond (NOB)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Sub-Aqua Association (SAA)
* Scuba Diving International (SDI)
* Scuba Educators International (SEI)
* Scottish Sub Aqua Club (ScotSAC)
* Scuba Schools International (SSI)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* United Diving Instructors (UDI)
* YMCA SCUBA Program

Recreational scuba
certification
levels|

* Advanced Open Water Diver
* Autonomous diver
* CMAS* scuba diver
* CMAS** scuba diver
* Dive leader
* Divemaster
* Diving instructor
* Introductory diving
* Low Impact Diver
* Master Instructor
* Master Scuba Diver
* Open Water Diver
* Rescue Diver
* Solo diver
* Supervised diver

Scientific diver
certification
authorities|

* American Academy of Underwater Sciences (AAUS)
* CMAS Scientific Committee

Technical
certification
agencies|

* American Nitrox Divers International (ANDI)
* British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)
* Diving Science and Technology (DSAT)
* Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee (FIAS)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers (IANTD)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
* Professional Diving Instructors Corporation (PDIC)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)
* Trimix Scuba Association (TSA)
* Technical Extended Range (TXR)

| Cave
diving|

* Cave Divers Association of Australia (CDAA)
* Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* Global Underwater Explorers (GUE)
* National Association for Cave Diving (NACD)
* National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group (CDG)
* National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI)
* Technical Diving International (TDI)

|

Underwater sports

| Surface snorkeling|

* Finswimming (surface swimming & bi-fins)

|

Snorkeling/breath-hold|

* Spearfishing
* Underwater football
* Underwater hockey
* Underwater rugby
* Underwater target shooting

Breath-hold|

* Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)
* Apnoea finswimming
* Freediving
* Underwater ice hockey

Open Circuit Scuba|

* Immersion finswimming
* Sport diving (sport)
* Underwater orienteering
* Underwater photography (sport)

Rebreather|

* Underwater photography (sport)

Sports governing
organisations|

* International
* AIDA International
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques)
* National
* Australian Underwater Federation
* British Octopush Association
* British Underwater Sports Association
* Comhairle Fo-Thuinn
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins
* South African Underwater Sports Federation
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu
* Underwater Society of America)

Freediver Federations|

* AIDA International
* AIDA Hellas
* British Freediving Association (BFA)
* Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS)

Sports federations|

* Australian Underwater Federation (AUF)
* British Octopush Association (BOA)
* British Underwater Sports Association (BUSA)
* Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas (FEDAS)
* Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins (FFESSM)
* South African Underwater Sports Federation (SAUSF)
* Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu (TSSF)
* Underwater Society of America (USOA)

Underwater divers

| Pioneers of diving|

* Aquanaut
* Jacques Cousteau
* Hans Hass
* Arne Zetterström

|

Underwater scientists and archaeologists|

* Michael Arbuthnot
* Robert Ballard
* George Bass
* Mensun Bound
* Louis Boutan
* Hugh Bradner
* Cathy Church
* Eugenie Clark
* James P. Delgado
* Sylvia Earle
* John Christopher Fine
* George R. Fischer
* Anders Franzén
* Honor Frost
* David Gibbins
* Robert F. Marx
* Charles T. Meide
* Mark M. Newell
* John Peter Oleson
* Margaret Rule
* Gunter Schöbel
* E. Lee Spence
* Robert Sténuit
* Peter Throckmorton

Scuba record holders|

* Sheck Exley
* Nuno Gomes

Underwater filmmakers|

* Samir Alhafith
* David Attenborough
* Ramón Bravo
* Ivan Tors
* Andrew Wight

Underwater photographers|

* Tamara Benitez
* Georges Beuchat
* Adrian Biddle
* Jonathan Bird
* Eric Cheng
* Neville Coleman
* Jacques Cousteau
* John D. Craig
* Ben Cropp
* Bernard Delemotte
* David Doubilet
* John Christopher Fine
* Dermot FitzGerald
* Rodney Fox
* Ric Frazier
* Stephen Frink
* Peter Gimbel
* Monty Halls
* Hans Hass
* Henry Way Kendall
* Rudie Kuiter
* Joseph B. MacInnis
* Luis Marden
* Agnes Milowka
* Noel Monkman
* Steve Parish
* Zale Parry
* Pierre Petit
* Leni Riefenstahl
* Peter Scoones
* Brian Skerry
* Wesley C. Skiles
* E. Lee Spence
* Philippe Tailliez
* Ron and Valerie Taylor
* Albert Tillman
* John Veltri
* Stan Waterman
* Jiang Wenhao
* Michele Westmorland
* John Ernest Williamson
* J. Lamar Worzel

Underwater explorers|

* Caves
* Sheck Exley
* Martyn Farr
* Jill Heinerth
* William Hogarth Main
* Rick Stanton
* Bill Stone
* John Volanthen
* Reefs
*   * Wrecks
* Clive Cussler
* Aristotelis Zervoudis

Science of underwater diving

| Diving
physics|

* Breathing performance of regulators
* Buoyancy
* Archimedes' principle
* Neutral buoyancy
* Diffusion
* Molecular diffusion
* Force
* Gas law
* Amontons's law
* Boyle's law
* Charles's law
* Combined gas law
* Dalton's law
* Gay-Lussac's law
* Ideal gas law
* Oxygen fraction
* Permeation
* Pressure
* Absolute pressure
* Ambient pressure
* Atmospheric pressure
* Gauge pressure
* Hydrostatic pressure
* Metre sea water
* Partial pressure
* Psychrometric constant
* Solubility
* Henry's law
* Saturation
* Solution
* Supersaturation
* Surface tension
* Hydrophobe
* Surfactant
* Torricellian chamber
* Underwater vision
* Snell's law
* Weight
* Apparent weight

|

Diving
physiology|

* Artificial gills
* Circulatory system
* Blood shift
* Patent foramen ovale
* Perfusion
* Systemic circulation
* Cold shock response
* Diving reflex
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Lipid
* Maximum operating depth
* Metabolism
* Physiological response to water immersion
* Respiration
* Blood–air barrier
* Breathing
* CO₂ retention
* dead space
* Gas exchange
* Hypocapnia
* Normocapnia
* Respiratory exchange ratio
* Respiratory quotient
* Respiratory system
* Work of breathing
* Tissue
* Underwater vision

| Decompression
theory|

* Decompression models:
* Bühlmann decompression algorithm
* Haldane's decompression model
* Reduced gradient bubble model
* Thalmann algorithm
* Thermodynamic model of decompression
* Varying Permeability Model
* Equivalent air depth
* Equivalent narcotic depth
* Maximum operating depth
* Oxygen window in diving decompression
* Physiology of decompression
* Pulmonary circulation

|

Diving
environment|

| Diving
environment
classification|

* Altitude diving
* Benign water diving
* Confined water diving
* Deep diving
* Inland diving
* Inshore diving
* Muck diving
* Night diving
* Open water diving
* Open ocean diving
* Black-water diving
* Blue-water diving
* Penetration diving
* Cave diving
* Ice diving
* Wreck diving
* Recreational dive sites
* Underwater environment

|

Environmental
impact|

* Environmental impact of recreational diving
* Low impact diving

Environmental
factors|

* Algal bloom
* Currents:
* Current
* Longshore drift
* Ocean current
* Rip current
* Tidal race
* Undertow
* Upwelling
* Ekman transport
* Halocline
* List of diving hazards and precautions
* Reef
* Coral reef
* Stratification
* Thermocline
* Tides
* Turbidity
* Wind wave
* Breaking wave
* Surf
* Surge
* Wave shoaling

Special interest groups

* Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia (ARSBC)
* CMAS Europe
* Diving Equipment and Marketing Association (DEMA)
* Divers Alert Network (DAN)
* Green Fins
* Historical Diving Society
* Nautical Archaeology Society (NAS)
* Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club
* Project AWARE
* Reef Life Survey
* Save Ontario Shipwrecks (SOS)
* SeaKeys
* Sea Research Society

Other

* Submarine escape training facility

* Category
* Commons
*   * Glossary
* Indexes: dive sites
* divers
* diving
*   * Outline
* Portal

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