Soil bioengineering

Soil and Water Bioengineering is a discipline of civil engineering. It pursues technological, ecological, economic as well as design goals and seeks to achieve these primarily by making use of living materials, i.e. seeds, plants, part of plants and plant communities, and employing them in near–natural constructions while exploiting the manifold abilities inherent in plants. Soil bioengineering may sometimes be a substitute for classical engineering works; however, in most cases it is a meaningful and necessary method of complementing the latter. Its application suggests itself in all fields of soil and hydraulic engineering, especially for slope and embankment stabilization and erosion control.[1]

Soil bioengineering, also called ground bioengineering, is the use of living plant materials to provide some engineering function. Soil bioengineering is an effective tool for treatment of a variety of unstable and/or eroding sites.[2] Soil bioengineering techniques have been used for many centuries.[3] More recently Schiechtl (1980) has encouraged the use of soil bioengineering with a variety of European examples.[1] Soil bioengineering is now widely practiced throughout the world for the treatment of erosion and unstable slopes.[4][5]

## Contents

* 1 Fields of application and plants for soil bioengineering control works
* 2 Functions and effects of soil bioengineering structures
* 2.1 Technical functions
* 2.2 Ecological functions
* 2.3 Landscaping functions
* 2.4 Economic effects
* 3 References

## Fields of application and plants for soil bioengineering control works

Soil bioengineering methods can be applied wherever the plants which are used as living building materials are able to grow well and develop. This is the case in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones whereas there are obvious limits to plant growth in dry and cold regions, i.e. where arid, semi–arid and frost zones prevail.[6][7] In exceptional cases, lack of water may be compensated for by watering or irrigation.[8] In Europe, dry conditions limiting application exist in the Mediterranean[9] as well as in some inner alpine and eastern European snowy regions.[10] However, limits are most frequently imposed in alpine and arctic regions. These can usually be clearly noticed by the limited growth of woody plants (forest, tree and shrub lines) and the upper limits of closed turf cover.[11] The more impoverished a region is in species, the less suited it is for the application of bioengineering methods.[12]

## Functions and effects of soil bioengineering structures

### Technical functions

* protection of soil surface from erosion by wind, precipitation, frost and flowing water[5]
* protection from rock fall[13]
* elimination or binding of destructive mechanical forces[14]
* reduction of flow velocity along banks[6]
* surface and/or deep soil cohesion and stabilization[15]
* drainage[16]
* protection from wind[17]
* aiding the deposition of snow, drift sand and sediments[18]
* increasing soil roughness and thus preventing avalanche release[10]

Apart from these, ecological functions are gaining in importance, particularly as these can be fulfilled to a very limited extent only by classical engineering constructions.[19]

### Ecological functions

* addressing climate change challenges[20]
* improvement of water regime by improved soil interception and storage capability as well as water consumption by plants[21]
* soil drainage[22]
* protection from wind[17]
* protection from ambient air pollution[23]
* mechanical soil amelioration by the roots of plants[14]
* balancing of temperature conditions in near–ground layers of air and in the soil[24]
* shading[25]
* improvement of nutrient content in the soil and thus of soil fertility on previously raw soils[18]
* balancing of snow deposits[18]
* noise control[26]
* yield increase on neighbouring cropland[27]

### Landscaping functions

* healing of wounds inflicted on the landscape by disasters (e.g. landslides, wildfires, hurricanes)[28] and humans (e.g. exploitation of mineral resources, construction work, deposition of overburden, tunnel excavation material, industrial and domestic waste)[29]
* integration of structures into the landscape (e.g. through landscaping)[30]
* concealment of offending structures[31]
* enrichment of the landscape by creating new features and structures, shapes and colours of vegetation[30]

### Economic effects

Bioengineering control works are not always necessarily cheaper in construction when compared to classical engineering structures. However, when taking into account their lifetime including their service and maintenance, they will normally turn out to be more economical.[32] Their special advantages are:

* lower construction costs compared to “hard” constructions[6]
* lower maintenance and rehabilitation costs (higher useful life)[33]
* creation of useful green areas and woody plant populations on previously derelict land[34]
* Useful for income generation[6]

The result of soil bioengineering protection works are living systems which develop further and maintain their balance by natural succession (i.e. by dynamic self–control, without artificial input of energy).[35] If the right living but also non–living building materials and the appropriate types of construction are chosen, exceptionally high sustainability requiring little maintenance effort can be achieved.[36][37]

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Schiechtl, Hugo (1980). Bioengineering for land reclamation and conservation (translated in English by N.K. Horstmann). Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Press. ISBN 978-0888640536.
2. ↑ Punetha, Piyush; Samanta, Manojit; Sarkar, Shantanu (29 June 2018). "Bioengineering as an effective and ecofriendly soil slope stabilization method: a review". Landslides: theory, practice and modelling. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Cham. pp. 201–24. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-77377-3_10. ISBN 978-3-319-77377-3. https://z-library.sk/book/JveJr57yOE. Retrieved 19 February 2026.
3. ↑ Bischetti, Gian Battista; Di Fi Dio, Mario; Florineth, Florin (21 December 2012). "On the origin of soil bioengineering". Landscape Research 39 (5): 583–95. doi:10.1080/01426397.2012.730139. https://z-library.sk/book/ZO9Y2MYQOe. Retrieved 19 February 2026.
4. ↑ Gray, Donald H.; Leiser, Andrew T. (1982). Biotechnical slope protection and erosion control. New York, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company. ISBN 978-0442212223. https://archive.org/details/biotechnicalslop0000gray. Retrieved 19 February 2026.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Gray, Donald H.; Sotir, Robbin B. (1996). Biotechnical and soil bioengineering slope stabilization: a practical guide for erosion control. New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471049784. https://z-library.sk/book/QRMQJlkLRV. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Dhital, Yam Prasad; Kayastha, Rijan Bhakta; Shi, Jiansheng (22 December 2012). "Soil bioengineering application and practices in Nepal". Environmental Management 51: 354–64. doi:10.1007/s00267-012-0003-7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233976645. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
7. ↑ Stokes, Alexia; Sotir, Robbin; Chen, Walter; Ghestem, Murielle (March 2010). "Soil bio- and eco-engineering in China: past experience and future priorities". Ecological Engineering 36 (3): 247–57. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2009.07.008. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229399168. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
8. ↑ Lavaine, Catherine; Evette, André; Piégay, Hervé (21 April 2015). "European Tamaricaceae in bioengineering on dry soils". Environmental Management 56 (1): 221–32. doi:10.1007/s00267-015-0499-8. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275278021. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
9. ↑ Zaimes, George N.; Tardio, Guillermo; Iakovoglou, Valasia; Gimenez, Martin; Garcia-Rodriguez, Jose Luis; Sangalli, Paola (25 November 2019). "New tools and approaches to promote soil and water bioengineering in the Mediterranean". Science of the Total Environment 693. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133677. https://www.academia.edu/104026419. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Rousset, Juliette; Piton, Guillaume; Hirschy, Marie Lou; Jaymond, Delphine; Evette, André (May 2026). "Soil and water bioengineering on moutain streambanks: lessons learnt from extensive feedback on projects in the Alps". Ecological Engineering 226. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2026.107910. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/400386540. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
11. ↑ Rousset, Juliette; Menoli, Sarah; François, Adeline; Gaucherand, Stéphanie; Evette, André (23 June 2025). "Developing nature-based solutions in the Alps: an ex-situ experiment to select willows for subalpine soil and water bioengineering structures". Environmental Management 75 (8): 1950–62. doi:10.1007/s00267-025-02211-4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392938042. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
12. ↑ Kettenhuber, Paula Letícia Wolff; dos Santos Sousa, Rita; Dewes, Júnior Joel; Rauch, Hans Peter; Sutili, Fabrício Jaques; Hörbinger, Stephan (January 2023). "Performance assessment of a soil and water bioengineering work on the basis of the flora development and its associated ecosystem processes". Ecological Engineering 186. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2022.106840. https://archive.org/details/kettenhuber-et-al.-2023. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
13. ↑ Sotir, Robbin B.; McCaffrey, Michael A. (1997). "Stabilization of high soil and rock cut slope by soil bioengineering and conventional engineering". Transportation Research Record 1589: 92–8. doi:10.3141/1589-15. https://z-library.sk/book/0vpqg9yNOr. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Sanchez-Castillo, Laura; Kubota, Testsuya; Cantu-Silva, Israel; Yañez-Diaz, Maria; Hasnawir; Pequeño-Ledezma, Miguel (April–June 2017). "Comparisons of the root mechanical properties of three native Mexican tree species for soil bioengineering practices". Botanical Sciences 95 (2): 259–69. doi:10.17129/botsci.802.
15. ↑ Zhang, Hongling; Zhao, Zhifang; Ma, Guofeng; Sun, Lina (15 May 2020). "Quantitative evaluation of soil anti-erodibility in riverbank slope remediated with nature-based soil bioengineering in Liaohe River, Northeast China". Ecological Engineering 151. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105840. https://z-library.sk/book/zOo6986GvQ. Retrieved 20 February 2026.
16. ↑ Polster, David F. (25 May 2003). "Soil bioengineering for slope stabilization and site restoration". https://botanicgardens.uw.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2013/12/SoilBioengineeringForSlopeStabilizationAndSiteRestoration.pdf.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Islam, Syed Labib (13 December 2021). Assessment of the potential of bioengineering intervention for retarding cyclonic wind and storm surge in coastal Bangladesh (Thesis). Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Giupponi, Luca; Borgonovo, Gigliola; Giorgi, Annamaria; Bischetti, Gian Battista (21 September 2018). "How to renew soil bioengineering for slope stabilization: some proposals". Landscape and Ecological Engineering 15 (Suppl. 1): 37–50. doi:10.1007/s11355-018-0359-9. https://www.academia.edu/118244096. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
19. ↑ Rauch, Hans Peter; von der Thannen, Magdalena; Raymond, Pierre; Mira, Eléonore; Evette, André (March 2022). "Ecological challenges for the use of soil and water bioengineering techniques in river and coastal engineering projects". Ecological Engineering 176. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106539. https://www.academia.edu/118244096. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
20. ↑ Mickovski, Slobodan B. (18 March 2021). "Re-thinking soil bioengineering to address climate change challenges". Sustainability 13 (6). doi:10.3390/su13063338.
21. ↑ Fatahi, Behzad; Khabbaz, Hadi; Indraratna, Buddhima (February 2010). "Bioengineering ground improvement considering root water uptake model". Ecological Engineering 36 (2): 222–9. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.12.027. https://www.academia.edu/55756121. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
22. ↑ Miele, Pietro; Di Martire, Diego; Di Napoli, Mariano; Guerriero, Luigi; Calcaterra, Domenico (November 2021). "Temporal efficiencies of soil bioengineering techniques to mitigate geo-hydrological risks". Ecological Engineering 170. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106338. https://archive.org/details/miele-et-al.-2021. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
23. ↑ Giltrap, Donna; Cavanagh, Jo; Stevenson, Bryan; Ausseil, Anne-Gaëlle (4 August 2021). "The role of soils in the regulation of air quality". Philosophical Transactions B 376. doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0172.
24. ↑ Boldrin, David; Leung, Anthony K.; Bengough, A. Glyn; Jones, Hamlyn G. (December 2019). "Potential of thermal imaging in soil bioengineering to assess plant ability for soil water removal and air cooling". Ecological Engineering 141. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2019.105599. https://www.academia.edu/119114960. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
25. ↑ Kuswadi, Didik; Fitriani, Vivi (21 September 2021). "Soil bioengineering for sustainable coffee farming in Way Besai sub-watersheds, Lampung, Indonesia". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 922. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/922/1/012023.
26. ↑ Wu, W.; Aschauer, F.; Oberreiter, K.; Gruber, J.; Schön, H. (September 2006). "Living noise barrier by geosynthetics reinforced soil wall". Geosynthetics. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press. pp. 1219–22. ISBN 978-90-5966-044-1. https://library.geosyntheticssociety.org/wp-content/uploads/resources/proceedings/E.05.10 Living noise barrier by geosynthetics reinforced soil wall.pdf. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
27. ↑ Rao, B. Krishna; Singh, Gaurav; Kumar, Gopal; Pande, V. C.; Lenka, Narendra Kumar; Dinesh, Dhakshanamoorthy; Mishra, P. K.; Singh, Ashok Kumar (15 September 2022). "Effect of selected bioengineering measures on runoff, soil loss, and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) productivity in the semi-arid region of western India". Industrial Crops and Products 184. doi:10.1016/j.indcrop.2022.115029. https://archive.org/details/rao-et-al.-2022. Retrieved 23 February 2026.
28. ↑ Rey, Freddy; Bifulco, Carlo; Bischetti, Gian Battista; Bourrier, Franck; De Cesare, Giovanni; Florineth, Florin; Graf, Frank; Marden, Michael et al. (15 January 2019). "Soil and water bioengineering: practice and research needs for reconciling natural hazard control and ecological restoration". Science of the Total Environment 648: 1210–8. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.217. https://www.academia.edu/104026418. Retrieved 24 February 2026.
29. ↑ Polster, David F. (November 2013). "Soil bioengineering for site restoration". Edmonton, Alberta. https://www.cclmportal.ca/sites/default/files/2020-02/Soil_Bioengineering_for_Site_Restoration.pdf.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Martin, R. P. (2001). "Landscaping and bio-engineering of slopes in Hong Kong". https://ginfo.cedd.gov.hk/hkss/filemanager/common/publications-resources/list-of-technical-papers/218_Martin (2001)_Landscaping and bioengineering of slopes in Hong Kong.pdf.
31. ↑ Ramos, Bibiana Rodrigues; Panagopoulos, Thomas (November 2007). "Integrating aesthetic and sustainable principles in stream reclamation projects". WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development 3 (11): 189–195. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279583434. Retrieved 24 February 2026.
32. ↑ Hagen, Shannon; Salisbury, Sandra; Wierenga, Marlies; Xu, George; Lewis, Lisa (2002). "Soil bioengineering as an alternative for roadside management: benefit-cost analysis case study". Transportation Research Record 1794: 97–104. doi:10.3141/1794-12. https://z-library.sk/book/ojLNoEp1OL. Retrieved 24 February 2026.
33. ↑ Hammer, Peter C.; Ringe, James M.; Pelkki, Matthew H.; Graves, Donald H.; Sweigard, Richard J. (27 April 2007). "An economic evaluation of soil bioengineering as a method for slope stability on abandoned mine land in Eastern Kentucky". International Journal of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Environment 13 (3): 117–24. doi:10.1080/09208119908944227. https://z-library.sk/book/dRzng3QyRo. Retrieved 24 February 2026.
34. ↑ Barnekow, Ulf; Köhler, Matthias (2016). "Soil bioengineering and biomonitoring of vegetation and after-care at Wismut´s backfilled and covered Lichtenberg open pit and its surrounding area, Ronneburg, Germany". Mine closure 2016. Perth, Australia: Australian Centre for Geomechanics. pp. 531–44. ISBN 978-0-9924810-3-2. https://papers.acg.uwa.edu.au/p/1608_39_Barnekow/. Retrieved 24 February 2026.
35. ↑ Giupponi, Luca; Bischetti, Gian Battista; Giorgi, Annamaria (26 April 2017). "A proposal for assessing the success of soil bioengineering work by analysing vegetation: results of two case studies in the Italian Alps". Landscape and Ecological Engineering 13 (Suppl. 1): 305–18. doi:10.1007/s11355-016-0323-5. https://z-library.sk/book/9vqYEppPvA. Retrieved 24 February 2026.
36. ↑ Schiechtl, Hugo Meinhard; Stern, Roland (August 1996). Ground bioengineering techniques for slope protection and erosion control (translated in English by L. Jaklitsch). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-632-04061-2.
37. ↑ Schiechtl, Hugo Meinhard; Stern, Roland (January 1997). Water bioengineering techniques for watercourse, bank and shoreline protection (translated in English by L. Jaklitsch). Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0632040667.

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