Renewable energy transition

Part of a series on

Renewable energy

* Biofuel
* Biomass
* Biogas
* Geothermal
* Hydropower
* Solar energy
* Tidal power
* Wave power
* Wind power

* Topics by country
* 100% renewable energy
* Marketing and policy trends

* v
* t
* e

An aerial view of the Power County wind farm in Idaho, United States.[1]

The renewable energy transition is the process of replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy. This transition can impact many aspects of life including the environment, society, the economy and governance.[2]

The rationale for the transition is often to limit the adverse effects of energy consumption on the environment.[3] This includes reducing greenhouse-gas emissions and mitigating climate change.[4] In 2019 the cost of renewable energy reached the point where it is cheaper to build and operate than coal-fired power plants.[5]

## Contents

* 1 Transition to Renewable Energy
* 2 Drivers of Renewable Energy Transition
* 3 Technologies
* 3.1 Wind energy
* 3.2 Solar energy
* 3.3 Geothermal energy
* 3.4 Hydroelectric energy
* 3.5 Tidal energy
* 3.6 Nuclear Energy
* 4 Economic Aspects
* 4.1 Business models
* 4.2 Global rivalries
* 4.3 Economic players
* 4.3.1 Heat & Biomass Heating
* 4.3.2 Energy market
* 4.3.3 Wind/Power systems
* 5 Social Aspects
* 5.1 Influences
* 5.2 Impacts
* 6 100% renewable energy
* 6.1 History
* 6.2 Feasibility studies
* 6.3 Places with near 100% renewable electricity
* 6.4 100% clean electricity
* 6.5 Obstacles
* 6.5.1 Seasonal energy storage
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links

## Transition to Renewable Energy

To fully embrace the renewable energy transition, thorough research has been conducted and it has been acknowledged that there are pivotal areas for growth within the industry. Investing in new technology research is imperative in providing answers for the following topics: efficiency, storage and variability. Regarding photovoltaic technology, efficiency plays a part in its capacity to be a part of the transition. With the ideal efficiency rate being 15%, researchers must invest in building the capacity of this technology.[6] Additionally, energy storage is reliant upon local infrastructure. For energy transportation and flexibility, storage is vital for the renewable energy transition.[7] More specifically with the natural variations of several energy sources such as solar, there must be flexible energy sources to fulfill peak demand. Therefore, there must be an established flexible and inflexible energy structure to account for any variability.[8] Research within the renewable energy technology field is well underway, and while there is always room for improvement, the technology is established.[9]

Canada is planing to invest $200,000 In Energy Efficiency Training for Canadians.The Government of Canada is focused on clean energy future to strengthen the economy, a perfect vitality future with investments in Energy Efficiency Training’s for Canadians to reinforce the economy, make great white collar class occupations and bolster the regular asset areas. This will be a higher priority than any time in recent memory as we revive the economy and plan our recuperation from the COVID-19 emergency

The renewable energy transition is reliant upon the implementation of renewable energy alternatives to replace fossil fuel and natural gas assets. There are outstanding examples of companies that have achieved this integration of new technologies before, such as Ørsted who will have replaced coal with 99% wind energy by 2025.[10] Large scale implementation strategies of alternatives are being pursued to escalate the transition around the world.[4]

## Drivers of Renewable Energy Transition

Climate Change action is an integral part in addressing the IPCC Report.[11]

Many factors are driving the increased need and interest in the renewable energy transition. Among the most important drivers are the acknowledgment of the energy system’s impact on climate change, as well as the diminishing resources that threaten energy security.[citation needed]

Climate change can be attributed to the use of fossil fuel energy and the contribution of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.[citation needed] This increased level of greenhouse gas emissions creates adverse effects on a changing climate such as increased intensity and frequency of natural disasters.[12] The IPCC has said with high certainty that society has 12 years to complete an entire transition to avoid catastrophic climate change.[13] This reality has motivated the conversation of a renewable energy transition as a mitigation tactic.

The fossil fuel industry faces risk completely separate from the impacts of climate change. Fossil fuels are a limited resource and are at risk of reaching a peak in which diminishing returns will become prevalent.[14] Uncertainty with the supply of this resource questions the security of the industry and the investments in fossil fuel companies. Companies such as Blackrock are using sustainability measures to address their strategy and structure, as these evaluated risks impact their desired level of involvement with the industry as a result.[15] These driving conversations are motivating organizations to reconsider the future of the energy sector.

## Technologies

### Wind energy

Wind energy is a viable form of renewable energy, as wind is abundant and inexhaustible. Its use produces no toxic pollution nor greenhouse gas emissions. There is enough wind on Earth and in the atmosphere which could be transformed into energy to easily power the planet- we could capture more than 20 times the 18 terawatts of energy that the global population uses.[16] Wind turbines themselves are very space efficient, as one turbine can generate enough electricity to power 600 U.S. homes.[17] Wind energy is also becoming more affordable, as prices have decreased over 80% since 1980 and are expected to keep decreasing. The operational costs associated with wind power are also low.[18]

However, conflicts can arise concerning land use, as the wind turbines use between 30 and 141 acres per megawatt of power output capacity.[19] Some opponents of wind energy argue that the land could be better used, although the land can still be used for grazing livestock, agriculture, and highways. Another issue regarding wind energy concerns the disturbance to wildlife. Many studies have been done to assess the impact of wind turbines on bird and bat populations, and the disturbance of wind turbines has been found to be relatively low and does not pose a threat to species population.[20]

### Solar energy

Photovoltaic array at the Mesa Verde Visitor and Research Center in Montezuma County, Colorado. This site uses 95% renewable energy and is an example of the renewable energy transition occurring.

Solar energy is another commonly used renewable energy source. It could provide well over the energy needed to power our world- the surface of the earth receives 120,000 terawatts of solar radiation, which is 20,000 times more power than what is needed to supply the entire world.[21] Solar power can be used to generate electricity in places that lack a grid connection, such as distilling water in Africa, or even to power satellites in space.[22] There are no moving parts involved in most applications of solar power, leading to no noise associated with photovoltaic panels. This compares favorable to certain other green-techs such as wind turbines.

Unfortunately, solar energy still comes with a few drawbacks. Similarly to wind energy, land use is a concern. However, solar panels can be placed on rooftops and in this case they do not take up space that could have been used for something more productive. Panels can also be placed at low quality locations such as brownfields, abandoned mining land, or existing transportation and transmission corridors. The manufacturing of solar panels also has some negative impacts. They require a significant amount of water to be produced, but dry-cooling technology can reduce water use at manufacturing plants by approximately 90 percent.[23]

### Geothermal energy

Photograph of a geothermal station.

Geothermal energy is another type of viable and increasingly common renewable energy source.The process of obtaining this energy is emission free- there is absolutely zero carbon used when it comes to the production of this type of power.[24] The procedure can clean out sulfur that may have generally been discharged from other processes.[25] Geothermal energy has the smallest land footprint of any major energy source in the world.[26]

Water is also used in obtaining this type of energy. Depending on the cooling technology used, geothermal plants can require between 1,700 and 4,000 gallons of water per megawatt-hour of energy produced.[27] However, most geothermal plants can use either geothermal fluid or freshwater for cooling, and using the prior has a significantly lesser environmental impact. There are both open-looped and close-looped geothermal systems, and open-loop systems emit small amounts of hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, and boron.[28]

### Hydroelectric energy

Gold Ray Dam on the Rogue River upstream of Gold Hill in the U.S. state of Oregon. Fish ladder visible on the far bank. The dam, which made fish passage difficult, was removed later in 2010.

Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-the-river plants. Hydroelectric plants emit fewer greenhouse gasses than fossil based power sources, which helps mitigate climate change, acid rains, and smog.[29] Hydroelectric power also improves the air quality we breathe because it does not emit air pollutants, and the plants do not produce toxic byproducts.[30] Hydroelectric power plants have an average lifetime of 50 – 100 years, meaning they are strategic investments that can support many future generations. They can also be easily upgraded to fall in line with the modern day’s technological requirements and have considerably lower operating and maintenance costs.[31]

Land use is a topic of concern regarding this energy source, as the size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely. Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has a significant environmental impact, as it destroys forest, wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands.[32] There is also a significant impact on wildlife. Fish and other organisms can be injured and killed by turbine blades.[32] Aside from direct contact, there are also wildlife impacts within the dammed reservoirs and downstream from the facility. Reservoirs will have above average amounts of sediments and nutrients, which can cultivate an excess of algae and lead to eutrophication. In addition, reservoirs are required to release a certain amount of water every year to prevent rivers downstream from drying up, which would be detrimental to those ecosystems.[23]

### Tidal energy

Tidal energy utilizes the gravitational and kinetic energy of large bodies of water. The physical push and pull of the tides causes a turbine to spin, and that turbine converts the water's movement into electricity.[33] This form of renewable energy produces no pollution, and takes up little physical space when compared to other forms of renewable energy. It is predictable and reliable form of energy, as most water bodies experience two high tides and two low tides per day. This cycle is easily predicted and isn’t subject to unexpected changes unlike many other renewable resources. Some systems also harvest energy from tidal currents regardless of which direction they are flowing, allowing the production of energy to go completely uninterrupted.[34] The equipment used is long lasting, with an average lifespan of 75-100 years.[35]

However, some cons do exist. The systems require turbulent water to power them, meaning a large foundation needs to be built, which can result in habitat destruction. The greatest offender is the tidal barrage system which utilizes dams that can impede the movement of sea life and potentially wreak havoc on aquatic ecosystems.[33] Tidal energy systems also have a high upfront cost. Although they have long lifespans and eventually pay themselves off, governments are more concerned with their 5-year budget rather than a 60-year projection.[36]

### Nuclear Energy

There has been a debate around whether nuclear energy is considered renewable or not. As it is still unknown whether nuclear energy is a viable renewable energy source, it will not be included in this page's discussion.

## Economic Aspects

The economics behind the renewable energy transition are unlike most economic trends. Due to the lack of knowledge behind its impacts, we know little behind the long-term economics. We turn to givens, such as its impacts on GHG emissions as economic drivers. The economics behind renewable energy rely forecasts of the future to help determine efficient production, distribution, and consumption of energy[37]. In this transition, there is in an increase in General Algebraic Modeling Software to help determine economic factors such as levelized production costs and cost models[38]. The dependency  of knowledge of different types of models, innovations of other countries, and different types of renewable energy markets are the key to driving the economy during this transition.[clarification needed]

### Business models

Economic driving forces in the renewable energy transition take multiple approaches.[clarification needed] Businesses that have joined the renewable energy cause do so by relying on business models. The need for business models, when dealing with the economics of the renewable energy transition, are crucial due to the lack of concrete research done in this area.[39][page needed] These models show projections of marginal costs, efficiency, and demand in different periods of time.[40] Business models are financial assistants that help guide businesses, companies, and individuals looking to get involved.

### Global rivalries

Global rivalries have contributed to the driving forces of the economics behind the renewable energy transition. Competition to reach ultimate efficiency with renewable energy is motivating countries to improve further and further. Technological innovations developed within a country have the potential to become an economic force.[41] In Germany, the country realized to achieve this, policy would go hand in hand with economics. Policies reflect the economy, which for the economy of the country, it would need to have strong policies in place to support the transition to renewable energy. With economic growth being a priority, renewable energy transition policies would strengthen the transition status.[42]

Renewable energy growth creates winners and losers. Fossil fuel companies risk becoming losers. To stay competitive the adaptation to join the renewable energy race is considered[43]. Global investments on renewable energy is increasing at a high rate. In 2018, the total global investment in renewable energy neared the $300 billion mark[44]. Trends in global renewable energy such as this, that show stability in the market, investments are being made profitable for the future. Competition for dominance in the renewable energy market sparks interest in trades and investments. With the United States and European Union accounting for 60 percent of the total capacity and investment in renewable energy, the two economies are likely to become the largest suppliers and consumers for the renewable energy services[43].

### Economic players

#### Heat & Biomass Heating

In the renewable energy transition, the heating industry becomes an economic player. The heating industry is an interesting player as it entails many components. [citation needed][45] When dealing with heat and the transition to renewable resources, the entire area being heated comes into play.[citation needed][46] When assessing the economic benefits of this transition, the costs are atop of the list of information needed. In order to make this transition in the heating industry costs such as if the costs to install these systems would produce a positive turnout. A system of such was implemented in Denmark that focused on wind power to help contribute to heating.[citation needed][47] The results of this showed a decrease in heating costs from 132 kWH to roughly 60 to 80 kWH. The results draw economic improvements in this transition by showing more efficiency in the heating industry and an increased value in wind power.[48] Alternatives for heating use are being introduced. New Hampshire has been experimenting with wood energy. Wood energy is a form of biomass/renewable energy that uses various types of wood as energy alternatives[49]. The burning of wood chips is amongst the most common types of wood energy used. Wood energy maintains an environmental balance of renewable energy while experiencing financial growth. CO2 emissions see decrease of nearly 90 percent when switching from fossil fuel to wood during the burning process. Transitioning from fossil fuel to wood energy is seen as an economic booster as the introduction of more wood energy plantations would mean greater production rates of wood biomass[50]. Heating accounts for up to 40 percent of a businesses operating costs. Transitioning to wood energy, specifically the wood chip heating systems, do not come cheap. Littleton Regional healthcare transitioned to this heating system; the cost was nearly $3 million[51].

#### Energy market

The energy market, in relation the economics behind the renewable energy transition, is its insurance policy.[clarification needed] In the past, inconsistencies in the renewable energy field had caused skepticism. The increase in returns in the market has changed that perception. Recently, the costs for these energies have been reduced dramatically. For solar and wind power, the costs have dropped up to 60 to 80 percent.[52]

Wind Turbine Total Costs[53]

Wind energy is growing in usage, and much of this is due to the increase in wind energy production. Transitioning to wind energy assists in altering a countries dependency on foreign sources when it comes to energy. Allowing countries to build their economies from within, while helping the environment is a more common thought. While a setback to this method of energy is that it requires specifics in land available and location of land, there has still been an increase in wind turbines. From 2007-2017, the US wind energy consumption increased 590%[54]. The transition is viewed as a way to ensure the economies environmental sustainability.

#### Wind/Power systems

Power systems are economic players that take many contributors into account. When looking for economic benefits behind power systems, savings and costs are crucial topics being addressed. A determinant in addressing the costs and savings of power systems is the alternative routes to GHG emissions. Egypt introduced a plan to do so by stopping conventional power plants and converting them over to hybrid and wind farm plants.[citation needed][55] The results of this were seen to decrease carbon dioxide emissions and save the state up to $14 million dollars.[56]

Determining the economic value of wind farms is the main predictor of production. The biggest cost occurred in wind farms are for the turbines themselves. With turbines varying in size, the smaller turbines are used at a more local and person level are more expensive on a per kilowatt of energy capacity rate, while larger ones are less expensive on these dynamics. Wind farms look at the total area of power it can produce, for a 500 MW wind farm, nearly 200,000 wind farms can be generated[57]. Many question whether having a small number of turbines would still be beneficial or not, and worth the cost. The intermittency costs of turbines show that the are less than one percent of the price of the wind energy price. This is shown by detailing that the addition of more turbines throughout an area increase the intermittency of individual turbines, allowing the farms with a lower supply to gain by another farm with larger supply of turbines[58]. Small residential and small commercial have the most profitability due to their low energy cost and short payback period. Specifically, this becomes more profitable with a 10 kW system[59].

## Social Aspects

### Influences

To gather a realistic understanding of the renewable energy transition, influences should be analyzed to understand the scope of the environment and conversation surrounding the transition. One of these influences is that of the oil industry. The oil industry controls the large majority of the world's energy supply and needs as it is the most accessible and available resource we have today.[60] With a history of continued success and sustained demand, the oil industry has become a stable aspect of society, the economy and the energy sector. To transition to renewable energy technologies, our [whose?]government and economy must address the oil industry and its control of the energy sector.[61]

Citizen's Climate Lobby in action[62]

One way that oil companies are able to continue their work despite growing environmental, social and economic concerns is through lobbying efforts within local and national government systems. Lobbying is defined as to conduct activities aimed at influencing public officials and especially members of a legislative body on legislation[63]

Historically, the climate lobby has been highly successful in limiting regulations on the oil industry and enabling business as usual techniques. From 1988 to 2005, Exxon Mobil, one of the largest oil companies in the world, spent nearly $16 million in anti-climate change lobbying and providing misleading information about climate change to the general public.[64] It is examples such as these, that show the significance of the oil industry as stakeholders within the government. In order for the renewable energy transition to succeed, the oil lobbying should be addressed and met with a strong economic, social and environmental case. The oil industry acquires lots of support through our banking and investment structure.[65] The stable nature of oil stock throughout history makes it a great option for investors.[citation needed] By investing in the fossil fuel industry, we provide them with financial support to continue with their business ventures.[66] The concept that we should no longer support the industry financially has led to the social movement known as divestment. Divestment is defined as the removal of your investment capital from stocks, bonds or funds in oil, coal and gas companies for both moral and financial reasons[67]

Banks, investing firms, governments, universities, institutions and businesses are all being challenged with this new moral argument against their existing investments in the fossil fuel industry and many such as Rockefeller Brothers Fund, the University of California, New York City and more have begun making the shift to more sustainable, eco-friendly investments.[68]

### Impacts

The renewable energy transition has many benefits and challenges that are associated with it. One of the positive social impacts that is predicted is the use of local energy sources to provide stability and economic stimulation to local communities.[69] Not only does this benefit local utilities through portfolio diversification, but it also creates opportunities for energy trade between communities, states and regions.[70] Additionally, energy security has been a struggle worldwide that has led to many issues in the OPEC countries and beyond. Energy security is evaluated by analyzing the accessibility, availability, sustainability, regulatory and technological opportunity of our energy portfolio. Renewable Energy presents an opportunity to increase our energy security by becoming energy independent and have localized grids that decrease energy risks geopolitically.[71] In this sense, the benefits and positive outcomes of the renewable energy transition are profound.

There are also risks and negative impacts on society because of the renewable energy transition that need to be mitigated. The coal mining industry plays a large part in the existing energy portfolio and is one of the biggest targets for climate change activists due to the intense pollution and habitat disruption that it creates. The transition to renewable is expected to have decrease the need and viability of coal mining in the future.[72] This is a positive for climate change action, but can have severe impacts on the communities that rely on this business. Coal mining communities are considered vulnerable to the renewable energy transition. Not only do these communities face energy poverty already, but they also face economic collapse when the coal mining businesses move elsewhere or disappear altogether.[73] These communities need to quickly transition to alternative forms of work to support their families, but lack the resources and support to invest in themselves. This broken system perpetuates the poverty and vulnerability that decreases the adaptive capacity of coal mining communities.[73] Potential mitigation could include expanding the program base for vulnerable communities to assist with new training programs, opportunities for economic development and subsidies to assist with the transition.[74] Ultimately, the social impacts of the renewable energy transition will be extensive, but with mitigation strategies, the government[whose?] can ensure that it becomes a positive opportunity for all citizens.[75]

The Shepherds Flat Wind Farm is an 845 megawatt (MW) wind farm in the U.S. state of Oregon. The 550 MW Desert Sunlight Solar Farm in California. The 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in California: The facility's three towers. Construction of the Salt Tanks which provide efficient thermal energy storage [76] so that output can be provided after the sun goes down, and output can be scheduled to meet demand requirements.[77] The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is designed to provide six hours of energy storage. This allows the plant to generate about 38 percent of its rated capacity over the course of a year.[78] Comparing trends in worldwide energy use, the growth of renewable energy to 2015 is the green line[79]

## 100% renewable energy

100% renewable energy refers to an energy system where all energy use is sourced from renewable energy sources. The endeavor to use 100% renewable energy for electricity, heating/cooling and transport is motivated by global warming, pollution and other environmental issues, as well as economic and energy security concerns. Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system, since most of today's energy is derived from non-renewable fossil fuels.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand. Renewable energy use has grown more quickly than even advocates anticipated.[80] As of 2019[update], however, it needs to grow six times faster to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F).[81]

100% renewable energy in a country is typically a more challenging goal than carbon neutrality.[citation needed] The latter is a climate mitigation target, politically decided by many countries, and may also be achieved by balancing the total carbon footprint of the country (not only emissions from energy and fuel) with carbon dioxide removal and carbon projects abroad.

In 2014, renewable sources such as wind, geothermal, solar, biomass, and burnt waste provided 19% of the total energy consumed worldwide, with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass.[82] The most important[clarification needed] sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8%, most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6%, followed by wind with 3.1%.[82] As of 2018[update] according to REN21 transformation is picking up speed in the power sector, but urgent action is required in heating, cooling and transport.[83] There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy. At the national level, at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of the energy supply.[citation needed]

According to a review of the 181 peer-reviewed papers on 100% renewable energy which were published until 2018, "[t]he great majority of all publications highlights the technical feasibility and economic viability of 100% RE systems." While there are still many publications which focus on electricity only, there is a growing number of papers that cover different energy sectors and sector-coupled, integrated energy systems. This cross-sectoral, holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100% renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption "that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors" of the energy system such as electricity, heat, transport or industry.[84]

Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of "climate stabilization wedges" that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges."[85]

Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program, says that producing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible, and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050.[86] Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic".[87] Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind, solar, and water system should be similar to today's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies.[88] The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will.[89] His conclusions have been disputed by other researchers.[90] Jacobson published a response that disputed the piece point by point[91] and claimed that the authors were motivated by allegiance to energy technologies that the 2015 paper excluded.[90]

Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand."[92]

The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological. According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fuels lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.[93]

### History

This section may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (April 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

|

Using 100% renewable energy was first suggested in a paper in Science [94] published in 1975 by Danish physicist Bent Sørensen, which was followed by several other proposals.[95] In 1976 energy policy analyst Amory Lovins coined the term "soft energy path" to describe an alternative future where energy efficiency and appropriate renewable energy sources steadily replace a centralized energy system based on fossil and nuclear fuels.[96]

In 1998 the first detailed analysis of scenarios with very high shares of renewables were published. These were followed by the first detailed 100% scenarios. In 2006 a PhD thesis was published by Czisch in which it was shown that in a 100% renewable scenario energy supply could match demand in every hour of the year in Europe and North Africa. In the same year Danish Energy professor Henrik Lund published a first paper[97] in which he addresses the optimal combination of renewables, which was followed by several other papers on the transition to 100% renewable energy in Denmark. Since then Lund has been publishing several papers on 100% renewable energy. After 2009 publications began to rise steeply, covering 100% scenarios for countries in Europe, America, Australia and other parts of the world.[95]

Even in the early 21st century it was extraordinary for scientists and decision-makers to consider the concept of 100% renewable electricity. However, renewable energy progress has been so rapid that things have totally changed since then:[98]

> Solar photovoltaic modules have dropped about 75 percent in price. Current scientific and technological advances in the laboratory suggest that they will soon be so cheap that the principal cost of going solar on residential and commercial buildings will be installation. On-shore wind power is spreading over all continents and is economically competitive with fossil and nuclear power in several regions. Concentrated solar thermal power (CST) with thermal storage has moved from the demonstration stage of maturity to the limited commercial stage and still has the potential for further cost reductions of about 50 percent.[98]

Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates had anticipated.[80] Wind turbines generate 39[99] percent of Danish electricity, and Denmark has many biogas digesters and waste-to-energy plants as well. Together, wind and biomass provide 44% of the electricity consumed by the country's six million inhabitants. In 2010, Portugal's 10 million people produced more than half their electricity from indigenous renewable energy resources. Spain's 40 million inhabitants meet one-third of their electrical needs from renewables.[80]

Renewable energy has a history of strong public support. In America, for example, a 2013 Gallup survey showed that two in three Americans want the U.S. to increase domestic energy production using solar power (76%), wind power (71%), and natural gas (65%). Far fewer want more petroleum production (46%) and more nuclear power (37%). Least favored is coal, with about one in three Americans favouring it.[100]

REN21 says renewable energy already plays a significant role and there are many policy targets which aim to increase this:

> At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond, and some 120 countries have various policy targets for longer-term shares of renewable energy, including a binding 20% by 2020 target for the European Union. Some countries have much higher long-term policy targets of up to 100% renewables. Outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more other countries target renewable energy shares in the 2020–2030 time frame that range from 10% to 50%.[101]

Nuclear power involves accident risks with substantial consequences (e.g., Fukushima nuclear disaster, Chernobyl disaster) and the expensive problem of safe long-term high-level radioactive waste management, and carbon capture and storage has rather limited safe storage potentials.[95] These constraints have also led to an interest in 100% renewable energy. A well established body of academic literature has been written over the past decade[when?], evaluating scenarios for 100% renewable energy for various geographical areas. In recent years[when?], more detailed analyses have emerged from government and industry sources.[102] The incentive to use 100% renewable energy is created by global warming and ecological as well as economic concerns, post peak oil.

The first country to propose 100% renewable energy was Iceland, in 1998.[103] Proposals have been made for Japan in 2003,[104] and for Australia in 2011.[105] Albania, Iceland, and Paraguay obtain essentially all of their electricity from renewable sources (Albania and Paraguay 100% from hydroelectricity, Iceland 72% hydro and 28% geothermal).[106] Norway obtains nearly all of its electricity from renewable sources (97 percent from hydropower).[107] Iceland proposed using hydrogen for transportation and its fishing fleet. Australia proposed biofuel for those elements of transportation not easily converted to electricity. The road map for the United States,[108][109] commitment by Denmark,[110] and Vision 2050 for Europe set a 2050 timeline for converting to 100% renewable energy,[111] later reduced to 2040 in 2011.[112] Zero Carbon Britain 2030 proposes eliminating carbon emissions in Britain by 2030 by transitioning to renewable energy.[113] In 2015, Hawaii enacted a law that the Renewable Portfolio Standard shall be 100 percent by 2045. This is often confused with renewable energy. If electricity produced on the grid is 65 GWh from fossil fuel and 35 GWh from renewable energy and rooftop off grid solar produces 80 GWh of renewable energy then the total renewable energy is 115 GWh and the total electricity on the grid is 100 GWh. Then the RPS is 115 percent.[114]

Cities like Paris and Strasbourg in France, planned to use 100% renewable energy by 2050.[115][116]

It is estimated that the world will spend an extra $8 trillion over the next 25 years to prolong the use of non-renewable resources, a cost that would be eliminated by transitioning instead to 100% renewable energy.[117] Research that has been published in Energy Policy suggests that converting the entire world to 100% renewable energy by 2050 is both possible and affordable, but requires political support.[118][119] It would require building many more wind turbines and solar power systems but wouldn't utilize bioenergy. Other changes involve use of electric cars and the development of enhanced transmission grids and storage.[120][121] As part of the Paris Agreement, countries periodically update their climate change targets for the future, by 2018 no G20 country had committed to a 100% renewable target.[122]

Until 2018 there were 181 peer-reviewed papers on 100% renewable energy. In the same year, 100% renewable energy was also mentioned in the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C as a potential means to "expand the range of 1.5 °C pathways", if the findings can be corroborated.[84]

### Feasibility studies

In 2011, the refereed journal Energy Policy published two articles by Mark Z. Jacobson, a professor of engineering at Stanford University, and research scientist Mark A. Delucchi, about changing our energy supply mix and "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power". The articles analyze the feasibility of providing worldwide energy for electric power, transportation, and heating/cooling from wind, water, and sunlight (WWS), which are safe clean options. In Part I, Jacobson and Delucchi discuss WWS energy system characteristics, aspects of energy demand, WWS resource availability, WWS devices needed, and material requirements.[123] They estimate that 3,800,000 5 MW wind turbines, 5350 100 MW geothermal power plants, and 270 new 1300 MW hydroelectric power plants will be required. In terms of solar power, an additional 49,000 300 MW concentrating solar plants, 40,000 300 MW solar photovoltaic power plants, and 1.7 billion 3 kW rooftop photovoltaic systems will also be needed. Such an extensive WWS infrastructure could decrease world power demand by 30%.[123] In Part II, Jacobson and Delucchi address variability of supply, system economics, and energy policy initiatives associated with a WWS system. The authors advocate producing all new energy with WWS by 2030 and replacing existing energy supply arrangements by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Energy costs with a WWS system should be similar to today's energy costs.[124]

In general, Jacobson has said wind, water and solar technologies can provide 100 percent of the world's energy, eliminating all fossil fuels.[125] He advocates a "smart mix" of renewable energy sources to reliably meet electricity demand:

> Because the wind blows during stormy conditions when the sun does not shine and the sun often shines on calm days with little wind, combining wind and solar can go a long way toward meeting demand, especially when geothermal provides a steady base and hydroelectric can be called on to fill in the gaps.[126]

A 2012 study by the University of Delaware for a 72 GW system considered 28 billion combinations of renewable energy and storage and found the most cost-effective, for the PJM Interconnection, would use 17 GW of solar, 68 GW of offshore wind, and 115 GW of onshore wind, although at times as much as three times the demand would be provided. 0.1% of the time would require generation from other sources.[127]

In March 2012, Denmark's parliament agreed on a comprehensive new set promotional programs for energy efficiency and renewable energy that will lead to the country getting 100 percent of electricity, heat and fuels from renewables by 2050.[128] IRENEC is an annual conference on 100% renewable energy started in 2011 by Eurosolar Turkey. The 2013 conference was in Istanbul.[129][130]

More recently, Jacobson and his colleagues have developed detailed proposals for switching to 100% renewable energy produced by wind, water and sunlight, for New York,[131] California[132] and Washington[133] states, by 2050. As of 2014[update], a more expansive new plan for the 50 states has been drawn up, which includes an online interactive map showing the renewable resource potential of each of the 50 states. The 50-state plan is part of The Solutions Project, an independent outreach effort led by Jacobson, actor Mark Ruffalo, and film director Josh Fox.[134]

As of 2014[update], many detailed assessments show that the energy service needs of a world enjoying radically higher levels of wellbeing, can be economically met entirely through the diverse currently available technological and organisational innovations around wind, solar, biomass, biofuel, hydro, ocean and geothermal energy. Debate over detailed plans remain, but transformations in global energy services based entirely around renewable energy are in principle technically practicable, economically feasible, socially viable, and so realisable. This prospect underpins the ambitious commitment by Germany, one of the world's most successful industrial economies, to undertake a major energy transition, Energiewende.[135]

In 2015 a study was published in Energy and Environmental Science that describes a pathway to 100% renewable energy in the United States by 2050 without using biomass. Implementation of this roadmap is regarded as both environmentally and economically feasible and reasonable, as by 2050 it would save about $600 Billion Dollars health costs a year due to reduced air pollution and $3.3 Trillion global warming costs. This would translate in yearly cost savings per head of around $8300 compared to a business as usual pathway. According to that study, barriers that could hamper implementation are neither technical nor economic but social and political, as most people didn't know that benefits from such a transformation far exceeded the costs.[136]

In June 2017, twenty-one researchers published an article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America rejecting Jacobson's earlier PNAS article, accusing him of modeling errors and of using invalid modeling tools.[137][138] They further asserted he made implausible assumptions through his reliance upon increasing national energy storage from 43 minutes to 7 weeks, increasing hydrogen production by 100,000%, and increasing hydropower by the equivalent of 600 Hoover Dams.[137] Article authors David G. Victor called Jacobson's work "dangerous" and Ken Caldeira emphasized that increasing hydropower output by 1,300 gigawatts, a 25% increase, is the equivalent flow of 100 Mississippi Rivers.[137] Jacobson published a response in the same issue of the PNAS and also authored a blog post where he asserted the researchers were advocates of the fossil fuel industry.[137][139][140] Another study published in 2017 confirmed the earlier results for a 100% renewable power system for North America, without changes in hydropower assumptions, but with more realistic emphasis on a balanced storage portfolio, in particular seasonal storage, and for competitive economics.[141]

In 2015, Jacobson and Delucchi, together with Mary Cameron and Bethany Frew, examined with computer simulation (LOADMATCH), in more detail how a wind-water-solar (WWS) system can track the energy demand from minute to minute. This turned out to be possible in the United States for 6 years, including WWS variability by extreme weather events.[142] In 2017, the plan was further developed for 139 countries by a team of 27 researchers[143] and in 2018, Jacobson and Delucchi with Mary Cameron and Brian Mathiesen published the LOADMATCH results for 20 regions in which the 139 countries in the world are divided. According to this research, a WWS system can follow the demand in all regions.[144][145]

### Places with near 100% renewable electricity

The following places meet 90% or more of their average yearly electricity demand with renewable energy (incomplete list):

Place  | Population  | Electricity  | Source

|
|
|

Aller-Leine Valley, Germany | 75,000 (2012)  | 63.5% wind, 30% biogas, 10.7% hydro, 3.1% solar  | [146][147]
Aspen, Colorado, United States | 6,658 (2010)  | Hydroelectric, wind and solar and geothermal  | [148]
Burlington, Vermont, United States  | 42,417 (2010)  | 35.3% hydro, 35.3% wood, 27.9% wind, 1.4% solar photovoltaic  | [149]
British Columbia, Canada  | 4,700,000 (2017)  | 97% hydroelectric  | [150]
Centralia, Washington  | 17,216  | 90.6% hydro, 7.9% nuclear  | [23]
Chelan Cty., Washington, United States  | 76,533  | 95.7% hydro  | [23]
Costa Rica  | 4,857,000  | 99% renewable electricity. Hydroelectric (90%), geothermal, wind (and others)  | [151]
Democratic Republic of the Congo  | 84,000,000  | Almost 100% hydro, but only 14% of households electrified  |
Douglas Cty., Washington, United States  | 41,945  | 100% hydro  | [23]
Eigg, Scotland, United Kingdom | 83  | 90% hydroelectricity, wind, and solar, 10% diesel generator, batteries  | [152]
Georgetown, Texas, United States  | 70,000  | 100% - 154MW solar and wind balanced with grid connection  | [153]
Greensburg, Kansas, United States  | 1400  | 100% - wind balanced with grid connection  | [148][154]
Iceland  | 329,100  | 72% hydroelectricity, 28% geothermal, wind, and solar power, less than 0.1% combustible fuel  | [155]
Kodiak Island, Alaska, United States  | 13,448  | 80.9% hydroelectricity, 19.8% wind power, 0.3% diesel generator  | [156]
Lower Austria, Austria  | 1,612,000  | 63% hydroelectricity, 26% wind, 9% biomass, 2% solar  | [157]
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany | 1,650,000  | net greater than 100% with wind, solar, and other renewables  | [158][159]
Norway | 5,140,000  | 96% hydroelectricity, 2% combustible fuel, 2% geothermal, wind, and solar  | [155]
Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada  | 525,604  | 95% hydroelectricity  | [160]
Orkney, Scotland, United Kingdom | 21,349  | generates over 100% of its net power from mainly wind and marine power. Connected to the mainland for grid balance and backup power  | [161]
Palo Alto, California , United States  | 66,000  | 50% hydro, rest a combination of solar, wind and biogas  | [162]
Paraguay  | 7,010,000  | Electricity sector in Paraguay is 100% hydroelectricity, about 90% of which is exported, remaining 10% covers domestic demand  | [163]
Pend Oreille Cty., Washington, United States  | 13,354  | 97.1% hydro  | [23]
Quebec, Canada | 8,200,000  | 99% renewable electricity is the main energy used in Quebec (41%), followed by oil (38%) and natural gas (10%)  | [164]
Samsø, Denmark | 3,806  | net greater than 100% wind power and biomass, connected to mainland for balance and backup power  | [165][166]
Schleswig-Holstein, Germany | 2,820,000  | net greater than 100% with wind, solar, and biomass  | [167][168]
Seattle, Washington, United States  | 724,745  | 86% hydroelectricity, 7% wind, 1% biogas  | [169][23]
South Island, New Zealand | 1,115,000  | 98.2% hydroelectricity and 1.6% wind. Around one-fifth of generation is exported to the North Island.  | [170]
Tacoma, Washington, United States  | 208,100  | 85% hydro, 6% wind  | [23]
Tajikistan  | 8,734,951 (2016)  | Hydropower supplies nearly 100 percent of Tajikistan's electricity.  | [171]
Tau, American Samoa  | 873 (2000)  | ~100% solar power, with battery backup  | [172]
Tilos, Greece  | 400 (winter), 3,000 (summer)  | 100% wind and solar power, with battery backup  | [173]
Tokelau  | 1,411  | 100% solar power, with battery backup  | [174]
Uruguay  | 3,300,000 (2013)  | 94.5% renewable electricity; wind power (and biomass and solar power) is used to stretch hydroelectricity reserves into the dry season  | [175]
Wildpoldsried, Germany | 2,512 (2013)  | 500% wind, solar, hydro  | [176]
Yukon, Canada  | 35,874  | 94% hydroelectricity  | [177]

Some other places have high percentages, for example the electricity sector in Denmark, as of 2014[update], is 45% wind power, with plans in place to reach 85%. The electricity sector in Canada and the electricity sector in New Zealand have even higher percentages of renewables (mostly hydro), 65% and 75% respectively, and Austria is approaching 70%.[178] As of 2015[update], the electricity sector in Germany sometimes meets almost 100% of the electricity demand with PV and wind power, and renewable electricity is over 25%.[179][180] Albania has 94.8% of installed capacity as hydroelectric, 5.2% diesel generator; but Albania imports 39% of its electricity.[181][182] In 2016, Portugal achieved 100% renewable electricity for four days between 7 and 11 May, partly because efficient energy use had reduced electricity demand.[183] France and Sweden have low carbon intensity, since they predominantly use a mixture of nuclear power and hydroelectricity. In 2018 Scotland met 76% of their demand from renewable sources.[184][185]

Although electricity is currently a big fraction of primary energy; it is to be expected that with renewable energy deployment primary energy use will go down sharply as electricity use increases, as it is likely to be combined with some degree of further electrification.[186][187] For example, electric cars achieve much better fuel efficiency than fossil fuel cars, and another example is renewable heat such as in the case of Denmark which is proposing to move to greater use of heat pumps for heating buildings which provide multiple kilowatts of heat per kilowatt of electricity.

### 100% clean electricity

Other electricity generating sources are considered clean, though not necessarily renewable, as they also do not emit carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases and air pollutants. The largest of these is nuclear energy which produces no emissions. Carbon capture and storage projects may still use coal or natural gas but capture carbon dioxide for storage or alternative uses. Pathways to eliminate greenhouse gases may include these in addition to renewable energy so as to avoid shutting down existing plants and allow for flexibility in designing a carbon-free electric grid.

In 2018 California passed SB 100, which will mandate 100% clean, carbon-free by 2045, including a 60% renewable electricity goal by 2030.[188][189] 2019 legislation in Washington (state) will also require 100% clean electricity by 2045, eliminating coal by 2025.[190] Further states and territories that will require 100% carbon-free electricity are Hawaii, Maine, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Virginia, Puerto Rico, and Washington, DC.[191]

### Obstacles

Further information: Earth:Politics of global warming

The most significant barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies, at the pace required to prevent runaway climate change, are primarily political and not technological.[87][dubious - discuss] According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are:[93]

>   * Climate change denial
>   * Efforts to impede renewable energy by the fossil fuel industry
>   * Political paralysis
>   * Unsustainable consumption of energy and resources
>   * Path dependencies and outdated infrastructure
>   * Financial and governance constraints

NASA Climate scientist James Hansen discusses the problem with a rapid phase out of fossil fuels and said that while it is conceivable in places such as New Zealand and Norway, "suggesting that renewables will let us phase rapidly off fossil fuels in the United States, China, India, or the world as a whole is almost the equivalent of believing in the Easter Bunny and Tooth Fairy."[192][193] In 2013, Smil analyzed proposals to depend on wind and solar-generated electricity including the proposals of Jacobson and colleagues, and writing in an issue of Spectrum prepared by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, he identified numerous points of concern, such as cost, intermittent power supply, growing NIMBYism, and a lack of infrastructure as negative factors and said that "History and a consideration of the technical requirements show that the problem is much greater than these advocates have supposed."[192][194] Smil and Hansen are concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power, but American physicist Amory Lovins has said that the electricity grid can cope, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.[195]

In 1999 American academic Dr. Gregory Unruh published a dissertation identifying the systemic barriers to the adoption and diffusion of renewable energy technologies. This theoretical framework was called Carbon Lock-in and pointed to the creation of self-reinforcing feedbacks that arise through the co-evolution of large technological systems, like electricity and transportation networks, with the social and political institutions that support and benefit from system growth. Once established, these techno-institutional complexes[196] become "locked-in" and resist efforts to transform them towards more environmentally sustainable systems based on renewable sources.

Lester R. Brown founder and president of the Earth Policy Institute, a nonprofit research organization based in Washington, D.C., says a rapid transition to 100% renewable energy is both possible and necessary. Brown compares with the U.S. entry into World War II and the subsequent rapid mobilization and transformation of the US industry and economy. A quick transition to 100% renewable energy and saving of our civilization is proposed by Brown to follow an approach with similar urgency.[197]

The International Energy Agency says that there has been too much attention on issue of the variability of renewable electricity production.[198] The issue of intermittent supply applies to popular renewable technologies, mainly wind power and solar photovoltaics, and its significance depends on a range of factors which include the market penetration of the renewables concerned, the balance of plant and the wider connectivity of the system, as well as the demand side flexibility. Variability will rarely be a barrier to increased renewable energy deployment when dispatchable generation such as hydroelectricity or solar thermal storage is also available. But at high levels of market penetration it requires careful analysis and management, and additional costs may be required for back-up or system modification.[198] Renewable electricity supply in the 20-50+% penetration range has already been implemented in several European systems, albeit in the context of an integrated European grid system:[199]

In 2011, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the world's leading climate researchers selected by the United Nations, said "as infrastructure and energy systems develop, in spite of the complexities, there are few, if any, fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet a majority share of total energy demand in locations where suitable renewable resources exist or can be supplied".[200] IPCC scenarios "generally indicate that growth in renewable energy will be widespread around the world".[201] The IPCC said that if governments were supportive, and the full complement of renewable energy technologies were deployed, renewable energy supply could account for almost 80% of the world's energy use within forty years.[202] Rajendra Pachauri, chairman of the IPCC, said the necessary investment in renewables would cost only about 1% of global GDP annually. This approach could contain greenhouse gas levels to less than 450 parts per million, the safe level beyond which climate change becomes catastrophic and irreversible.[202]

In November 2014 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change came out with their fifth report, saying that in the absence of any one technology (such as bioenergy, carbon dioxide capture and storage, nuclear, wind and solar), climate change mitigation costs can increase substantially depending on which technology is absent. For example, it may cost 40% more to reduce carbon emissions without carbon dioxide capture. (Table 3.2)[203]

Google spent $30 million on their RE<C project to develop renewable energy and stave off catastrophic climate change. The project was cancelled after concluding that a best-case scenario for rapid advances in renewable energy could only result in emissions 55 percent below the fossil fuel projections for 2050.[204]

#### Seasonal energy storage

Hydropower is currently the only large scale low-carbon seasonal energy storage. In countries with high variation in energy demand by season (for example the UK uses far more gas for heating in the winter than it uses electricity) but lacking hydropower electrical interconnectors to countries with lots of hydropower (e.g. UK - Norway) will probably be insufficient and development of a hydrogen economy will likely be needed: this is being trialled in the UK and 8 TWh of inter-seasonal hydrogen energy storage has been proposed.[205]

In Australia as well as storing renewable energy as hydrogen it is also proposed to be exported in the form of ammonia.[206]

## See also

* Carbon bubble
* Energy transition
* Individual and political action on climate change
* International Renewable Energy Agency
* List of energy storage projects
* Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy
* Hydrogen economy

## References

1. ↑ "Power County Wind Farm - Power County, Idaho.". 7 March 2012. http://www.flickr.com/photos/departmentofenergy/7795441536/.
2. ↑ Droege, Peter. (2011). Urban Energy Transition : From Fossil Fuels to Renewable Power.. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-08-102075-3. OCLC 990734963.
3. ↑ Glickman, Noemi (2015). "Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2015" (PDF) (Press release). Bloomberg New Energy Finance.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Owusu, Phebe Asantewaa; Asumadu-Sarkodie, Samuel (4 April 2016). Dubey, Shashi. ed. "A review of renewable energy sources, sustainability issues and climate change mitigation" (in en). Cogent Engineering 3 (1). doi:10.1080/23311916.2016.1167990. ISSN 2331-1916.
5. ↑ https://www.reuters.com/article/us-energy-renewables-costs/plunging-cost-of-wind-and-solar-marks-turning-point-in-energy-transition-irena-idUSKBN2390I8?il=0
6. ↑ Turner, John A. (30 July 1999). "A Realizable Renewable Energy Future" (in en). Science 285 (5428): 687–689. doi:10.1126/science.285.5428.687. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 10426982.
7. ↑ World Energy Assessment. Staten Island, NY: United Nations Development Center. 2000. ISBN 92-1-126126-0.
8. ↑ Kök, A. Gürhan; Shang, Kevin; Yücel, Şafak (23 January 2020). "Investments in Renewable and Conventional Energy: The Role of Operational Flexibility". Manufacturing & Service Operations Management. doi:10.1287/msom.2019.0789. ISSN 1523-4614.
9. ↑ Guidolin, Mariangela (2016). "The German energy transition: modeling competition and substitution between nuclear power and renewable energy technologies". Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Padua, Italy. http://homes.stat.unipd.it/renatoguseo/sites/homes.stat.unipd.it.renatoguseo/files/RSER-D-15-01228-R1accept.pdf.
10. ↑ "Lessons Learned From an Energy Company's Green Transformation - Columbia Center on Sustainable Investment" (in en). http://ccsi.columbia.edu/2019/04/15/lessons-learned-from-an-energy-companys-green-transformation/.
11. ↑ "Geography《》Maps《》 History (@maps_affinity) • Instagram photos and videos" (in en). https://www.instagram.com/maps_affinity/.
12. ↑ Trenberth, Kevin (2015). "Attribution of climate extreme events". Nature Climate Change 5 (8): 725–730. doi:10.1038/nclimate2657. Bibcode: 2015NatCC...5..725T. http://www.theurbanclimatologist.com/uploads/4/4/2/5/44250401/attributionextremeevents.pdf.
13. ↑ "Summary for Policy Makers". 2019. https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/05/SR15_SPM_version_report_LR.pdf.
14. ↑ Mishra, Saurabh; Singh, Priyanka (2016-09-27), "Chapter 13 Energy Sustainability and Strategic Communications", Energy Security and Sustainability (CRC Press): pp. 337–350, doi:10.1201/9781315368047-14, ISBN 978-1-4987-5443-9
15. ↑ "Larry Fink's Letter to CEOs" (in en). https://www.blackrock.com/corporate/investor-relations/larry-fink-ceo-letter.
16. ↑ "Studies Show Wind Power's Massive Potential" (in en). 10 September 2012. https://www.insidescience.org/news/studies-show-wind-powers-massive-potential.
17. ↑ "Wind Power" (in en). 9 October 2009. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/wind-power/.
18. ↑ "Advantages and Challenges of Wind Energy" (in en). https://www.energy.gov/eere/wind/advantages-and-challenges-wind-energy.
19. ↑ Denholm, P. (2009). "Land-use requirements of modern wind power plants in the United States". National Renewable Energy Laboratory. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy09osti/45834.pdf.
20. ↑ "Wind turbine interactions with birds, bats, and their habitats: A summary of research results and priority questions". 2010. https://www1.eere.energy.gov/wind/pdfs/birds_and_bats_fact_sheet.pdf.
21. ↑ "Solar Energy Potential" (in en). https://www.energy.gov/maps/solar-energy-potential.
22. ↑ "Benefits of Off-Grid Solar Products" (in en-US). https://www.lightingafrica.org/about/why-off-grid-energy/.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 Hand, M.M. (2012). Renewable Electricity Futures Study. 4. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/TP-6A20-52409. https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/52409-4.pdf. Cite error: Invalid `<ref>` tag; name ":0" defined multiple times with different content
24. ↑ "Geothermal FAQs" (in en). https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/geothermal-faqs.
25. ↑ Codeart.mk. "Sulfur deposit cleaning and prevention in geothermal cooling towers in power plants" (in en-US). https://amsainc.com/geothermal/.
26. ↑ Rinkesh (19 January 2015). "Pros and Cons of Geothermal Energy" (in en-US). https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/pros-and-cons-of-geothermal-energy.php.
27. ↑ "How a Geothermal Power Plant Works (Simple)" (in en). https://www.energy.gov/eere/geothermal/how-geothermal-power-plant-works-simple.
28. ↑ Kagel, A. (2007). A Guide to Geothermal Energy and the Environment.
29. ↑ "Various Pros and Cons of Hydroelectric Power" (in en-US). 17 February 2015. https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/pros-and-cons-of-hydroelectric-power.php.
30. ↑ "Hydroelectric Power: Advantages of Production and Usage" (in en). https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/hydroelectric-power-advantages-production-and-usage?qt-science_center_objects=0#.
31. ↑ "Affordable" (in en-US). https://www.hydro.org/waterpower/why-hydro/affordable/.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Land Under Water: Estimating Hydropower's Land Use Impacts « Landsat Science". https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/land-under-water-estimating-hydropowers-land-use-impacts/.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Tidal Energy: What is it, Pros & Cons, Future Development | 2020's Guide" (in en-US). 11 December 2019. https://www.renewableresourcescoalition.org/tidal-energy/.
34. ↑ "Tidal Energy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/tidal-energy.
35. ↑ "Tidal energy advantages and disadvantages: key points to consider" (in en-GB). 26 October 2018. https://www.power-technology.com/features/tidal-energy-advantages-and-disadvantages/.
36. ↑ Kempener, Ruud; Neumann, Frank (2014). ﻿Tidal Energy Technology Brief﻿ (Report). IRENA. https://www.irena.org/documentdownloads/publications/tidal_energy_v4_web.pdf.
37. ↑ P. Mikheenko, "Nanomaterials for renewable energy economy," 2017 IEEE 7th International Conference Nanomaterials: Application & Properties (NAP), Odessa, 2017, pp. 03NE05-1-03NE05-5.
38. ↑ Singh, R., & Kumar S.M., A. (2018). Estimation of Off Shore Wind Power Potential and Cost Optimization of Wind Farm in Indian Coastal Region by Using GAMS. 2018 International Conference on Current Trends towards Converging Technologies (ICCTCT), Current Trends towards Converging Technologies (ICCTCT), 2018 International Conference On, 1–6. https://doi-org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1109/ICCTCT.2018.8550900
39. ↑ Moseley, P. T., Garche, J., & Adelmann, P. (2015). Electrochemical Energy Storage for Renewable Sources and Grid Balancing. Elsevier. Heating Industry
40. ↑ Bryant, Scott T.; Straker, Karla; Wrigley, Cara (1 July 2019). "The discourses of power – governmental approaches to business models in the renewable energy transition" (in en). Energy Policy 130: 41–59. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.03.050. ISSN 0301-4215.
41. ↑ Scholten, D., Criekemans, D., & de Graaf, T. V. (2020). An Energy Transition Amidst Great Power Rivalry. Journal of International Affairs, 73(1), 195–203.
42. ↑ Leipprand, Anna; Flachsland, Christian; Pahle, Michael (3 July 2017). "Energy transition on the rise: discourses on energy future in the German parliament". Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research 30 (3): 283–305. doi:10.1080/13511610.2016.1215241. ISSN 1351-1610.
43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Usher, B. (2019). Renewable Energy : A Primer for the Twenty-First Century. Columbia University Press
44. ↑ Global Investments in RE Marks $288 Billion: BNEF Report. (2019). FRPT- Energy Snapshot, 23–24.
45. ↑ A., S., Kumar, R., & Bansal, R. C. (2019). Multiagent-Based Autonomous Energy Management System With Self-Healing Capabilities for a Microgrid. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Industrial Informatics, IEEE Transactions on, IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf, 15(12), 6280–6290. https://doi-org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1109/TII.2018.2889692
46. ↑ Wang, J., & Zhang, L. (2018). Analysis of the Impact of Heating-Thermal Generators Flexibility Expansion on Promoting Renewable Energy Integration Based on Production Cost Simulation. 2018 2nd IEEE Conference on Energy Internet and Energy System Integration (EI2), Energy Internet and Energy System Integration (EI2), 2018 2nd IEEE Conference On, 1–6. https://doi-org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1109/EI2.2018.8582019
47. ↑ Hvelplund, Frede; Krog, Louise; Nielsen, Steffen; Terkelsen, Elsebeth; Madsen, Kristian Brun (2019). "Policy paradigms for optimal residential heat savings in a transition to 100% renewable energy systems". Energy Policy. 134: 110944. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.110944.
48. ↑ Hvelplund, Frede; Krog, Louise; Nielsen, Steffen; Terkelsen, Elsebeth; Madsen, Kristian Brun (2019). "Policy paradigms for optimal residential heat savings in a transition to 100% renewable energy systems". Energy Policy 134: 110944. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.110944.
49. ↑ Mattei, G. (2018). Wood energy. Salem Press Encyclopedia.
50. ↑ Lyudmyla Maksymiv, & Tetiana Lutsyshyn. (2019). Ecological and economic estimation of the efficiency of energy wood use in the regional agglomeration «Drohobychyna». Наукові Праці Лісівничої Академії Наук України, 18, 164–175. https://doi-org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.15421/411917
51. ↑ MCCORD, M. (2014). Commercial use of wood energy is heating up. (cover story). New Hampshire Business Review, 36(24), 1–12.
52. ↑ Bell, Stephen (2 January 2020). "The Renewable Energy Transition Energy Path Divergence, Increasing Returns and Mutually Reinforcing Leads in the State-Market Symbiosis". New Political Economy 25 (1): 57–71. doi:10.1080/13563467.2018.1562430. ISSN 1356-3467.
53. ↑ Fleming, D. (2016). Wind Energy : Developments, Potential and Challenges. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
54. ↑ Kuşkaya, S., & Bilgili, F. (2020). The wind energy-greenhouse gas nexus: The wavelet-partial wavelet coherence model approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 245. https://doi-org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118872
55. ↑ Hassan, M. H., Helmi, D., Elshahed, M., & Abd-Elkhalek, H. (2017). Improving the capability curves of a grid-connected wind farm: Gabel El-Zeit, Egypt. 2017 Nineteenth International Middle East Power Systems Conference (MEPCON), Power Systems Conference (MEPCON), 2017 Nineteenth International Middle East, 300–307. https://doi-org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.1109/MEPCON.2017.8301197
56. ↑ Nassar, Ibrahim A.; Hossam, Kholoud; Abdella, Mahmoud Mohamed (2019). "Economic and environmental benefits of increasing the renewable energy sources in the power system". Energy Reports 5: 1082–1088. doi:10.1016/j.egyr.2019.08.006.
57. ↑ Fleming, D. (2016). Wind Energy : Developments, Potential and Challenges. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
58. ↑ Joseph F. DeCarolis, David W. Keith, Mark Z. Jacobson, & Gilbert M. Masters. (2001). The Real Cost of Wind Energy. Science, 294(5544), 1000.
59. ↑ Muhammad Shahzad Nazir, Yeqin Wang, Muhammad Bilal, Hafiz M. Sohail, Athraa Ali Kadhem, H. M. Rashid Nazir, Ahmed N. Abdalla, & Yongheng Ma. (2020). Comparison of Small-Scale Wind Energy Conversion Systems: Economic Indexes. Clean Technologies, 2(10), 144–155. https://doi-org.proxyiub.uits.iu.edu/10.3390/cleantechnol2020010
60. ↑ Umbach, Frank (2017), Geopolitical Dimensions of Global Unconventional Gas Perspectives, in Grafton, R. Quentin; Cronshaw, Ian G; Moore, Michal C, , Risks, Rewards and Regulation of Unconventional Gas (Cambridge University Press): pp. 8–34, doi:10.1017/9781316341209.004, ISBN 978-1-316-34120-9
61. ↑ Lenferna, Alex (22 November 2018). "Divest–Invest: A Moral Case for Fossil Fuel Divestment". Oxford Scholarship Online. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198813248.003.0008.
62. ↑ Blue, Fibonacci (2018). "File:Citizen's Climate Lobby at a rally for science (41536461234).jpg". https://www.flickr.com/photos/fibonacciblue/41536461234/.
63. ↑ "Definition of LOBBY" (in en). https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/lobby.
64. ↑ Frumhoff, Peter C.; Heede, Richard; Oreskes, Naomi (23 July 2015). "The climate responsibilities of industrial carbon producers". Climatic Change 132 (2): 157–171. doi:10.1007/s10584-015-1472-5. ISSN 0165-0009. Bibcode: 2015ClCh..132..157F.
65. ↑ Mercure, J.-F.; Pollitt, H.; Viñuales, J. E.; Edwards, N. R.; Holden, P. B.; Chewpreecha, U.; Salas, P.; Sognnaes, I. et al. (4 June 2018). "Macroeconomic impact of stranded fossil fuel assets". Nature Climate Change 8 (7): 588–593. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0182-1. ISSN 1758-678X. Bibcode: 2018NatCC...8..588M.
66. ↑ Rimmer, Matthew (2018). "Divest New York: The City of New York, C40, Fossil Fuel Divestment, and Climate Litigation". SSRN Working Paper Series. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3379421. ISSN 1556-5068.
67. ↑ Howard, Emma (2015). "A Guide to Fossil Fuel Divestment". https://ufc.umw.edu/files/2015/09/A-guide-to-fossil-fuel-divestment-Environment-The-Guardian.pdf.
68. ↑ "Divestment Commitments" (in en-US). https://gofossilfree.org/divestment/commitments/.
69. ↑ Hoppe, Thomas; Graf, Antonia; Warbroek, Beau; Lammers, Imke; Lepping, Isabella (11 February 2015). "Local Governments Supporting Local Energy Initiatives: Lessons from the Best Practices of Saerbeck (Germany) and Lochem (The Netherlands)". Sustainability 7 (2): 1900–1931. doi:10.3390/su7021900. ISSN 2071-1050.
70. ↑ Neves, Ana Rita; Leal, Vítor (December 2010). "Energy sustainability indicators for local energy planning: Review of current practices and derivation of a new framework". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 (9): 2723–2735. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.07.067. ISSN 1364-0321.
71. ↑ SOVACOOL, Benjamin (2011). "Conceptualizing and measuring energy security: A synthesized approach". https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3769&context=soss_research.
72. ↑ Strangleman, Tim (June 2001). "Networks, Place and Identities in Post‐industrial Mining Communities". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 25 (2): 253–267. doi:10.1111/1468-2427.00310. ISSN 0309-1317.
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Bouzarovski, Stefan; Tirado Herrero, Sergio; Petrova, Saska; Frankowski, Jan; Matoušek, Roman; Maltby, Tomas (2 January 2017). "Multiple transformations: theorizing energy vulnerability as a socio-spatial phenomenon". Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 99 (1): 20–41. doi:10.1080/04353684.2016.1276733. ISSN 0435-3684.
74. ↑ "Training Available for Dislocated Coal Miners and Dependents « UMWA Career Centers, Inc.". http://umwacc.com/training-available-for-dislocated-coal-miners-and-dependents/.
75. ↑ Franklin, Marcus (March 2017). "Reforming Utility Shut-Off Policies as If Human Rights Matter". http://www.naacp.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Lights-Out-in-the-Cold_NAACP.pdf.
76. ↑ Wright, matthew; Hearps, Patrick; et al. Australian Sustainable Energy: Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan, Energy Research Institute, University of Melbourne, October 2010, p. 33. Retrieved from BeyondZeroEmissions.org website.
77. ↑ Innovation in Concentrating Thermal Solar Power (CSP), RenewableEnergyFocus.com website.
78. ↑ Ray Stern (10 October 2013). "Solana: 10 Facts You Didn't Know About the Concentrated Solar Power Plant Near Gila Bend". Phoenix New Times. http://blogs.phoenixnewtimes.com/valleyfever/2013/10/solana_10_facts_you_didnt_know.php.
79. ↑ Statistical Review of World Energy, Workbook (xlsx), London, 2016
80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 80.2 Paul Gipe (4 April 2013). "100 Percent Renewable Vision Building". Renewable Energy World. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/04/100-percent-renewable-vision-building.
81. ↑ "Global energy transformation: A roadmap to 2050 (2019 edition)". https://www.irena.org/publications/2019/Apr/Global-energy-transformation-A-roadmap-to-2050-2019Edition. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2016). "Solar Electricity and Solar Fuels: Status and Perspectives in the Context of the Energy Transition". Chemistry – A European Journal 22 (1): 32–57. doi:10.1002/chem.201503580. PMID 26584653.
83. ↑ "Renewables Global Status Report". REN21. http://www.ren21.net/status-of-renewables/global-status-report/. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Hansen, Kenneth (2019). "Status and perspectives on 100% renewable energy systems". Energy 175: 471–480. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2019.03.092.
85. ↑ Pacala, S; Socolow, R (2004). "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies". Science 305 (5686): 968–72. doi:10.1126/science.1100103. PMID 15310891. Bibcode: 2004Sci...305..968P.
86. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Coughlin, Stephen J.; Hay, Catherine A.; Manogaran, Indu Priya; Shu, Yanbo; Krauland, Anna-Katharina von (20 December 2019). "Impacts of Green New Deal Energy Plans on Grid Stability, Costs, Jobs, Health, and Climate in 143 Countries" (in English). One Earth 1 (4): 449–463. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2019.12.003. ISSN 2590-3330. Bibcode: 2019AGUFMPA32A..01J. https://www.cell.com/one-earth/abstract/S2590-3322(19)30225-8.
87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Koumoundouros, Tessa (27 December 2019). "Stanford Researchers Have an Exciting Plan to Tackle The Climate Emergency Worldwide" (in en-gb). https://www.sciencealert.com/stanford-researchers-have-a-plan-to-tackle-the-climate-emergency.
88. ↑ Delucchi, Mark A; Jacobson, Mark Z (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies". Energy Policy 39 (3): 1170–90. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.045.
89. ↑ Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2011). "Towards an electricity-powered world". Energy and Environmental Science 4 (9): 3193–3222 [3216]. doi:10.1039/c1ee01249e.
90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 "Scientists Sharply Rebut Influential Renewable-Energy Plan". https://www.technologyreview.com/s/608126/in-sharp-rebuttal-scientists-squash-hopes-for-100-percent-renewables/.
91. ↑ Frew, Bethany A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Jacobson, Mark Z. (27 June 2017). "The United States can keep the grid stable at low cost with 100% clean, renewable energy in all sectors despite inaccurate claims" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114 (26): E5021–E5023. doi:10.1073/pnas.1708069114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 28630350. Bibcode: 2017PNAS..114E5021J.
92. ↑ National Research Council (2010). Electricity from Renewable Resources: Status, Prospects, and Impediments. National Academies of Science. p. 4. ISBN 9780309137089. http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12619.
93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 John Wiseman (April 2013). "Post Carbon Pathways". University of Melbourne. https://cpd.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Post-Carbon-Pathways-Report-2013_Revised.pdf.
94. ↑ Sørensen, Bent (25 July 1975). "A plan is outlined according to which solar and wind energy would supply Denmark's needs by the year 2050". Science 189 (4199): 255–260. doi:10.1126/science.189.4199.255. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17813696. Bibcode: 1975Sci...189..255S.
95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 Hohmeyer, Olav H; Bohm, Sönke (2015). "Trends toward 100% renewable electricity supply in Germany and Europe: A paradigm shift in energy policies". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment 4: 74–97. doi:10.1002/wene.128.
96. ↑ Green, Joshua (July–August 2009). "The Elusive Green Economy". The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/07/the-elusive-green-economy/7554/.
97. ↑ Lund, Henrik (2006). "Large-scale integration of optimal combinations of PV, wind and wave power into the electricity supply". Renewable Energy 31 (4): 503–515. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2005.04.008.
98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 Mark Diesendorf (4 April 2013). "Another Myth Busted on the Road to 100% Renewable Electricity". Reneweconomy.com.au. http://reneweconomy.com.au/2013/another-myth-busted-on-the-road-to-100-renewable-electricity-52178.
99. ↑ "Elproduktion". https://www.energinet.dk/DA/KLIMA-OG-MILJOE/Miljoerapportering/Termisk-produktion/Sider/Termisk-produktion.aspx.
100. ↑ Dennis Jacobe (9 April 2013). "Americans Want More Emphasis on Solar, Wind, Natural Gas". Renewable Energy World. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/04/americans-want-more-emphasis-on-solar-wind-natural-gas.
101. ↑ REN21 (2013). "Renewables global futures report 2013". http://new.ren21.net/Portals/0/REN21_GFR_2013_print.pdf. [yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
102. ↑ Elliston, Ben; MacGill, Iain; Diesendorf, Mark (2013). "Least cost 100% renewable electricity scenarios in the Australian National Electricity Market". Energy Policy 59: 270–82. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.03.038.
103. ↑ "Implementation of Green Bookkeeping at Reykjavik Energy". Rio02.com. http://www.rio02.com/proceedings/pdf/031_Gissuarson.pdf. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
104. ↑ "Energy Rich Japan". Energyrichjapan.info. http://www.energyrichjapan.info/en/welcome.html. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
105. ↑ "Zero Carbon Australia Stationary Energy Plan". Archived from the original on 23 May 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120523064256/http://media.beyondzeroemissions.org/ZCA2020_Stationary_Energy_Report_v1.pdf. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
106. ↑ US EIA, International energy statistics data for 2011.
107. ↑ US EIA, Norway, updated 2014.
108. ↑ "A Roadmap for U.S. Energy Policy". Ieer.org. 13 March 2012. http://ieer.org/projects/carbon-free-nuclear-free/. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
109. ↑ "A Road Map for U.S. Energy Policy". http://www.ecocivilization.info/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/CarbonFreeNuclearFree.pdf. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
110. ↑ Carrasco, Alicia (9 April 2012). "Denmark commits to 100% renewable energy". Emeter.com. http://www.emeter.com/smart-grid-watch/2012/denmark-commits-to-100-renewable-energy/. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
111. ↑ "Vision 2050". Inforse.org. 2 December 2010. http://www.inforse.org/europe/Vision2050.htm. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
112. ↑ "EU Sustainable Energy Vision 2040". Inforse.org. 2 December 2010. http://www.inforse.org/europe/VisionEU27.htm. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
113. ↑ "Zero Carbon World". Zerocarbonbritain.org. 9 November 2011. http://www.zerocarbonbritain.org/zcb-world. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
114. ↑ "HECO asserts Hawaii's renewable energy requirement can exceed 100%". http://ililanimedia.blogspot.com/2015/06/heco-asserts-hawaiis-renewable-energy.html.
115. ↑ Roger, Simon (21 March 2018). "Un plan climat met Paris sur la voie de la neutralité carbone". Le Monde.fr. https://www.lemonde.fr/climat/article/2018/03/22/un-plan-climat-met-paris-sur-la-voie-de-la-neutralite-carbone_5274533_1652612.html.
116. ↑ "L'Eurométropole de Strasbourg dévoile son plan climat 2030". 6 November 2017. https://www.francebleu.fr/infos/climat-environnement/l-eurometropole-de-strasbourg-devoile-son-plan-climat-2030-1509993398.
117. ↑ "Has the World Already Passed "Peak Oil"?". News.nationalgeographic.com. 9 November 2010. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/energy/2010/11/101109-peak-oil-iea-world-energy-outlook/. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
118. ↑ "Global Energy System based on 100% Renewable Energy - Power Sector" (in en). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320934766.
119. ↑ University, Stanford (8 February 2018). "Avoiding blackouts with 100% renewable energy" (in en). https://news.stanford.edu/2018/02/08/avoiding-blackouts-100-renewable-energy/.
120. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A. (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I: Technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials". Energy Policy 39 (3): 1154–1169. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.040.
121. ↑ Delucchi, Mark A.; Jacobson, Mark Z. (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies". Energy Policy 39 (3): 1170–1190. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.045.
122. ↑ https://www.climate-transparency.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Brown-to-Green-Report-2018_rev.pdf p21
123. ↑ 123.0 123.1 Mark Z. Jacobson; Mark A. Delucchi (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I: Technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials". Energy Policy 39 (3): 1154–1169. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.040. http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/JDEnPolicyPt1.pdf.
124. ↑ Delucchi, Mark A; Jacobson, Mark Z (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies". Energy Policy 39 (3): 1170–90. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.045.
125. ↑ Kate Galbraith. 100 Percent Renewables by 2030? Green Inc., 1 December 2009.
126. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, M.A. (November 2009). "A Path to Sustainable Energy by 2030". Scientific American 301 (5): 58–65. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1109-58. PMID 19873905. Bibcode: 2009SciAm.301e..58J. http://www.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/sad1109Jaco5p.indd.pdf.
127. ↑ "Wind, solar power paired with storage could be cost-effective way to power grid". UDaily. http://www.udel.edu/udaily/2013/dec/renewable-energy-121012.html.
128. ↑ Stephen Lacey (29 March 2012). "A True 'All of the Above' Energy Policy: Denmark Affirms Commitment to 100% Renewable Energy by 2050". Renewable Energy World. http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/03/a-true-all-of-the-above-energy-policy-denmark-affirms-commitment-to-100-renewable-energy-by-2050.
129. ↑ "International 100% Renewable Energy Conference". Irenec2012.com. 26 June 2012. http://www.irenec2012.com/giris.php. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
130. ↑ "IRENEC 2013". IRENEC 2013. http://www.irenec2013.com/. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
131. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2013). "Examining the feasibility of converting New York State's all-purpose energy infrastructure to one using wind, water, and sunlight". Energy Policy 57: 585–601. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.02.036.
132. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2014). "A roadmap for repowering California for all purposes with wind, water, and sunlight". Energy 73: 875–889. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2014.06.099.
133. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2016). "A 100% wind, water, sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy plan for Washington State". Renewable Energy 86: 75–88. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2015.08.003.
134. ↑ Mark Schwarz (26 February 2014). "Stanford scientist unveils 50-state plan to transform U.S. to renewable energy". Stanford Report. http://news.stanford.edu/news/2014/february/fifty-states-renewables-022414.html.
135. ↑ Stirling, Andy (2014). "Transforming power". Energy Research and Social Science 1: 83–95. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2014.02.001.
136. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z; Delucchi, Mark A; Bazouin, Guillaume; Bauer, Zack A. F; Heavey, Christa C; Fisher, Emma; Morris, Sean B; Piekutowski, Diniana J. Y et al. (2015). "100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy roadmaps for the 50 United States". Energy & Environmental Science 8 (7): 2093–117. doi:10.1039/C5EE01283J.
137. ↑ 137.0 137.1 137.2 137.3 Porter, Eduardo (21 June 2017). "Fisticuffs Over the Route to a Clean-Energy Future". The New York Times: p. B1. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/20/business/energy-environment/renewable-energy-national-academy-matt-jacobson.html. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
138. ↑ Clack, Christopher T. M; Qvist, Staffan A; Apt, Jay; Bazilian, Morgan; Brandt, Adam R; Caldeira, Ken; Davis, Steven J; Diakov, Victor et al. (2017). "Evaluation of a proposal for reliable low-cost grid power with 100% wind, water, and solar". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114 (26): 6722–6727. doi:10.1073/pnas.1610381114. PMID 28630353. Bibcode: 2017PNAS..114.6722C.
139. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z; Delucchi, Mark A; Cameron, Mary A; Frew, Bethany A (2017). "The United States can keep the grid stable at low cost with 100% clean, renewable energy in all sectors despite inaccurate claims". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114 (26): E5021–E5023. doi:10.1073/pnas.1708069114. PMID 28630350. Bibcode: 2017PNAS..114E5021J.
140. ↑ Jacobson, Mark (19 June 2017). "4 Reasons Nuclear and Fossil Fuel Supporters Criticizing 100% Renewable Energy Plan Are Wrong" (in en). EcoWatch. https://www.ecowatch.com/pnas-jacobson-renewable-energy-2444465393.html. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
141. ↑ Aghahosseini, Arman; Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Breyer, Christian (2017). "A Techno-Economic Study of an Entirely Renewable Energy-Based Power Supply for North America for 2030 Conditions". Energies 10 (8): 1171. doi:10.3390/en10081171. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319015965.
142. ↑ Jacobson, M.Z., M.A. Delucchi, M.A. Cameron, and B.A. Frew, A low-cost solution to the grid reliability problem with 100% penetration of intermittent wind, water, and solar for all purposes, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 112 (49) 15060-15065 December 8, 2015.
143. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z; Delucchi, Mark A; Bauer, Zack A.F; Goodman, Savannah C; Chapman, William E; Cameron, Mary A; Bozonnat, Cedric; Chobadi, Liat et al. (2017). "100% Clean and Renewable Wind, Water, and Sunlight All-Sector Energy Roadmaps for 139 Countries of the World". Joule 1: 108–21. doi:10.1016/j.joule.2017.07.005.
144. ↑ WWS per region
145. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z; Delucchi, Mark A; Cameron, Mary A; Mathiesen, Brian V (2018). "Matching demand with supply at low cost in 139 countries among 20 world regions with 100% intermittent wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) for all purposes". Renewable Energy 123: 236–48. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2018.02.009.
146. ↑ "Aller-Leine-Tal". Kommunal Erneuerbar. August 2012. http://www.kommunal-erneuerbar.de/energie-kommunen/energie-kommunen/aller-leine-tal.html.
147. ↑ "Cort-Brün Voige, Aller Leine Tal". http://www.go100percent.org/cms/index.php?id=99.
148. ↑ 148.0 148.1 "Aspen is third U.S. city to reach 100% renewable energy". The Aspen Times. http://www.aspentimes.com/news/17972193-113/aspen-is-third-us-city-to-reach-100.
149. ↑ "Our Energy Portfolio". Burlington Electric Department. https://www.burlingtonelectric.com/our-energy-portfolio.
150. ↑ http://www.bchydro.com/content/dam/BCHydro/customer-portal/documents/corporate/accountability-reports/financial-reports/annual-reports/bc-hydro-annual-report-2014.pdf[full citation needed][yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}] pg30
151. ↑ "Costa Rica Is 99% Powered By Renewable Energy - MetaEfficient". 8 April 2008. http://www.metaefficient.com/renewable-power/costa-rica-is-99-powered-by-renewable-energy.html. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
152. ↑ "Eigg Electric". http://www.communitypower.scot/case-studies/projects/eigg-electric/.
153. ↑ "Georgetown's energy 100 percent renewable with solar plant". https://georgetown.org/2018/06/29/georgetowns-energy-100-percent-renewable-with-solar-plant/.
154. ↑ "Archived copy". http://blog.rmi.org/blog_2013_09_10_high_renewables_tomorrow_today_greensburg_kansas.
155. ↑ 155.0 155.1 International Energy Agency, December 2014 , Monthly electricity statistics, data for January through December 2014.
156. ↑ Kodiak Electric Association, Statistics , accessed 21 July 2015.
157. ↑ "Lower Austria Claims 100% Renewable Electricity - CleanTechnica". 11 November 2015. http://cleantechnica.com/2015/11/11/lower-austria-claims-100-renewable-electricity/.
158. ↑ Craig Morris (24 June 2014). "German state already has 120 percent renewable power". Renewables International. http://www.renewablesinternational.net/german-state-already-has-120-percent-renewable-power/150/537/79680/. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
159. ↑ Christoph Steitz (4 September 2014). "German state able to meet power demand through renewables". Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/04/us-germany-renewables-supplies-idUSKBN0GZ24I20140904. Retrieved 21 August 2015.
160. ↑ "Provincial and Territorial Energy Profiles – Newfoundland and Labrador". Government of Canada. 8 April 2020. https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/nrg/ntgrtd/mrkt/nrgsstmprfls/nl-eng.html.
161. ↑ Llewelyn, Robert. "Orkney Island of the future". Robert Llewelyn. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FXe1hBvlylw. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
162. ↑ "Palo Alto switches to 100% renewables – at a cost of $3 a year". 23 July 2013. http://reneweconomy.com.au/palo-alto-switches-to-100-renewable-effective-immediately-21373/.
163. ↑ "'IRENA (2015), Renewable Energy Policy Brief: Paraguay; IRENA, Abu Dhabi'.". http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENA_RE_Latin_America_Policies_2015_Country_Paraguay.pdf.
164. ↑ "Archived copy". http://www.hydroquebec.com/sustainable-development/pdf/energy-supplies-and-air-emissions-2013.pdf.
165. ↑ "Denmark's Wind of Change". Time.com. http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,1881646,00.html. Retrieved 14 November 2013.
166. ↑ Kolbert, Elizabeth. "The Island in the Wind". Newyorker.com. https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/07/07/080707fa_fact_kolbert?currentPage=all. Retrieved 14 November 2013.
167. ↑ Craig Morris (17 June 2014). "Schleswig-Holstein: German state to go 100% renewable power... this year". Renewables International. http://www.renewablesinternational.net/german-state-to-go-100-renewable-power-this-year/150/537/79472/. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
168. ↑ Christina MacPherson (24 June 2014). "In just 8 years, German State goes from 30% to 100% renewable energy". Nuclear-News. http://nuclear-news.net/2014/06/28/in-just-8-years-german-state-goes-from-30-to-100-renewable-energy/. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
169. ↑ "Seattle City Light | Power Mix". http://www.seattle.gov/light/FuelMix/.
170. ↑ "Energy in New Zealand 2015". Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. http://www.mbie.govt.nz/info-services/sectors-industries/energy/energy-data-modelling/publications/energy-in-new-zealand. Retrieved 23 February 2016.
171. ↑ "Tajikistan | International Hydropower Association" (in en). https://www.hydropower.org/country-profiles/tajikistan.
172. ↑ "Tesla runs an entire island on solar power". https://www.engadget.com/2016/11/22/tesla-runs-island-on-solar-power/.
173. ↑ "A small Greek island will become the first in the Mediterranean to run solely on wind and solar power after its businesses have been hindered by blackouts". https://www.businessinsider.com/ap-renewable-resort-greek-island-to-run-on-wind-solar-power-2018-8.
174. ↑ [1], BBC
175. ↑ Watts, Jonathan (3 December 2015). "Uruguay makes dramatic shift to nearly 95% electricity from clean energy". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/03/uruguay-makes-dramatic-shift-to-nearly-95-clean-energy.
176. ↑ "Germany's renewable energy experiment comes at a cost". Financial Times. http://on.ft.com/18o8CH5.
177. ↑ "Provincial and Territorial Energy Profiles – Yukon". Government of Canada. 8 April 2020. https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/nrg/ntgrtd/mrkt/nrgsstmprfls/yt-eng.html.
178. ↑ Werber, Cassie. "Austria's largest state now gets 100% of its electricity from renewables". http://qz.com/543177/austrias-largest-state-now-gets-100-of-its-electricity-from-renewables/.
179. ↑ [2], PV Magazine, Monthly electricity statistics, 26 August 2015.
180. ↑ "Electricity – Renewable Energies in the first half of 2012". http://www.bdew.de/internet.nsf/id/20120726-pi-erneuerbare-energien-liefern-mehr-als-ein-viertel-des-stroms-de/$file/Strom_Erneuerbaren_Energien_1_Halbjahr_2012.pdf.
181. ↑ Albania, CIA World Factbook.
182. ↑ "Electricity production, consumption and market overview". http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Electricity_production,_consumption_and_market_overview.
183. ↑ Embrace the change, Editorial, Nature Energy, 7 June 2016.
184. ↑ https://www.scottishrenewables.com/forums/renewables-in-numbers/
185. ↑ https://www.power-technology.com/news/scotland-renewable-energy-record/
186. ↑ Jacobson, Mark Z. (2015). "100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy roadmaps for the 50 United States". Energy and Environmental Science 8 (7): 2093–2117. doi:10.1039/c5ee01283j.
187. ↑ Vad Mathiesen, Brian (2015). "Smart Energy Systems for coherent 100% renewable energy and transport solutions. In". Applied Energy 145: 139–154. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.075.
188. ↑ Spector, Julian (29 August 2018). "California Assembly Passes Historic 100% Carbon-Free Electricity Bill". https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/california-100-percent-clean-energy-grid-de-leon.
189. ↑ Roberts, David (31 August 2018). "California just adopted its boldest energy target yet: 100% clean electricity". https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2018/8/31/17799094/california-100-percent-clean-energy-target-brown-de-leon.
190. ↑ "Inslee wants 100 percent clean energy in Washington by 2045". https://www.king5.com/article/news/local/inslee-wants-100-percent-clean-energy-in-washington-by-2045/281-622645039.
191. ↑ "100 Percent Renewable Energy Targets by State | EnergySage" (in en-US). 2 May 2019. https://news.energysage.com/states-with-100-renewable-targets/.
192. ↑ 192.0 192.1 "Nuclear energy and climate change: Environmentalists debate how to stop global warming.". Slate Magazine. 14 January 2013. http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/nuclear_power/2013/01/nuclear_energy_and_climate_change_environmentalists_debate_how_to_stop_global.html.
193. ↑ Hansen, James (2011). "Baby Lauren and the Kool-Aid". http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/mailings/2011/20110729_BabyLauren.pdf. Retrieved 28 March 2013.
194. ↑ Vaclav Smil (28 June 2012). "A Skeptic Looks at Alternative Energy". ieee.org. https://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/renewables/a-skeptic-looks-at-alternative-energy/0.
195. ↑ Amory Lovins (March–April 2012). "A Farewell to Fossil Fuels". Foreign Affairs 329 (March/April 2012): 1292–1294. doi:10.1126/science.1195449. PMID 20829473. Bibcode: 2010Sci...329.1292H. http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/137246/amory-b-lovins/a-farewell-to-fossil-fuels.
196. ↑ "Microsoft Word - Lock-in_Foxon_final.doc". http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/portal/pls/portallive/docs/1/7294726.PDF. Retrieved 25 July 2018.
197. ↑ Lester R. Brown (2009). "Plan B 4.0, Mobilizing to Save Civilization". Earth Policy Institute. http://www.earth-policy.org/images/uploads/book_files/pb4book.pdf.
198. ↑ 198.0 198.1 "Contribution of Renewables to Energy Security". http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/so_contribution.pdf.
199. ↑ Amory Lovins (2011). Reinventing Fire, Chelsea Green Publishing, p. 199.
200. ↑ IPCC (2011). "Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation". Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. p. 17. http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report/IPCC_SRREN_SPM.pdf.
201. ↑ IPCC (2011). "Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation". Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. p. 22. http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report/IPCC_SRREN_SPM.pdf.
202. ↑ 202.0 202.1 Fiona Harvey (9 May 2011). "Renewable energy can power the world, says landmark IPCC study". The Guardian (London). https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/may/09/ipcc-renewable-energy-power-world.
203. ↑ "IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change". ipcc.ch. http://www.ipcc.ch/.
204. ↑ "What It Would Really Take to Reverse Climate Change". 18 November 2014. https://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/renewables/what-it-would-really-take-to-reverse-climate-change.
205. ↑ "Engineers publish £22bn blueprint for UK to take global lead on hydrogen heating". The Chemical Engineer. 27 November 2018. https://www.thechemicalengineer.com/news/engineers-publish-22bn-blueprint-for-uk-to-take-global-lead-on-hydrogen-heating/.
206. ↑ "What would Australia look like powered by 100% renewable energy?". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jan/28/what-would-australia-look-like-powered-by-100-renewable-energy. Retrieved 28 January 2019.

## Further reading

* Albert, Barbara (2017). Energy Unlimited: Four Steps to 100% Renewable Energy. https://www.amazon.com/Energy-Unlimited-Four-Steps-Renewable-ebook/dp/B01MS764X4/.
* Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Breyer, Christian (2016). "North-East Asian Super Grid for 100% renewable energy supply: Optimal mix of energy technologies for electricity, gas and heat supply options". Energy Conversion and Management 110: 176–190. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2016.01.019.
* Breyer, Christian (2015). "North-East Asian Super Grid: Renewable energy mix and economics". Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 54 (8S1): 08KJ01. doi:10.7567/JJAP.54.08KJ01. Bibcode: 2015JaJAP..54hKJ01B.
* Connolly, David (2016). "Smart Energy Europe :The technical and economic impact of one potential 100% renewable energy scenario for the European Union". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 60: 1634–1653. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.02.025.
* Connolly, David (2011). "The first step towards a 100% renewable energy-system for Ireland". Applied Energy 88 (2): 502–507. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.03.006.
* Cosic, Boris (2012). "A 100% renewable energy system in the year 2050: The case of Macedonia". Energy 48 (1): 80–87. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2012.06.078. http://repozitorij.fsb.hr/3543/1/A 100% renewable energy system in the year 2050_The case of Macedonia.pdf.
* Delucchi, Mark A.; Jacobson, Mark Z. (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies". Energy Policy 39 (3): 1170–1190. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.045.
* Peter Droege, 100 Per Cent Renewable. Energy Autonomy in Action. Routledge 2009, ISBN 978-1-849-71471-6.
* Elliston, Ben (2012). "Simulations of scenarios with 100% renewable electricity in the Australian National Electricity Market". Energy Policy 45: 606–613. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.03.011.
* Elliston, Ben (2013). "Least cost 100% renewable electricity scenarios in the Australian National Electricity Market". Energy Policy 59: 270–282. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.03.038.
* Elliston, Ben (2014). "Comparing least cost scenarios for 100% renewable electricity with low emission fossil fuel scenarios in the Australian National Electricity Market". Renewable Energy 66: 196–204. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2013.12.010.
* Garcia-Olivares, Antonio (2012). "A global renewable mix with proven technologies and common materials". Energy Policy 41: 561–574. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.018. Bibcode: 2012EGUGA..14.4992B.
* Glasnovica, Zvonimir; Margeta, Jure (2011). "Vision of total renewable electricity scenario". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (4): 1873–1884. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2010.12.016.
* Hansen, Kenneth (2019). "Status and perspectives on 100% renewable energy systems". Energy 175: 471–480. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2019.03.092.
* Hohmeyer, Olav; Bohm, Sönke (2015). "Trends toward 100% renewable electricity supply in Germany and Europe: a paradigm shift in energy policies. In". Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment 4: 74–97. doi:10.1002/wene.128.
* Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A. (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I: Technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials". Energy Policy 39 (3): 1154–1169. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.040.
* Jacobson, Mark Z. (2015). "100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy roadmaps for the 50 United States. In". Energy and Environmental Science 8 (7): 2093–2117. doi:10.1039/c5ee01283j.
* Jacobson, Mark Z. (2015). "Low-cost solution to the grid reliability problem with 100% penetration of intermittent wind, water, and solar for all purposes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112 (49): 15060–15065. doi:10.1073/pnas.1510028112. PMID 26598655. Bibcode: 2015PNAS..11215060J.
* Krajacic, Goran (2011). "How to achieve a 100% RES electricity supply for Portugal?". Applied Energy 88 (2): 508–517. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.09.006.
* Krajacic, Goran (2011). "Planning for a 100% independent energy system based on smart energy storage for integration of renewables and CO2 emissions reduction". Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (13): 2073–2083. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2011.03.014. http://repozitorij.fsb.hr/3554/1/Planning for a 100 independent energy system based on smart energy storage for integration of renewables and CO2 emissions reduction.pdf.
* Lund, Henrik (2007). "Renewable energy strategies for sustainable development". Energy 32 (6): 912–919. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2006.10.017.
* Lund, Henrik; Vad Mathiesen, Brian (2009). "Energy system analysis of 100% renewable energy systems - The case of Denmark in years 2030 and 2050". Energy 34 (5): 524–531. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2008.04.003.
* Lund, H. (2010). "The role of district heating in future renewable energy systems". Energy 35 (3): 1381–1390. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2009.11.023.
* George Mason, Ian (2010). "A 100% renewable electricity generation system for New Zealand utilising hydro, wind, geothermal and biomass resources". Energy Policy 38 (8): 3973–3984. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.03.022.
* George Mason, Ian (2013). "Security of supply, energy spillage control and peaking options within a 100% renewable electricity system for New Zealand.". Energy Policy 60: 324–333. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.05.032.
* Vad Mathiesen, Brian (2011). "100% Renewable energy systems, climate mitigation and economic growth". Applied Energy 88 (2): 488–501. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.03.001.
* Vad Mathiesen, Brian (2015). "Smart Energy Systems for coherent 100% renewable energy and transport solutions". Applied Energy 145: 139–154. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.075.
* REN21 (2016). Renewables 2016 Global Status Report: key findings, Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st century.
* Sovacool, Benjamin K.; Watts, Charmaine (2009). "Going Completely Renewable: Is It Possible (Let Alone Desirable)?". The Electricity Journal 22 (4): 95–111. doi:10.1016/j.tej.2009.03.011.

## External links

* Go 100% renewable energy by Renewables 100 Policy Institute.
* Net Zero Foundation—Education and Leadership of the transition to Net Zero fossil fuel.
* Renewables 100 Policy Institute
* Global 100% Renewable Energy Platform
* Global 100% Renewable Energy Campaign

0.00

(0 votes)

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Renewable_energy_transition&oldid=272423"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template