Younger Dryas

Short description: Time period c. 12,900–11,700 years ago

Younger Dryas

0.0129 – 0.0117 Ma

PreЄ

Significant cooling in the Northern Hemisphere took place during the Younger Dryas, but there was also warming in the Southern Hemisphere. Precipitation had substantially decreased (brown) or increased (green) in many areas across the globe. Altogether, this indicates large changes in thermohaline circulation as the cause[1]

Etymology
Alternate spelling(s)| YD
Synonym(s)| Loch Lomond Stadial
Nahanagan Stadial

Usage information
Celestial body| Earth
Definition
Chronological unit| Chron
Stratigraphic unit| Chronozone
Atmospheric and climatic data
Mean atmospheric CO2 content| c. 240 ppm
(1 times pre-industrial)
Mean surface temperature| c. 10.5 °C
(-4 °C above modern)

The Younger Dryas (YD, Greenland Stadial GS-1)[2] was a period in Earth's geologic history that occurred circa 12,900 to 11,700 years Before Present (BP).[3] It is primarily known for the sudden or "abrupt" cooling in the Northern Hemisphere, when the North Atlantic Ocean cooled and annual air temperatures decreased by ~3 °C (5 °F) over North America, 2–6 °C (4–11 °F) in Europe and up to 10 °C (18 °F) in Greenland, in a few decades.[4] Cooling in Greenland was particularly rapid, taking place over just 3 years or less.[1][5] At the same time, the Southern Hemisphere experienced warming.[4][6] This period ended as rapidly as it began, with dramatic warming over ~50 years, the transition from the glacial Pleistocene epoch into the current Holocene.[1]

The Younger Dryas onset was not fully synchronized; in the tropics, the cooling was spread out over several centuries, and the same was true of the early-Holocene warming.[1] Even in the Northern Hemisphere, temperature change was highly seasonal, with much colder winters, cooler springs, yet no change or even slight warming during the summer.[7][8] Substantial changes in precipitation also took place, with cooler areas experiencing substantially lower rainfall, while warmer areas received more of it.[4] In the Northern Hemisphere, the length of the growing season declined.[8] Land ice cover experienced little net change,[9] but sea ice extent had increased, contributing to ice–albedo feedback.[4] This increase in albedo was the main reason for net global cooling of 0.6 °C (1.1 °F).[4]

During the preceding period, the Bølling–Allerød Interstadial, rapid warming in the Northern Hemisphere[10]: 677 was offset by the equivalent cooling in the Southern Hemisphere.[11][9] This "polar seesaw" pattern is consistent with changes in thermohaline circulation (particularly the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation or AMOC), which greatly affects how much heat is able to go from the Southern Hemisphere to the North. The Southern Hemisphere cools and the Northern Hemisphere warms when the AMOC is strong, and the opposite happens when it is weak.[11] The scientific consensus is that severe AMOC weakening explains the climatic effects of the Younger Dryas.[12]: 1148 It also explains why the Holocene warming had proceeded so rapidly once the AMOC change was no longer counteracting the increase in carbon dioxide levels.[9]

AMOC weakening causing polar seesaw effects is also consistent with the accepted explanation for Dansgaard–Oeschger events, with YD likely to have been the last and the strongest of these events.[13] However, there is some debate over what caused the AMOC to become so weak in the first place. The hypothesis historically most supported by scientists was an interruption from an influx of fresh, cold water from North America's Lake Agassiz into the Atlantic Ocean.[14] While there is evidence of meltwater travelling via the Mackenzie River,[15] this hypothesis may not be consistent with the lack of sea level rise during this period,[16] so other theories have also emerged.[17] A volcanic eruption as an initial trigger for cooling and sea ice growth has been proposed more recently,[18] and the presence of anomalously high levels of volcanism immediately preceding the onset of the Younger Dryas has been confirmed in both ice cores[19] and cave deposits.[20]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Climate
* 2.1 Ice cover
* 2.2 Weather systems
* 3 Biosphere
* 3.1 Human societies
* 4 Cause
* 4.1 Younger Dryas impact hypothesis
* 4.2 Similar events
* 5 In popular culture
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 External links

## Etymology

Dryas stadials

The Younger Dryas is named after the alpine–tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala, because its fossils are abundant in the European (particularly Scandinavian) sediments dating to this timeframe. The two earlier geologic time intervals where this flower was abundant in Europe are the Oldest Dryas (approx. 18,500-14,000 BP) and Older Dryas (~14,050–13,900 BP), respectively.[21][9] On the contrary, Dryas octopetala was rare during the Bølling–Allerød Interstadial. Instead, European temperatures were warm enough to support trees in Scandinavia, as seen at the Bølling and Allerød sites in Denmark.[22]

In Ireland, the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial, and in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial.[23][24] In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology, the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 (GS-1). The preceding Allerød warm period (interstadial) is subdivided into three events: Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a (GI-1c to GI-1a).[25]

## Climate

Greenland ice cores since the Last Glacial Maximum show very low temperatures for the most part of the Younger Dryas, which then rise rapidly during the Holocene transition[26] Temperature changes, determined as proxy temperatures, taken from the central region of Greenland's ice sheet during the Late Pleistocene and beginning of the Holocene. Temperatures in Antarctica, derived from EPICA Dome C Ice Core

As with the other geologic periods, paleoclimate during the Younger Dryas is reconstructed through proxy data such as traces of pollen, ice cores and layers of marine and lake sediments.[27] Collectively, this evidence shows that significant cooling across the Northern Hemisphere began around 12,870 ± 30 years BP.[28] It was particularly severe in Greenland, where temperatures declined by 4–10 °C (7.2–18.0 °F),[7] in an abrupt fashion.[29] Temperatures at the Greenland summit were up to 15 °C (27 °F) colder than at the start of the 21st century.[29][30]

Strong cooling of around 2–6 °C (4–11 °F) had also taken place in Europe.[4] Icefields and glaciers formed in upland areas of Great Britain, while many lowland areas developed permafrost,[31] implying a cooling of −5 °C (−9.0 °F) and a mean annual temperature no higher than −1 °C (30 °F).[30][32] North America also became colder, particularly in the eastern and central areas.[27] While the Pacific Northwest region cooled by 2–3 °C (3.6–5.4 °F), cooling in western North America was generally less intense.[33][34][35][36][37][38] While the Orca Basin in the Gulf of Mexico still experienced a drop in sea surface temperature of 2.4 ± 0.6°C,[39] land areas closer to it, such as Texas, the Grand Canyon area[40] and New Mexico, ultimately did not cool as much as the continental interior.[41][42][43] The Southeastern United States became warmer and wetter than before.[44][41][38] There was warming in and around the Caribbean Sea, and in West Africa.[4]

It was once believed that the Younger Dryas cooling started at around the same time across the Northern Hemisphere.[45] However, varve (sedimentary rock) analysis carried out in 2015 suggested that the cooling proceeded in two stages: first along latitude 56–54°N, 12,900–13,100 years ago, and then further north, 12,600–12,750 years ago.[46] Evidence from Lake Suigetsu cores in Japan and the Puerto Princesa cave complex in the Philippines shows that the onset of the Younger Dryas in East Asia was delayed by several hundred years relative to the North Atlantic.[47][1] Further, the cooling was uniform throughout the year, but had a distinct seasonal pattern. In most places in the Northern Hemisphere, winters became much colder than before, but springs cooled by less, while there was either no temperature change or even slight warming during the summer.[7][8] An exception appears to have taken place in what is now Maine, where winter temperatures remained stable, yet summer temperatures decreased by up to 7.5 °C (13.5 °F).[48]

While the Northern Hemisphere cooled, considerable warming occurred in the Southern Hemisphere.[1] Sea surface temperatures were warmer by 0.3–1.9 °C (0.5–3.4 °F), and Antarctica, South America (south of Venezuela) and New Zealand all experienced warming.[4] The net temperature change was a relatively modest[49] cooling of 0.6 °C (1.1 °F).[4] Temperature changes of the Younger Dryas lasted 1,150–1,300 years.[50][51] According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the Younger Dryas ended around 11,700 years ago,[52] although some research places it closer to 11,550 years ago.[53][54][55][56][57]

The end of Younger Dryas was also abrupt: in previously cooled areas, warming to previous levels took place over 50–60 years.[58][1] The tropics experienced more gradual temperature recovery over several centuries;[1] the exception was in tropical Atlantic areas such as Costa Rica, where temperature change was similar to Greenland's.[59] The Holocene warming then proceeded across the globe, following an increase in carbon dioxide levels during the YD period[9] (from ~210 ppm to ~275 ppm[60]).

### Ice cover

Younger Dryas cooling was often accompanied by glacier advance and lowering of the regional snow line, with evidence found in areas such as Scandinavia,[50] the Swiss Alps[4] and the Dinaric Alps in the Balkans,[61] northern ranges of North America's Rocky Mountains,[62][63][64] Two Creeks Buried Forest in Wisconsin and western parts of the New York State,[65] and in the Pacific Northwest,[66] including the Cascade Range.[67] The entire Laurentide ice sheet had advanced between west Lake Superior and southeast Quebec, leaving behind a layer of rock debris (moraine) dated to this period.[68] Southeastern Alaska appears to have escaped glaciation; speleothem calcite deposition continued in the region despite being retarded, indicating the absence of permafrost and glaciation.[69]

On the other hand, the warming of the Southern Hemisphere led to ice loss in Antarctica, South America and New Zealand.[70][4] Moreover, while Greenland as a whole had cooled, glaciers had only grown in the north of the island,[71] and they had retreated from the rest of Greenland's coasts. This was likely driven by the strengthened Irminger Current.[72] The Jabllanica mountain range in the Balkans also experienced ice loss and glacial retreat: this was likely caused by the drop in annual precipitation, which would have otherwise frozen and helped to maintain the glaciers.[73] Unlike now, the glaciers were still present in northern Scotland, but they had thinned during the Younger Dryas.[74]

The amount of water contained within glaciers directly influences global sea levels - sea level rise occurs if the glaciers retreat, and it drops if glaciers grow. Altogether, there appears to have been little change in sea level throughout the Younger Dryas.[9] This is in contrast to rapid increases before and after, such as the Meltwater Pulse 1A.[9] On the coasts, glacier advance and retreat also affects relative sea level. Western Norway experienced a relative sea level rise of 10 m (32 2⁄3 ft) as the Scandinavian ice sheet advanced.[75][76] Notably, ice sheet advance in this area appears to have begun about 600 years before the global onset of the Younger Dryas.[76] Underwater, the deposits of methane clathrate \- methane frozen into ice - remained stable throughout the Younger Dryas, including during the rapid warming as it ended.[77]

### Weather systems

As the Northern Hemisphere cooled and the Southern Hemisphere warmed, the thermal equator would have shifted to the south. Because trade winds from either hemisphere cancel each other out above the thermal equator in a calm, heavily clouded area known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a change in its position affects wind patterns elsewhere. For instance, in East Africa, the sediments of Lake Tanganyika were mixed less strongly during this period, indicating weaker wind systems in this area.[78] Shifts in atmospheric patterns are believed to be the main reason why Northern Hemisphere summers generally did not cool during the Younger Dryas.[8]

Since winds carry moisture in the form of clouds, these changes also affect precipitation. Thus, evidence from the pollen record shows that some areas have become very arid, including Scotland,[79] the North American Midwest,[80] Anatolia and southern China.[81][82][83] As North Africa, including the Sahara Desert, became drier, the amount of dust blown by wind had also increased.[4] Other areas became wetter including northern China[83] (possibly excepting the Shanxi region)[84]

## Biosphere

Dryas octopetala is the indicator species for the period

The Younger Dryas was initially discovered around the start of the 20th century, through paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites, particularly the Allerød clay pit in Denmark.[85][51][86][87] The analysis of fossilized pollen had consistently shown how Dryas octopetala, a plant which only thrives in glacial conditions, began to dominate where forests were able to grow during the preceding B-A Interstadial.[85] This makes the Younger Dryas a key example of how biota responded to abrupt climate change.[88]

For instance, in what is now New England,[89][90][91] cool summers, combined with cold winters and low precipitation, resulted in a treeless tundra up to the onset of the Holocene, when the boreal forests shifted north.[48] Along the southern margins of the Great Lakes, spruce dropped rapidly, while pine increased, and herbaceous prairie vegetation decreased in abundance, but increased west of the region.[92] The central Appalachian Mountains remained forested during the Younger Dryas, but they were covered in spruce and tamarack boreal forests, switching to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests during the Holocene.[93] Conversely, pollen and macrofossil evidence from near Lake Ontario indicates that cool, boreal forests persisted into the early Holocene.[44]

Depiction of different land cover during the Younger Dryas event

An increase of pine pollen indicates cooler winters within the central Cascades.[94] Speleothems from the Oregon Caves National Monument and Preserve in southern Oregon's Klamath Mountains yield evidence of climatic cooling contemporaneous to the Younger Dryas.[95] On the Olympic Peninsula, a mid-elevation site recorded a decrease in fire, but forest persisted and erosion increased during the Younger Dryas, which suggests cool and wet conditions.[96] Speleothem records indicate an increase in precipitation in southern Oregon,[95][97] the timing of which coincides with increased sizes of pluvial lakes in the northern Great Basin.[98] Pollen record from the Siskiyou Mountains suggests a lag in timing of the Younger Dryas, indicating a greater influence of warmer Pacific conditions on that range.[99]

Effects in the Rocky Mountain region were varied.[100][101] Several sites show little to no changes in vegetation.[102] In the northern Rockies, a significant increase in pines and firs suggests warmer conditions than before and a shift to subalpine parkland in places.[103][102][104][105] That is hypothesized to be the result of a northward shift in the jet stream, combined with an increase in summer insolation[103][106] as well as a winter snow pack that was higher than today, with prolonged and wetter spring seasons.[107]

### Human societies

Northwestern Europe faced a significant population reduction during the first half of the Younger Dryas.[108]

The Younger Dryas is often linked to the Neolithic Revolution, with the adoption of agriculture in the Levant.[109][110] The cold and dry Younger Dryas arguably lowered the carrying capacity of the area and forced the sedentary early Natufian population into a more mobile subsistence pattern.[111] Further climatic deterioration is thought to have brought about cereal cultivation. While relative consensus exists regarding the role of the Younger Dryas in the changing subsistence patterns during the Natufian, its connection to the beginning of agriculture at the end of the period is still being debated.[112][113]

## Cause

The scientific consensus links the Younger Dryas with a significant reduction or shutdown of the thermohaline circulation, which circulates warm tropical waters northward through the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC).[4][12]: 1148 This is consistent with climate model simulations,[1] as well as a range of proxy evidence, such as the decreased ventilation (exposure to oxygen from the surface) of the lowest layers of North Atlantic water. Cores from the western subtropical North Atlantic show that the "bottom water" lingered there for 1,000 years, twice the age of Late Holocene bottom waters from the same site around 1,500 BP.[114] Further, the otherwise anomalous warming of the southeastern United States matches the hypothesis that as the AMOC weakened and transported less heat from the Caribbean towards Europe through the North Atlantic Gyre, more of it would stay trapped in the coastal waters.[115]

It was originally hypothesized that the massive outburst from paleohistorical Lake Agassiz had flooded the North Atlantic via the Saint Lawrence Seaway, but little geological evidence for this hypothesis has been found.[116] For instance, the salinity in the Saint Lawrence Seaway did not decline, as would have been expected from massive quantities of meltwater.[117] More recent research instead shows that floodwaters followed a pathway along the Mackenzie River in present-day Canada,[118][119] and sediment cores show that the strongest outburst had occurred right before the onset of Younger Dryas.[15]

Other factors are also likely to have played a major role in the Younger Dryas climate. For instance, some research suggests climate in Greenland was primarily affected by the melting of then-present Fennoscandian ice sheet, which could explain why Greenland experienced the most abrupt climatic changes during the YD.[120] Climate models also indicate that a single freshwater outburst, no matter how large, would not have been able to weaken the AMOC for over 1,000 years, as required by the Younger Dryas timeline, unless other factors were also involved.[121] Some modelling explains this by showing that the melting of Laurentide Ice Sheet led to greater rainfall over the Atlantic Ocean, freshening it and so helping to weaken the AMOC.[117] Once the Younger Dryas began, lowered temperatures would have elevated snowfall across the Northern Hemisphere, increasing the ice-albedo feedback. Further, melting snow would be more likely to flood back into the North Atlantic than rainfall would, as less water would be absorbed into the frozen ground.[121] Other modelling shows that sea ice in the Arctic Ocean could have been tens of meters thick by the onset of the Younger Dryas, so that it would have been able to shed icebergs into the North Atlantic, which would have been able to weaken the circulation consistently.[122] Notably, changes in sea ice cover would have had no impact on sea levels, which is consistent with the absence of significant sea level rise during the Younger Dryas, and particularly during its onset.[16]

Some scientists also explain the lack of sea level rise during the Younger Dryas onset by connecting it with a volcanic eruption.[18] Eruptions often deposit large quantities of sulfur dioxide particles in the atmosphere, where they are known as aerosols, and can have a large cooling effect by reflecting sunlight. This phenomenon can also be caused by anthropogenic sulfur pollution, where it is known as global dimming.[123] Cooling from a high latitude volcanic eruption could have accelerated North Atlantic sea ice growth, finally tipping the AMOC sufficiently to cause the Younger Dryas.[18] Cave deposits and glacial ice cores both contain evidence of at least one major volcanic eruption taking place in the northern hemisphere at a time close to Younger Dryas onset,[20][19] perhaps even completely matching the stalagmite-derived date for the onset of the Younger Dryas event.[28] It has been suggested that this eruption would have been stronger than any during the Common Era, some of which have been able to cause several decades of cooling.[19]

According to 1990s research, the Laacher See eruption (present-day volcanic lake in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany) would have matched the criteria,[124][125] but radiocarbon dating done in 2021 pushes the date of the eruption back to 13,006 years BP, or over a century before the Younger Dryas began.[126] This analysis was also challenged in 2023, with some researchers suggesting that the radiocarbon analysis was tainted by magmatic carbon dioxide.[127]

Work published in 2026 examining deposits at three sites in the North America and advances in dating of both Northern and Southern Hemisphere ice cores is consistent with three major Northern Hemisphere eruptions and one major Southern Hemisphere eruption during the period of the Younger Dryas so volcanic eruptions may have contributed to the change in climate.[128]

For now, the debate continues without a conclusive proof or rejection of the volcanic hypothesis.[19]

It has also been suggested that the supernova that caused the Vela Supernova Remnant could have been a trigger to the Younger Dryas event.[129][130]

### Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis (YDIH) attributes the cooling to the impact of a disintegrating comet or asteroid.[131] Because there is no impact crater dating to the Younger Dryas period, the proponents usually suggest the impact had struck the Laurentide ice sheet, so that the crater would have disappeared when the ice sheet melted during the Holocene,[132] or that it was an airburst, which would only leave micro- and nanoparticles behind as evidence.[131] Most experts reject the hypothesis, and argue that all of the microparticles are adequately explained by the terrestrial processes.[133] For instance, mineral inclusions from YD-period sediments in Hall's Cave, Texas, have been interpreted by YDIH proponents as extraterrestrial in origin, while a paper published in 2020 argues that they are more likely to be volcanic.[20] Opponents argue that there is no evidence for the massive wildfires which they assert would have been caused by an airburst of sufficient size to affect the thermohaline circulation,[132] nor any mineralogical or geochemical evidence[134] for the simultaneous human population declines and mass animal extinctions that would ensue from such an impact.[133]

### Similar events

Temperature proxy from four ice cores for the last 140,000 years. They show the distinct "sawtooth" pattern of the D-O events in the Northern Hemisphere, compared to the more muted changes in the Southern Hemisphere

Statistical analysis shows that the Younger Dryas is merely the last of 25 or 26 Dansgaard–Oeschger events (D–O events) over the past 120,000 years.[13] These episodes are characterized by abrupt changes in the AMOC on timescales of decades or centuries.[135][136] The Younger Dryas is the best known and best understood because it is the most recent, but it is fundamentally similar to the previous cold phases over the past 120,000 years. This similarity makes the impact hypothesis very unlikely, and it may also contradict the Lake Agassiz hypothesis.[13] On the other hand, some research links volcanism with D–O events, potentially supporting the volcanic hypothesis.[137][138]

Events similar to the Younger Dryas appear to have occurred during the other terminations \- a term used to describe a comparatively rapid transition from cold glacial conditions to warm interglacials.[139][140] The analysis of lake and marine sediments can reconstruct past temperatures from the presence or absence of certain lipids and long chain alkenones, as these molecules are very sensitive to temperature.[139][141] This analysis provides evidence for YD-like events during Termination II (the end of the Marine Isotope Stage 6, ~130,000 years BP), III (the end of Marine Isotope Stage 8, ~243,000 years BP)[142] and Termination IV (the end of Marine Isotope Stage 10, ~337,000 years BP.[143][144] When combined with additional evidence from ice cores and paleobotanical data, some have argued that YD-like events inevitably occur during every deglaciation.[142][145][146]

## In popular culture

The 2004 film, The Day After Tomorrow depicts catastrophic climatic effects following the disruption of the North Atlantic Ocean circulation that results in a series of extreme weather events that create an abrupt climate change that leads to a new ice age.[147]

## See also

* 8.2 kiloyear climate event - Rapid global cooling about 8,200 years ago
* Earth:Blytt–Sernander system - Series of north European climatic periods
* Earth:Heinrich event - Large groups of icebergs traverse the North Atlantic.
* Earth:Little Ice Age - Climatic cooling after the Medieval Warm Period (16th–19th centuries)
* Earth:Medieval Warm Period - Time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region lasting from c. 950 to c. 1250
* Earth:Milankovitch cycles - Global climate cycles
* Earth:Neoglaciation
* Preboreal oscillation – Cooling episode within the preboreal
* Earth:Timeline of glaciation - Chronology of the major ice ages of the Earth

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 Partin, J.W.; Quinn, T.M.; Shen, C.-C.; Okumura, Y.; Cardenas, M.B.; Siringan, F.P.; Banner, J.L.; Lin, K. et al. (2 September 2015). "Gradual onset and recovery of the Younger Dryas abrupt climate event in the tropics". Nature Communications 6. doi:10.1038/ncomms9061. PMID 26329911. Bibcode: 2015NatCo...6.8061P.
2. ↑ Johnson, M.D.; Öhrling, C.; Bergström, A.; Dreyer Isaksson, O.; Pizarro Rajala, E. (2022). "Geomorphology and sedimentology of features formed at the outlet during the final drainage of the Baltic Ice Lake". Boreas 51 (1): 20–40. doi:10.1111/bor.12547. ISSN 0300-9483. Bibcode: 2022Borea..51...20J. : 20
3. ↑ Rasmussen, S. O.; Andersen, K. K.; Svensson, A. M.; Steffensen, J. P.; Vinther, B. M.; Clausen, H. B.; Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L.; Johnsen, S. J. et al. (2006). "A new Greenland ice core chronology for the last glacial termination" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research 111 (D6): D06102. doi:10.1029/2005JD006079. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 2006JGRD..111.6102R. https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/12532/1/Ras2005a.pdf.
4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 Carlson, A. E. (2013). "The Younger Dryas Climate Event". Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science. 3. Elsevier. pp. 126–134. http://people.oregonstate.edu/~carlsand/carlson_encyclopedia_Quat_2013_YD.pdf.
5. ↑ Choi, Charles Q. (2 December 2009). "Big freeze: Earth could plunge into sudden ice age". http://www.livescience.com/environment/091202-fast-ice-age.html.
6. ↑ Clement, Amy C.; Peterson, Larry C. (3 October 2008). "Mechanisms of abrupt climate change of the last glacial period". Reviews of Geophysics 46 (4): 1–39. doi:10.1029/2006RG000204. Bibcode: 2008RvGeo..46.4002C.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Buizert, C.; Gkinis, V.; Severinghaus, J.P.; He, F.; Lecavalier, B.S.; Kindler, P. et al. (5 September 2014). "Greenland temperature response to climate forcing during the last deglaciation" (in en). Science 345 (6201): 1177–1180. doi:10.1126/science.1254961. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25190795. Bibcode: 2014Sci...345.1177B. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6n89h7c3.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Schenk, Frederik; Väliranta, Minna; Muschitiello, Francesco; Tarasov, Lev; Heikkilä, Maija; Björck, Svante; Brandefelt, Jenny; Johansson, Arne V. et al. (24 April 2018). "Warm summers during the Younger Dryas cold reversal". Nature Communications 9 (1): 1634. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04071-5. PMID 29691388. Bibcode: 2018NatCo...9.1634S.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Shakun, Jeremy D.; Clark, Peter U.; He, Feng; Marcott, Shaun A.; Mix, Alan C.; Liu, Zhenyu; Oto-Bliesner, Bette; Schmittner, Andreas et al. (4 April 2012). "Global warming preceded by increasing carbon dioxide concentrations during the last deglaciation". Nature 484 (7392): 49–54. doi:10.1038/nature10915. PMID 22481357. Bibcode: 2012Natur.484...49S. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223987444.
10. ↑ Canadell, J.G.; Monteiro, P. M. S.; Costa, M. H.; Cotrim da Cunha, L.; Cox, P. M.; Eliseev, A. V.; Henson, S.; Ishii, M. et al. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A. et al.. eds. "﻿Chapter 5: Global Carbon and other Biogeochemical Cycles and Feedbacks﻿". Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press): 673–816. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.007. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter05.pdf.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Obase, Takashi; Abe-Ouchi, Ayako; Saito, Fuyuki (25 November 2021). "Abrupt climate changes in the last two deglaciations simulated with different Northern ice sheet discharge and insolation" (in en). Scientific Reports 11 (1): 22359. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-01651-2. PMID 34824287. Bibcode: 2021NatSR..1122359O.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Douville, H.; Raghavan, K.; Renwick, J.; Allan, R. P.; Arias, P. A.; Barlow, M.; Cerezo-Mota, R.; Cherchi, A. et al. (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A. et al.. eds. "Chapter 8: Water Cycle Changes". Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press): 1055–1210. doi:10.1017/9781009157896.010. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter08.pdf.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Nye, Henry; Condron, Alan (30 June 2021). "Assessing the statistical uniqueness of the Younger Dryas: a robust multivariate analysis" (in en). Climate of the Past 17 (3): 1409–1421. doi:10.5194/cp-17-1409-2021. ISSN 1814-9332. Bibcode: 2021CliPa..17.1409N.
14. ↑ Meissner, K.J. (2007). "Younger Dryas: A data to model comparison to constrain the strength of the overturning circulation.". Geophysical Research Letters 34 (21): L21705. doi:10.1029/2007GL031304. Bibcode: 2007GeoRL..3421705M.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Süfke, Finn; Gutjahr, Marcus; Keigwin, Lloyd D.; Reilly, Brendan; Giosan, Liviu; Lippold, Jörg (25 April 2022). "Arctic drainage of Laurentide Ice Sheet meltwater throughout the past 14,700 years" (in en). Communications Earth & Environment 3 (1): 98. doi:10.1038/s43247-022-00428-3. ISSN 2662-4435. Bibcode: 2022ComEE...3...98S.
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90. ↑ Shuman, Bryan; Bartlein, Patrick; Logar, Nathaniel; Newby, Paige; Webb, Thompson III (September 2002). "Parallel climate and vegetation responses to the early Holocene collapse of the Laurentide Ice Sheet". Quaternary Science Reviews 21 (16–17): 1793–1805. doi:10.1016/s0277-3791(02)00025-2. Bibcode: 2002QSRv...21.1793S.
91. ↑ Williams, John W.; Post, David M.; Cwynar, Les C.; Lotter, André F.; Levesque, André J. (2002-11-01). "Rapid and widespread vegetation responses to past climate change in the North Atlantic region". Geology 30 (11): 971–974. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0971:rawvrt>2.0.co;2. ISSN 0091-7613. Bibcode: 2002Geo....30..971W.
92. ↑ Williams, John W.; Shuman, Bryan N.; Webb, Thompson (2001-12-01). "Dissimilarity analyses of late-Quaternary vegetation and climate in eastern North America". Ecology 82 (12): 3346–3362. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[3346:daolqv2.0.co;2]. ISSN 1939-9170.
93. ↑ Liu, Yao; Andersen, Jennifer J.; Williams, John W.; Jackson, Stephen T. (March 2012). "Vegetation history in central Kentucky and Tennessee (USA) during the last glacial and deglacial periods". Quaternary Research 79 (2): 189–198. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2012.12.005. ISSN 0033-5894. Bibcode: 2013QuRes..79..189L.
94. ↑ Grigg, Laurie D.; Whitlock, Cathy (May 1998). "Late-glacial vegetation and climate change in western Oregon". Quaternary Research 49 (3): 287–298. doi:10.1006/qres.1998.1966. ISSN 0033-5894. Bibcode: 1998QuRes..49..287G.
95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 Vacco, David A.; Clark, Peter U.; Mix, Alan C.; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R. Lawrence (2005-09-01). "A speleothem record of Younger Dryas cooling, Klamath Mountains, Oregon, USA". Quaternary Research 64 (2): 249–256. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2005.06.008. ISSN 0033-5894. Bibcode: 2005QuRes..64..249V.
96. ↑ Gavin, Daniel G.; Brubaker, Linda B.; Greenwald, D. Noah (November 2013). "Post-glacial climate and fire-mediated vegetation change on the western Olympic Peninsula, Washington, USA" (in en). Ecological Monographs 83 (4): 471–489. doi:10.1890/12-1742.1. ISSN 0012-9615. Bibcode: 2013EcoM...83..471G. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1890/12-1742.1.
97. ↑ Grigg, Laurie D.; Whitlock, Cathy; Dean, Walter E. (July 2001). "Evidence for millennial-scale climate change during Marine Isotope Stages 2 and 3 at Little Lake, western Oregon, USA". Quaternary Research 56 (1): 10–22. doi:10.1006/qres.2001.2246. ISSN 0033-5894. Bibcode: 2001QuRes..56...10G. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsstaffpub/248.
98. ↑ Hershler, Robert; Madsen, D.B.; Currey, D.R. (2002-12-11). "Great Basin aquatic systems history" (in en). Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences 33 (33): 1–405. doi:10.5479/si.00810274.33.1. ISSN 0081-0274. Bibcode: 2002SCoES..33.....H.
99. ↑ Briles, Christy E.; Whitlock, Cathy; Bartlein, Patrick J. (July 2005). "Postglacial vegetation, fire, and climate history of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon, USA". Quaternary Research 64 (1): 44–56. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2005.03.001. ISSN 0033-5894. Bibcode: 2005QuRes..64...44B.
100. ↑ Erin, Metin I. (2013). Hunter-gatherer behavior: Human response during the Younger Dryas. Left Coast Press. ISBN 978-1-59874-603-7. OCLC 907959421.
101. ↑ MacLeod, David Matthew; Osborn, Gerald; Spooner, Ian (2006-04-01). "A record of post-glacial moraine deposition and tephra stratigraphy from Otokomi Lake, Rose Basin, Glacier National Park, Montana". Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 43 (4): 447–460. doi:10.1139/e06-001. ISSN 0008-4077. Bibcode: 2006CaJES..43..447M.
102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 Brunelle, Andrea; Whitlock, Cathy (July 2003). "Postglacial fire, vegetation, and climate history in the Clearwater Range, northern Idaho, USA". Quaternary Research 60 (3): 307–318. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2003.07.009. ISSN 0033-5894. Bibcode: 2003QuRes..60..307B.
103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 Mumma, Stephanie Ann; Whitlock, Cathy; Pierce, Kenneth (2012-04-01). "A 28,000 year history of vegetation and climate from Lower Red Rock Lake, Centennial Valley, southwestern Montana, USA". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 326: 30–41. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.01.036. Bibcode: 2012PPP...326...30M.
104. ↑ "Precise cosmogenic 10Be measurements in western North America: Support for a global Younger Dryas cooling event". https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230891096.
105. ↑ Reasoner, Mel A.; Osborn, Gerald; Rutter, N. W. (1994-05-01). "Age of the Crowfoot advance in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: A glacial event coeval with the Younger Dryas oscillation". Geology 22 (5): 439–442. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022<0439:AOTCAI>2.3.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. Bibcode: 1994Geo....22..439R.
106. ↑ Reasoner, Mel A.; Jodry, Margret A. (1 January 2000). "Rapid response of alpine timberline vegetation to the Younger Dryas climate oscillation in the Colorado Rocky Mountains, USA". Geology 28 (1): 51–54. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<51:RROATV>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. Bibcode: 2000Geo....28...51R.
107. ↑ Briles, Christy E.; Whitlock, Cathy; Meltzer, David J. (January 2012). "Last glacial–interglacial environments in the southern Rocky Mountains, USA and implications for Younger Dryas-age human occupation". Quaternary Research 77 (1): 96–103. doi:10.1016/j.yqres.2011.10.002. ISSN 0033-5894. Bibcode: 2012QuRes..77...96B.
108. ↑ Crombé, P.; Pironneau, C.; Robert, P. (2024). "Human response to the Younger Dryas along the southern North Sea basin, Northwest Europe". Scientific Reports 14 (1). doi:10.1038/s41598-024-68686-z. PMID 39103459. Bibcode: 2024NatSR..1418074C.
109. ↑ Bar-Yosef, O.; Belfer-Cohen, A. (31 December 2002). The Dawn of Farming in the Near East. Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence, and Environment. 6. Berlin, DE: Ex Oriente. pp. 55–66. ISBN 3-9804241-5-4, ISBN 978-398042415-8.
110. ↑ Mithen, Steven J. (2003). After the Ice: A global human history, 20,000–5000 BC (paperback ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 46–55.
111. ↑ Hassett, Brenna (2017). Built on Bones: 15,000 years of urban life and death. London, UK: Bloomsbury Sigma. pp. 20–21. ISBN 978-1-4729-2294-6.
112. ↑ Munro, N.D. (2003). "Small game, the younger dryas, and the transition to agriculture in the southern levant". Mitteilungen der Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte 12: 47–64. http://www.anth.uconn.edu/faculty/munro/assets/Mitteilungen.pdf. Retrieved 8 December 2005.
113. ↑ Balter, Michael (2010). "Archaeology: The tangled roots of agriculture". Science 327 (5964): 404–406. doi:10.1126/science.327.5964.404. PMID 20093449.
114. ↑ Keigwin, L. D.; Schlegel, M. A. (22 June 2002). "Ocean ventilation and sedimentation since the glacial maximum at 3 km in the western North Atlantic". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 3 (6): 1034. doi:10.1029/2001GC000283. Bibcode: 2002GGG.....3.1034K.
115. ↑ Grimm, Eric C.; Watts, William A.; Jacobson, George L. Jr.; Hansen, Barbara C.S.; Almquist, Heather R.; Dieffenbacher-Krall, Ann C. (September 2006). "Evidence for warm wet Heinrich events in Florida". Quaternary Science Reviews 25 (17–18): 2197–2211. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.04.008. Bibcode: 2006QSRv...25.2197G.
116. ↑ Broecker, Wallace S. (2006). "Was the Younger Dryas triggered by a flood?". Science 312 (5777): 1146–1148. doi:10.1126/science.1123253. PMID 16728622.
117. ↑ 117.0 117.1 Eisenman, I.; Bitz, C.M.; Tziperman, E. (2009). "Rain driven by receding ice sheets as a cause of past climate change". Paleoceanography 24 (4): PA4209. doi:10.1029/2009PA001778. Bibcode: 2009PalOc..24.4209E.
118. ↑ Murton, Julian B.; Bateman, Mark D.; Dallimore, Scott R.; Teller, James T.; Yang, Zhirong (2010). "Identification of Younger Dryas outburst flood path from Lake Agassiz to the Arctic Ocean" (in en). Nature 464 (7289): 740–743. doi:10.1038/nature08954. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 20360738. Bibcode: 2010Natur.464..740M.
119. ↑ Keigwin, L. D.; Klotsko, S.; Zhao, N.; Reilly, B.; Giosan, L.; Driscoll, N. W. (August 2018). "Deglacial floods in the Beaufort Sea preceded Younger Dryas cooling" (in en). Nature Geoscience 11 (8): 599–604. doi:10.1038/s41561-018-0169-6. ISSN 1752-0894. Bibcode: 2018NatGe..11..599K.
120. ↑ Muschitiello, Francesco; Pausata, Francesco S. R.; Watson, Jenny E.; Smittenberg, Rienk H.; Salih, Abubakr A. M.; Brooks, Stephen J.; Whitehouse, Nicola J.; Karlatou-Charalampopoulou, Artemis et al. (17 November 2015). "Fennoscandian freshwater control on Greenland hydroclimate shifts at the onset of the Younger Dryas" (in en). Nature Communications 6 (1): 8939. doi:10.1038/ncomms9939. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 26573386. Bibcode: 2015NatCo...6.8939M.
121. ↑ 121.0 121.1 Wang, L.; Jiang, W. Y.; Jiang, D. B.; Zou, Y. F.; Liu, Y. Y.; Zhang, E. L.; Hao, Q. Z.; Zhang, D. G. et al. (27 December 2018). "Prolonged Heavy Snowfall During the Younger Dryas" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 123 (24). doi:10.1029/2018JD029271. ISSN 2169-897X. Bibcode: 2018JGRD..12313748W.
122. ↑ Condron, Alan; Joyce, Anthony J.; Bradley, Raymond S. (31 January 2020). "Arctic sea ice export as a driver of deglacial climate" (in en). Geology 48 (4): 395–399. doi:10.1130/G47016.1. ISSN 0091-7613. Bibcode: 2020Geo....48..395C.
123. ↑ "Aerosol pollution has caused decades of global dimming". 18 February 2021. https://news.agu.org/press-release/aerosol-pollution-caused-decades-of-global-dimming/.
124. ↑ Brauer, Achim; Endres, Christoph; Günter, Christina; Litt, Thomas; Stebich, Martina; Negendank, Jörg F.W. (March 1999). "High resolution sediment and vegetation responses to Younger Dryas climate change in varved lake sediments from Meerfelder Maar, Germany" (in en). Quaternary Science Reviews 18 (3): 321–329. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(98)00084-5. Bibcode: 1999QSRv...18..321B.
125. ↑ van den Bogaard, Paul (June 1995). "40Ar/39Ar ages of sanidine phenocrysts from Laacher See Tephra (12,900 yr BP): Chronostratigraphic and petrological significance" (in en). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 133 (1–2): 163–174. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(95)00066-L.
126. ↑ Reinig, Frederick; Wacker, Lukas; Jöris, Olaf; Oppenheimer, Clive; Guidobaldi, Giulia; Nievergelt, Daniel; Adolphi, Florian; Cherubini, Paolo et al. (2021-07-01). "Precise date for the Laacher See eruption synchronizes the Younger Dryas" (in en). Nature 595 (7865): 66–69. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03608-x. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 34194020. Bibcode: 2021Natur.595...66R.
127. ↑ Baldini, James U. L.; Brown, Richard J.; Wadsworth, Fabian B.; Paine, Alice R.; Campbell, Jack W.; Green, Charlotte E.; Mawdsley, Natasha; Baldini, Lisa M. (2023-07-05). "Possible magmatic CO2 influence on the Laacher See eruption date". Nature 619 (7968): E1–E2. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-05965-1. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 37407686. https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1709112.
128. ↑ Yobo, Lucien Nana; Brandon, Alan D.; O’Brien, Sydney; Halligan, Jessi J.; Waters, Michael R. (2026). "Volcanic forcing of global climate cooling at the Younger Dryas onset preserved in North American sediments". Scientific Advances 12: eaec9030. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aec9030.
129. ↑ Gough, Evan. "Supernova Explosions Changed Earth's Climate and Shaped Humanity's History". https://www.universetoday.com/articles/supernova-explosions-changed-earths-climate-and-shaped-humanitys-history.
130. ↑ Brakenridge, G. Robert (2011). "Core-collapse supernovae and the Younger Dryas/terminal Rancholabrean extinctions". Icarus 215 (1). doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2011.06.043. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103511002612. Retrieved 27 May 2026.
131. ↑ 131.0 131.1 Powell, James Lawrence (January 2022). "Premature rejection in science: The case of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis" (in en). Science Progress 105 (1): 003685042110642. doi:10.1177/00368504211064272. ISSN 0036-8504. PMID 34986034.
132. ↑ 132.0 132.1 Gramling, Carolyn (2018-06-26). "Why won't this debate about an ancient cold snap die?" (in en-US). Science News. https://www.sciencenews.org/article/younger-dryas-comet-impact-cold-snap.
133. ↑ 133.0 133.1 Holliday, Vance T.; Daulton, Tyrone L.; Bartlein, Patrick J.; Boslough, Mark B.; Breslawski, Ryan P.; Fisher, Abigail E.; Jorgeson, Ian A.; Scott, Andrew C. et al. (December 2023). "Comprehensive refutation of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis (YDIH)" (in en). Earth-Science Reviews 247. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104502. Bibcode: 2023ESRv..24704502H.
134. ↑ Jaret, Steven J.; Scott Harris, R. (2022-03-25). "No mineralogic or geochemical evidence of impact at Tall el-Hammam, a Middle Bronze Age city in the Jordan Valley near the Dead Sea" (in en). Scientific Reports 12 (1): 5189. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-08216-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 35338157. Bibcode: 2022NatSR..12.5189J.
135. ↑ Dansgaard, W; Clausen, H. B.; Gundestrup, N.; Hammer, C. U.; Johnsen, S. F.; Kristinsdottir, P. M.; Reeh, N. (1982). "A new Greenland deep ice core". Science 218 (4579): 1273–1277. doi:10.1126/science.218.4579.1273. PMID 17770148. Bibcode: 1982Sci...218.1273D.
136. ↑ Lynch-Stieglitz, J (2017). "The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and abrupt climate change.". Annual Review of Marine Science 9: 83–104. doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-010816-060415. PMID 27814029. Bibcode: 2017ARMS....9...83L.
137. ↑ Baldini, James U.L.; Brown, Richard J.; McElwaine, Jim N. (30 November 2015). "Was millennial scale climate change during the Last Glacial triggered by explosive volcanism?". Scientific Reports 5 (1). doi:10.1038/srep17442. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 26616338. Bibcode: 2015NatSR...517442B.
138. ↑ Lohmann, Johannes; Svensson, Anders (2022-09-02). "Ice core evidence for major volcanic eruptions at the onset of Dansgaard–Oeschger warming events" (in en). Climate of the Past 18 (9): 2021–2043. doi:10.5194/cp-18-2021-2022. ISSN 1814-9332. Bibcode: 2022CliPa..18.2021L.
139. ↑ 139.0 139.1 Eglinton, G., A.B. Stuart, A. Rosell, M. Sarnthein, U. Pflaumann, and R. Tiedeman (1992) Molecular record of secular sea surface temperature changes on 100-year timescales for glacial terminations I, II and IV. Nature. 356:423–426.
140. ↑ Bradley, Raymond S. (2015). Paleoclimatology: Reconstructing climates of the Quaternary (3rd ed.). Kidlington, Oxford, UK: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-386913-5.
141. ↑ Bradley, Raymond S. (2015). Paleoclimatology: Reconstructing climates of the Quaternary (3rd ed.). Kidlington, Oxford, UK: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-386913-5.
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## External links

* "Study confirms mechanism for current shutdowns, European cooling" (Press release). Oregon State University. 2007. Archived from the original on 17 December 2010. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
* Broecker, W.S. (1999). "What If the Conveyor Were to Shut Down?". GSA Today 9 (1): 1–7. http://faculty.washington.edu/wcalvin/teaching/Broecker99.html. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
* Calvin, W.H. (January 1998). "The great climate flip-flop". The Atlantic Monthly 281: 47–64. http://williamcalvin.com/1990s/1998AtlanticClimate.htm. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
* Tarasov, L.; Peltier, W.R. (June 2005). "Arctic freshwater forcing of the Younger Dryas cold reversal". Nature 435 (7042): 662–665. doi:10.1038/nature03617. PMID 15931219. Bibcode: 2005Natur.435..662T. http://ic.ucsc.edu/~acr/BeringResources/Articles of interest/Central Artic/Tarasov and Peltier 2005.pdf.
* Acosta (2018). "Climate change and peopling of the Neotropics during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition". Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 70 (1): 1–19. doi:10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a1. Bibcode: 2018BoSGM..70....1A. http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/index.php/component/content/article/368-sitio/articulos/cuarta-epoca/7001/1857-7001-1-acosta.
* "Cometary debris may have destroyed Paleolithic settlement 12,800 years ago". Science News (sci-news.com) (Press release). 2 July 2020.
* When the Earth suddenly stopped warming. PBS Eons (short ed. vid.). 17 December 2020. Archived from the original on 2021-12-11 - via YouTube.

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