Outer Space Treaty

Short description: Basis of international space law

Outer Space Treaty

Long name:

* Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies

Parties

Signatories

Non-parties

Signed| 27 January 1967
Location| London, Moscow and Washington, D.C.
Effective| 10 October 1967; 58 years ago (1967-10-10)
Condition| 5 ratifications, including the depositary Governments
Parties| 118[1][2][3][4]
Depositary| Governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America
Languages| English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic
Outer Space Treaty of 1967 at Wikisource

Template:International ownership conventions

Template:Extraterritorialities

Signing of the Outer Space Treaty

Template:Non-proliferation, Disarmament, & Arms control The Outer Space Treaty, formally called the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a multilateral treaty that forms the basis of international space law.

Negotiated and drafted under the auspices of the United Nations, it was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, entering into force on 10 October 1967. As of October 2025[update], 118 countries are parties to the treaty—including all major spacefaring nations—and another 20 are signatories.[1][5][6]

Key provisions of the treaty include prohibiting nuclear weapons in space; limiting the use of the Moon and all other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes; establishing that space shall be freely explored and used by all nations; and precluding any country from claiming sovereignty over outer space or any celestial body. Although it forbids establishing military bases, testing weapons and conducting military maneuvers on celestial bodies, the treaty does not expressly ban all military activities in space, nor the establishment of military space forces or the placement of conventional weapons in space.[7][8]

The OST also declares that space is an area for free use and exploration by all and "shall be the province of all mankind". Drawing heavily from the Antarctic Treaty of 1961, the Outer Space Treaty likewise focuses on regulating certain activities and preventing unrestricted competition that were thought might lead to conflict at that time.[9] Consequently, it is largely silent or ambiguous on newly developed space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining.[10][11][12]

OST was at the heart of a 'network' of inter-state treaties and strategic power negotiations to achieve the best available conditions for nuclear weapons world security.

OST was the most important link in the chain of international legal arrangements for space from the late 1950s to the mid-1980s. The OST was followed by four additional agreements, with varied levels of accession: the safe return of astronauts who land in a foreign country (1967); liability for damages caused by spacecraft (1972); the registration of space vehicles (1976); and rules for activities on the Moon (1979).[13] As the first and most foundational legal instrument of space law,[14] the Outer Space Treaty and its broader principles of promoting the civil and peaceful use of space continue to underpin multilateral initiatives in space, such as the International Space Station and the Artemis Program.[15][16]

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Provisions
* 2.1 Responsibility for activities in space
* 2.2 Applicability in the 21st century
* 2.3 1976 Bogota Declaration
* 3 Influence on space law
* 4 List of parties
* 4.1 Partially recognized state abiding by treaty
* 4.2 States that have signed but not ratified
* 5 List of non-parties
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## History

The Outer Space Treaty was spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in the 1950s, which could reach targets through outer space.[9] The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, in October 1957, followed by a subsequent arms race with the United States, hastened proposals to prohibit the use of outer space for military purposes. On 17 October 1963, the U.N. General Assembly unanimously adopted a resolution prohibiting the introduction of weapons of mass destruction in outer space. Various proposals for an arms control treaty governing outer space were debated during a General Assembly session in December 1966, culminating in the drafting and adoption of the Outer Space Treaty the following January.[9]

## Provisions

The Outer Space Treaty represents the basic legal framework of international space law. According to the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the core principles of the treaty are:[17]

* the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind;
* outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all states;
* outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means;
* states shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner;
* the Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes; prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications
* astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind;
* states shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities;
* states shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and
* states shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.

Among its principles, it bars states party to the treaty from placing weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, installing them on the Moon or any other celestial body, or otherwise stationing them in outer space. It specifically limits the use of the Moon and other celestial bodies to peaceful purposes, and expressly prohibits their use for testing weapons of any kind, conducting military maneuvers, or establishing military bases, installations, and fortifications (Article IV). However, the treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit, and thus some highly destructive attack tactics, such as kinetic bombardment, are still potentially allowable.[18] In addition, the treaty explicitly allows the use of military personnel and resources to support peaceful uses of space, mirroring a common practice permitted by the Antarctic Treaty regarding that continent. The treaty also states that the exploration of outer space shall be done to benefit all countries and that space shall be free for exploration and use by all the states.

Article II of the treaty explicitly forbids any government from "appropriating" a celestial body such as the Moon or a planet, whether by declaration, use, occupation, or "any other means".[19] However, the state that launches a space object, such as a satellite or space station, retains jurisdiction and control over that object;[20] by extension, a state is also liable for damages caused by its space object.[21]

### Responsibility for activities in space

Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty deals with international responsibility, stating that "the activities of non-governmental entities in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, shall require authorization and continuing supervision by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty" and that States Party shall bear international responsibility for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities.

As a result of discussions arising from Project West Ford in 1963, a consultation clause was included in Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty: "A State Party to the Treaty which has reason to believe that an activity or experiment planned by another State Party in outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, would cause potentially harmful interference with activities in the peaceful exploration and use of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, may request consultation concerning the activity or experiment."[22][23]

### Applicability in the 21st century

Being primarily an arms control treaty for the peaceful use of outer space, the Outer Space Treaty offers limited and ambiguous regulations to newer space activities such as lunar and asteroid mining.[10][12][24] It is therefore debated whether the extraction of resources falls within the prohibitive language of appropriation, or whether the use of such resources encompasses the commercial use and exploitation.[25]

Seeking clearer guidelines, private U.S. companies lobbied the U.S. government, which in 2015 introduced the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 legalizing space mining.[26] Similar national legislation to legalize the appropriation of extraterrestrial resources are now being introduced by other countries, including Luxembourg, Japan, China, India, and Russia.[10][24][27][28] In addition, the U.S. has led the creation of a series of bilateral agreements known as the Artemis Accords that seek to clarify a number of issues related to the Outer Space Treaty, including the use of space resources.[29] This has created some controversy regarding legal claims over the mining of celestial bodies for profit.[24][25]

### 1976 Bogota Declaration

The "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", also known as the "Bogota Declaration", was one of the few attempts to challenge the Outer Space Treaty. It was promulgated in 1976 by eight equatorial countries to assert sovereignty over those portions of the geostationary orbit that continuously lie over the signatory nations' territory.[30] These claims did not receive wider international support or recognition, and were subsequently abandoned.[31]

## Influence on space law

As the first international legal instrument concerning space, the Outer Space Treaty is considered the "cornerstone" of space law.[32][33] It was also the first major achievement of the United Nations in this area of law, following the adoption of the first U.N. General Assembly resolution on space in 1958,[34] and the first meeting of the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) the subsequent year.[35]

Within roughly a decade of the treaty's entry into force, several other treaties were brokered by the U.N. to further develop the legal framework for activities in space:[33]

* Rescue Agreement (1968)
* Space Liability Convention (1972)
* Registration Convention (1976)
* Moon Treaty (1979)

With the exception of the Moon Treaty, to which only 18 nations are party, all other treaties on space law have been ratified by most major space-faring nations (namely those capable of orbital spaceflight).[36] COPUOS coordinates these treaties and other questions of space jurisdiction, aided by the U.N. Office for Outer Space Affairs.

## List of parties

The Outer Space Treaty was opened for signature in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on 27 January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967. As of October 2025, 118 countries are parties to the treaty, while another 20 have signed the treaty but have not completed ratification.[1]

Multiple dates indicate the different days in which states submitted their signature or deposition, which varied by location: (L) for London, (M) for Moscow, and (W) for Washington, D.C. Also indicated is whether the state became a party by way of signature and subsequent ratification, by accession to the treaty after it had closed for signature, or by succession of states after separation from some other party to the treaty.

State[1][2][3][4] | Signed  | Deposited  | Method

|
|
|

Afghanistan  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (M)

* 1988 (L, M)
* 1988 (W)

| Ratification
Algeria  |  | 1992 (W)  | Accession
Antigua and Barbuda  |  |

* 1988 (W)
* 1988 (M)
* 1989 (L)

| Succession from  United Kingdom
Argentina  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (M)

| 1969 (M, W)  | Ratification
Armenia  |  | 2018 (M)  | Accession
Australia  | 1967 (W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Austria  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1968 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Azerbaijan  |  | 2015 (L)  | Accession
Bahamas  |  |

* 1976 (L)
* 1976 (W)
* 1976 (M)

| Succession from  United Kingdom
Bahrain  |  | 2019 (M)  | Accession
Bangladesh  |  |

* 1986 (L)
* 1986 (W)
* 1986 (M)

| Accession
Barbados  |  | 1968 (W)  | Accession
Belarus  | 1967 (M)  | 1967 (M)  | Ratification
Belgium  |

* 1967 (L, M)
* 1967 (W)

* 1973 (W)
* 1973 (L, M)

| Ratification
Benin  |  |

* 1986 (M)
* 1986 (L)
* 1986 (W)

| Accession
Bosnia and Herzegovina  |  | 2020 (L)  | Accession
Brazil  |

* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (L, W)

| 1969 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Bulgaria  | 1967 (L, M, W)  |

* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (L)

| Ratification
Burkina Faso  | 1967 (W)  | 1968 (W)  | Ratification
Canada  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Chile  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (L)
* 1967 (M)

| 1981 (W)  | Ratification
China  |  |

* 1983 (W)
* 1984 (M)
* 1984 (L)

| Accession
Colombia  | 1967 (W)  |

* 2024 (W)
* 2024 (M)

| Ratification
Croatia  |  | 2023 (W)  | Accession
Cuba  |  | 1977 (M)  | Accession
Cyprus  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (L)

* 1972 (L, W)
* 1972 (M)

| Ratification
Czech Republic  |  |

* 1993 (M, W)
* 1993 (L)

| Succession from  Czechoslovakia
Denmark  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Dominican Republic  | 1967 (W)  | 1968 (W)  | Ratification
Ecuador  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (L)
* 1967 (M)

| 1969 (W)  | Ratification
Egypt  | 1967 (M, W)  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1968 (M)

| Ratification
El Salvador  | 1967 (W)  | 1969 (W)  | Ratification
Equatorial Guinea  |  | 1989 (M)  | Accession
Estonia  |  | 2010 (M)  | Accession
Fiji  |  |

* 1972 (W)
* 1972 (L)
* 1972 (M)

| Succession from  United Kingdom
Finland  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
France  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1970 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Germany  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1971 (L, W)  | Ratification
Greece  | 1967 (W)  | 1971 (L)  | Ratification
Guinea-Bissau  |  | 1976 (M)  | Accession
Hungary  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Iceland  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1968 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
India  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1982 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Indonesia  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (L)

| 2002 (L)  | Ratification
Iraq  |

* 1967 (L, W)
* 1967 (M)

* 1968 (M)
* 1969 (L)

| Ratification
Ireland  | 1967 (L, W)  |

* 1968 (W)
* 1968 (L)

| Ratification
Israel  | 1967 (L, M, W)  |

* 1977 (W)
* 1977 (L)
* 1977 (M)

| Ratification
Italy  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1972 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Jamaica  | 1967 (L, M, W)  |

* 1970 (W)
* 1970 (L)
* 1970 (M)

| Ratification
Japan  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Kazakhstan  |  | 1998 (M)  | Accession
Kenya  |  | 1984 (L)  | Accession
North Korea  |  | 2009 (M)  | Accession
South Korea  | 1967 (W)  | 1967 (W)  | Ratification
Kuwait  |  |

* 1972 (W)
* 1972 (L)
* 1972 (M)

| Accession
Laos  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (L)
* 1967 (M)

* 1972 (M)
* 1972 (W)
* 1973 (L)

| Ratification
Latvia  |  | 2025 (W)  | Accession
Lebanon  | 1967 (L, M, W)  |

* 1969 (L, M)
* 1969 (W)

| Ratification
Libya  |  | 1968 (W)  | Accession
Lithuania  |  | 2013 (W)  | Accession
Luxembourg  |

* 1967 (M, W)
* 1967 (L)

| 2006 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Madagascar  |  | 1968 (W)  | Accession
Malaysia  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (L)
* 1967 (M)

| 2025 (W)  | Ratification
Mali  |  | 1968 (M)  | Accession
Malta  |  | 2017 (L)  | Accession
Mauritius  |  |

* 1969 (W)
* 1969 (L)
* 1969 (M)

| Succession from  United Kingdom
Mexico  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1968 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Mongolia  | 1967 (M)  | 1967 (M)  | Ratification
Morocco  |  |

* 1967 (L, M)
* 1967 (W)

| Accession
Myanmar  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1970 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Nepal  |

* 1967 (M, W)
* 1967 (L)

* 1967 (L)
* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (W)

| Ratification
Netherlands  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1969 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
New Zealand  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1968 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Nicaragua  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (L)

* 2017 (W)
* 2017 (M)
* 2017 (L)

| Ratification
Niger  | 1967 (W)  |

* 1967 (L)
* 1967 (W)

| Ratification
Nigeria  |  | 1967 (L)  | Accession
Norway  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1969 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Oman  |  | 2022 (L)  | Accession
Pakistan  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1968 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Panama  | 1967 (W)  | 2023 (W)  | Ratification
Papua New Guinea  |  |

* 1980 (L)
* 1980 (M)
* 1981 (W)

| Succession from  Australia
Paraguay  |  | 2016 (L)  | Accession
Peru  | 1967 (W)  |

* 1979 (M)
* 1979 (L)
* 1979 (W)

| Ratification
Poland  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1968 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Portugal  |  | 1996 (L)  | Accession
Qatar  |  | 2012 (W)  | Accession
Romania  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1968 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Russia  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification as the  Soviet Union
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines  |  | 1999 (L)  | Succession from  United Kingdom
San Marino  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (L)
* 1967 (M)

* 1968 (W)
* 1968 (M)
* 1969 (L)

| Ratification
Saudi Arabia  |  | 1976 (W)  | Accession
Seychelles  |  | 1978 (L)  | Accession
Sierra Leone  |

* 1967 (L, M)
* 1967 (W)

* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (L)

| Ratification
Singapore  |  | 1976 (L, M, W)  | Accession
Slovakia  |  |

* 1993 (M, W)
* 1993 (L)

| Succession from  Czechoslovakia
Slovenia  |  | 2019 (L)  | Accession
South Africa  | 1967 (W)  |

* 1968 (W)
* 1968 (L)
* 1968 (M)

| Ratification
Spain  |  |

* 1968 (L)
* 1968 (W)

| Accession
Sri Lanka  | 1967 (L)  | 1986 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Sweden  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Switzerland  |

* 1967 (L, W)
* 1967 (M)

| 1969 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Syria  |  | 1968 (M)  | Accession
Thailand  | 1967 (L, M, W)  |

* 1968 (L)
* 1968 (M)
* 1968 (W)

| Ratification
Togo  | 1967 (W)  | 1989 (W)  | Ratification
Tonga  |  |

* 1971 (M)
* 1971 (L, W)

| Succession from  United Kingdom
Tunisia  |

* 1967 (L, W)
* 1967 (M)

* 1968 (L)
* 1968 (M)
* 1968 (W)

| Ratification
Turkey  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1968 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Uganda  |  | 1968 (W)  | Accession
Ukraine  | 1967 (M)  | 1967 (M)  | Ratification
United Arab Emirates  |  | 2000 (W)  | Accession
United Kingdom  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
United States  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | 1967 (L, M, W)  | Ratification
Uruguay  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (M)

| 1970 (W)  | Ratification
Uzbekistan  |  | 2024 (M)  | Accession
Venezuela  | 1967 (W)  | 1970 (W)  | Ratification
Vietnam  |  | 1980 (M)  | Accession
Yemen  |  | 1979 (M)  | Accession
Zambia  |  |

* 1973 (W)
* 1973 (M)
* 1973 (L)

| Accession

### Partially recognized state abiding by treaty

The Republic of China (Taiwan), which is currently recognized by [[International recognition of Template:Numrec/ROC Template:Numrec/ROC|Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character "[". UN member states]], ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971. When the PRC subsequently ratified the treaty, they described the Republic of China's (ROC) ratification as "illegal". The ROC has committed itself to continue to adhere to the requirements of the treaty, and the United States has declared that it still considers the ROC to be "bound by its obligations".[5]

State  | Signed  | Deposited  | Method

|
|
|

Republic of China | 1967  | 1970  | Ratification

### States that have signed but not ratified

20 states have signed but not ratified the treaty.

State  | Signed

|

Bolivia  | 1967 (W)
Botswana  | 1967 (W)
Burundi  | 1967 (W)
Cameroon  | 1967 (W)
Central African Republic  | 1967 (W)
Democratic Republic of the Congo  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (L)

Ethiopia  |

* 1967 (L, W)
* 1967 (M)

Gambia  | 1967 (L)
Ghana  |

* 1967 (W)
* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (L)

Guyana  | 1967 (W)
Haiti  | 1967 (W)
Holy See  | 1967 (L)
Honduras  | 1967 (W)
Iran  | 1967 (L)
Jordan  | 1967 (W)
Lesotho  | 1967 (W)
Philippines  |

* 1967 (L, W)
* 1967 (M)

Rwanda  | 1967 (W)
Somalia  | 1967 (W)
Trinidad and Tobago  |

* 1967 (L)
* 1967 (M)
* 1967 (W)

## List of non-parties

The remaining UN member states and United Nations General Assembly observer states which have neither ratified nor signed the Outer Space Treaty are:[37]

* Albania
* Andorra
* Angola
* Belize
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* Cape Verde
* Chad
* Comoros
* Republic of the Congo
* Costa Rica
* Djibouti
* Dominica
* East Timor
* Eritrea
* Eswatini
* Gabon
* Georgia
* Grenada
* Guatemala
* Guinea
* Ivory Coast
* Kiribati
* Kyrgyzstan
* Liberia
* Liechtenstein
* Malawi
* Maldives
* Marshall Islands
* Mauritania
* Federated States of Micronesia
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Nauru
* North Macedonia
* Palau
* Palestine
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Samoa
* São Tomé and Príncipe
* Senegal
* Serbia
* Solomon Islands
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Suriname
* Tajikistan
* Tanzania
* Turkmenistan
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu
* Zimbabwe

## See also

* Common heritage of mankind
* Extraterritorial jurisdiction
* Extraterritorial operation
* Extraterritoriality
* High-altitude nuclear explosion (HANE)
* Human presence in space
* International waters
* International zone
* Kármán line
* Lunar Flag Assembly
* Militarization of space
* Moon Treaty
* SPACE Act of 2015
* Treaty on Open Skies
* United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. https://treaties.unoda.org/t/outer_space.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "TREATY ON PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE ACTIVITIES OF STATES IN THE EXPLORATION AND USE OF OUTER SPACE, INCLUDING THE MOON AND OTHER CELESTIAL BODIES". Foreign and Commonwealth Office. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/treaty-on-principles-governing-the-activities-of-states-in-the-exploration-and-use-of-outer-space-including-the-moon-and-other-celestial-bodies-lond.
"Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies [London version"]. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. https://treaties.fco.gov.uk/awweb/pdfopener?md=1&did=70785.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies". United States Department of State. 30 June 2017. https://www.state.gov/outer-space-treaty.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Договор о принципах деятельности государств по исследованию и использованию космического пространства, включая Луну и другие небесные тела" (in ru). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia. https://mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/international_contracts/multilateral_contract/51236/.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "China: Accession to Outer Space Treaty". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. http://disarmament.un.org/treaties/a/outer_space/china/acc/washington.
6. ↑ In addition, the Republic of China in Taiwan, which is currently recognized by [[International recognition of Template:Numrec/ROC Template:Numrec/ROC|Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character "[". UN member states]], ratified the treaty prior to the United Nations General Assembly's vote to transfer China's seat to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1971.
7. ↑ Shakouri Hassanabadi, Babak (30 July 2018). "Space Force and international space law". http://www.thespacereview.com/article/3543/1.
8. ↑ Irish, Adam (13 September 2018). "The Legality of a U.S. Space Force". OpinioJuris. http://opiniojuris.org/2018/09/13/the-legality-of-a-u-s-space-force/.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies". https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/5181.htm.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 If space is ‘the province of mankind’, who owns its resources? Senjuti Mallick and Rajeswari Pillai Rajagopalan. The Observer Research Foundation. 24 January 2019. Quote 1: "The Outer Space Treaty (OST) of 1967, considered the global foundation of the outer space legal regime, […] has been insufficient and ambiguous in providing clear regulations to newer space activities such as asteroid mining." *Quote2: "Although the OST does not explicitly mention "mining" activities, under Article II, outer space including the Moon and other celestial bodies are "not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty" through use, occupation or any other means."
11. ↑ Szoka, Berin; Dunstan, James (1 May 2012). "Law: Is Asteroid Mining Illegal?". Wired. http://www.wired.com/2012/05/opinion-asteroid-mining/.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Who Owns Space? US Asteroid-Mining Act Is Dangerous And Potentially Illegal. IFL. Accessed on 9 November 2019. Quote 1: "The act represents a full-frontal attack on settled principles of space law which are based on two basic principles: the right of states to scientific exploration of outer space and its celestial bodies and the prevention of unilateral and unbriddled commercial exploitation of outer-space resources. These principles are found in agreements including the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 and the Moon Agreement of 1979." *Quote 2: "Understanding the legality of asteroid mining starts with the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. Some might argue the treaty bans all space property rights, citing Article II."
13. ↑ Buono, Stephen (2020-04-02). "Merely a 'Scrap of Paper'? The Outer Space Treaty in Historical Perspective". Diplomacy and Statecraft 31 (2): 350-372. doi:10.1080/09592296.2020.1760038.
14. ↑ "Space Law". https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/index.html.
15. ↑ "International Space Station legal framework" (in en). https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/International_Space_Station/International_Space_Station_legal_framework.
16. ↑ "NASA: Artemis Accords". https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html.
17. ↑ "The Outer Space Treaty". https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html.
18. ↑ Bourbonniere, M.; Lee, R. J. (2007). "Legality of the Deployment of Conventional Weapons in Earth Orbit: Balancing Space Law and the Law of Armed Conflict". European Journal of International Law 18 (5): 873. doi:10.1093/ejil/chm051.
19. ↑ Frakes, Jennifer (2003). "The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise?". Wisconsin International Law Journal: 409.
20. ↑ Outer Space Treaty of 1967#Article VIII
21. ↑ Wikisource:Outer Space Treaty of 1967#Article VII
22. ↑ Terrill Jr., Delbert R. (May 1999), Project West Ford, "The Air Force Role in Developing International Outer Space Law" (PDF), Air Force History and Museums: 63–67.
23. ↑ Outer Space Treaty of 1967, Article IX
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Davies, Rob (6 February 2016). "Asteroid mining could be space's new frontier: the problem is doing it legally.". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/feb/06/asteroid-mining-space-minerals-legal-issues.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Koch, Jonathan Sydney (2008). "Institutional Framework for the Province of all Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining.". Astropolitics 16 (1): 1–27. doi:10.1080/14777622.2017.1381824.
26. ↑ "U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act". Act No. H.R.2262 of 5 December 2015. 114th Congress (2015–2016) Sponsor: Rep. McCarthy, Kevin. https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262. No.+H.R.2262 of 5+December+2015&rft.pub=114th+Congress+(2015–2016)+Sponsor:+Rep.+McCarthy,+Kevin&rft_id=https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2262&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Outer_Space_Treaty">
27. ↑ Ridderhof, R. (18 December 2015). "Space Mining and (U.S.) Space Law". https://www.peacepalacelibrary.nl/2015/12/space-mining-and-u-s-space-law/.
28. ↑ "Law Provides New Regulatory Framework for Space Commerce | RegBlog". 31 December 2015. http://www.regblog.org/2015/12/31/rathz-space-commerce-regulation/.
29. ↑ Foust, Jeff (2020-10-13). "Eight countries sign Artemis Accords" (in en-US). https://spacenews.com/eight-countries-sign-artemis-accords/.
30. ↑ "Text of Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. 2007-01-23. http://www.jaxa.jp/library/space_law/chapter_2/2-2-1-2_e.html.
31. ↑ Gangale, Thomas (2006), "Who Owns the Geostationary Orbit?", Annals of Air and Space Law 31, http://pweb.jps.net/~gangale/opsa/ir/WhoOwnsGeostationaryOrbit.htm, retrieved 2011-10-14.
32. ↑ "History: Treaties". https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/aboutus/history/treaties.html.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Space Law Treaties and Principles". https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties.html.
34. ↑ "A History of Space". https://unoosa.org/oosa/en/timeline/index.html.
35. ↑ Beyond UNISPACE: It's time for the Moon Treaty. Dennis C. O'Brien. Pace Review. 21 January 2019.
36. ↑ Status of international agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2008 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2008
37. ↑ United Nations Treaties and Principles on Outer Space- Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 20 (A/47/20) - https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/ST_SPACE_061Rev01E.pdf

## Further reading

* Annette Froehlich, et al. (2018). A Fresh View on the Outer Space Treaty. Vienna: Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-70433-3.
* Squadron Leader KK Nair's Space: The Frontiers of Modern Defence. Knowledge World Publishers, New Delhi, Chap. 5 "Examining Space Law...", pp. 84–104, available at Google Books.

## External links

* Downloadable PDF of the "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies"

* International Institute of Space Law[Usurped!]
* Full text of the "Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies" in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, or Spanish
* Status of International Agreements relating to Activities in Outer Space (list of state parties to treaty), UN Office for Outer Space Affairs
* "The Case for Withdrawing from the 1967 Outer Space Treaty"
* Still Relevant (and Important) After All These Years: The case for supporting the Outer Space Treaty
* Introductory note by Vladimír Kopal, procedural history note and audiovisual material on the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies in the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
* The Progressive Development of International Space Law by the United Nations—Lecture by Vladimír Kopal] in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
* The Law of Outer Space in the General Legal Field (Commonalities and Particularities)—Lecture by Vladlen Stepanovich Vereshchetin in the Lecture Series of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law
* Humans on Mars and beyond full-text

Template:Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson

* v
* t
* e

Politics of outer space

* Spacefaring nations
* Space policy
* Space traffic management
* Space debris management
* Space Debris Working Group
* Space Debris Committee
* Planetary protection principle
* Post-detection policy
* Asteroid impact
* Prediction
* Avoidance
* Spaceguard
* The Spaceguard Foundation

Space races|

* Cold War Space Race
* Sputnik crisis
* Timeline
* Billionaire space race
* Mars race
* Records
* Space propaganda
* Space competition

Chinese
space program|

* Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine (1966–1976)
* Shuguang program (1966–1972)
* Chinese ASAT program (1964–)
* 2007 test
* Project 921 (1992–)
* Shenzhou program
* Tiangong program
* Space station
* Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (2003–)
* Mars and beyond
* Planetary Exploration of China (2016–)
* MARS-500 study

ESA Science Programme|

* European Launcher Development Organisation (1960–1975)
* Europa launcher programme (1962–1973)
* European Space Research Organisation (1964–1975)
* European Space Agency (1975–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* European Cooperation for Space Standardization
* European Space Research and Technology Centre
* Concurrent Design Facility
* European Astronaut Centre
* ESA Centre for Earth Observation
* Living Planet Programme
* European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications
* European Data Relay System
* Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (1983–2010)
* European Space Astronomy Centre (2005–)
* European Space Security and Education Centre
* European Space Operations Centre
* ESTRACK network
* Guiana Space Centre
* Ariane launcher programme (1973–)
* Vega launcher programme (1998–)
* European Space Policy Institute
* Space Situational Awareness Programme
* Future Launchers Preparatory Programme
* Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle
* PRIDE
* Space Rider
* ESA Television
* Mars and beyond
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* MARS-500 study
* Aurora programme
* ExoMars

| Horizon 2000 (1985–1995)|

* SOHO
* Cassini–Huygens
* Huygens
* Cluster
* Cluster II
* XMM-Newton
* Rosetta
* INTEGRAL
* Herschel
* Planck

|

Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015)|

* ISS programme
* Politics
* Gaia
* LISA Pathfinder
* BepiColombo

Cosmic Vision (2015–2025)|

* Solar Orbiter
* Euclid
* ARIEL
* EnVision
* CHEOPS
* JUICE
* ATHENA
* LISA
* Comet Interceptor
* SMILE

EU Space Programme|

* Western European Union Satellite Centre (1992–2002)
* EU Satellite Centre (2002–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space
* European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010)
* European GNSS Agency (2010–2021)
* EU Agency for the Space Programme (2021–)
* Galileo programme
* Copernicus programme
* EGNOS programme
* EUSST programme
* Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications
* European Union Aviation Safety Agency
* European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities
* European Defence Agency
* Europe by Satellite

Other European
initiatives and bodies|

* AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe
* Eurospace
* Eurocontrol
* Council of Europe
* Council of European Aerospace Societies
* European Broadcasting Union
* European Civil Aviation Conference
* European Committee for Standardization/European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
* European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
* European Telecommunications Standards Institute
* European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
* European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
* European Patent Organisation
* European Patent Office
* European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* European Southern Observatory
* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

Indian space policy|

* Department of Space
* Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
* Space Activities Bill
* Indian ASAT programme
* Mission Shakti

British
space programme|

* Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research (1958)
* Start of the Ariel programme (1962)
* Black Arrow launcher (1964–1971)
* Creation of the British National Space Centre (1985)
* Outer Space Act 1986
* Project Juno (1991)
* Space Innovation and Growth Team (2009–2010)
* Creation of the UK Space Agency (2010)
* Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015
* Space Industry Act 2018
* UK Global Navigation Satellite System (2018–2020)
* 2021 Integrated Review
* Defence in a Competitive Age

US space policy|

| Truman
space policy|

* Operation Paperclip
* list of scientists
* Aerobee rocket program
* RAND
* Establishment of Cape Canaveral

|

Eisenhower
space policy|

* WS-117L
* Project Vanguard
* Sputnik crisis
* Introduction to Outer Space
* 1958 NASA Act
* Space Act Agreement
* Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest
* Launch of Project Mercury
* Missile gap
* Launch of X-15 program

Kennedy
space policy|

* Launch of the Mariner program
* Launch of the Gemini project
* Launch of the Apollo program
* "We choose to go to the Moon"

Johnson
space policy|

* 1967 Outer Space Treaty

Nixon
space policy|

* Moon landing
* Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law
* Launch of the Space Shuttle Program
* Skylab

Ford
space policy|

* Apollo–Soyuz
* Launch of the Viking program

Carter
space policy|

Reagan
space policy|

* Citizens' Advisory Council
* Strategy of Technology doctrine
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* Space Station Freedom proposal
* 1984 Space Act
* 1985 anti-satellite missile test
* Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
* Rogers Report
* Ride Report

George H. W. Bush
space policy|

* Space Exploration Initiative
* 1990 Augustine Committee
* Hubble Space Telescope
* National Space Council

Clinton
space policy|

* Faster, better, cheaper
* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics
* Launch of the Mars Exploration Program
* 1998 Space Act
* Decadal Planning Team
* Launch of the X-37 program

George W. Bush
space policy|

* Aerospace Industry Commission
* 2002 National missile defense directive
* Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
* Vision for Space Exploration
* Aldridge Commission
* ESAS
* 2005 NASA Act
* Launch of the Constellation program
* Operation Burnt Frost

Obama
space policy|

* 2009 Augustine Committee
* Kennedy Space Center speech
* Cancellation of the Constellation program
* Launch of the Space Launch System program
* Redesign of the Orion program
* Flexible path
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* 2010 NASA Act
* Title 51
* Space Shuttle retirement
* Development of the Commercial Crew Program
* 2014 NASA Act
* 2015 Space Act

First Trump
space policy|

* Re-establishment of the National Space Council
* Creation of the Space Force
* Launch of the Artemis program
* Launch of the Lunar Gateway project
* Executive Order 13959

* China exclusion policy of NASA
* International Traffic in Arms Regulations
* Full-spectrum dominance doctrine
* Budget of NASA
* House Committee on Space
* NESDIS
* Office of Space Commerce
* FCC
* FAA/AST
* NRO
* IEEE
* Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society
* Antennas & Propagation Society
* Broadcast Technology Society
* Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
* Vehicular Technology Society

USSR and Russia|

| Soviet
space
program|

| Stalin|

* Operation Osoaviakhim (1946)
* list of scientists

|

Khrushchev|

* Sputnik program
* Sputnik crisis (1957)
* Vostok program (1960–1963)
* Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (1960–1982)
* Soviet crewed lunar programs (1961–1976)
* Voskhod program (1964–1966)

Brezhnev|

* Soyuz program (1967–)
* Interkosmos (1967–1991)
* Salyut program (1971–1986)
* Almaz (1973–1977)
* Buran program (1974–1993)
* Apollo–Soyuz (1975)

Gorbachev|

* Mir (1986–2001)

Roscosmos|

| Yeltsin|

* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS (1993–)
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics

|

Medvedev|

* Medvedev modernisation programme
* 2010 Military doctrine

Putin|

* United Rocket and Space Corporation (2013–2015)
* 2014 Military doctrine
* 2015 Creation of Roscosmos
* Mars
* MARS-500 study
* ExoMars

Other policies|

* Australian space program
* Brazilian space program
* Emirati space program
* Japanese space program
* Kazakh space program
* Kenyan space program
* Lebanese space program
* North Korean space program
* Pakistani space program
* Space programme 2040
* Philippine space program
* South Korean space program
* Ugandan space initiatives
* International Space Station programme
* Politics of the International Space Station

United Nations|

* International Civil Aviation Organization
* ITU-R
* Office for Outer Space Affairs
* UN-SPIDER
* Space Generation Advisory Council
* Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
* General Assembly Fourth Committee

Other intergovernmental
or inter-agency bodies|

* African Space Agency
* Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems
* Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
* Committee on Space Research
* International Planetary Data Alliance
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* Group on Earth Observations
* Global Standards Collaboration
* Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'
* International Mobile Satellite Organization
* International Space Exploration Coordination Group
* International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board
* International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* Intersputnik
* Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group
* Regional African Satellite Communication Organization
* Arab Satellite Communications Organization
* Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization

Space law|

* Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)
* Outer Space Treaty (1967)
* Rescue Agreement (1968)
* Space Liability Convention (1972)
* US-USSR Cooperation Agreement (1972)
* Satellite Convention (1974)
* Registration Convention (1975)
* Bogota Declaration (1976)
* Moon Treaty (1979)
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (1981)
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement (1988)
* International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (1998)
* International Docking System Standard
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' (1999)
* Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol (2012)
* Artemis Accords (2020)
* Space jurisdiction
* Common heritage of mankind
* Extraterrestrial real estate
* Astronomical naming conventions
* ITU Radio Regulations
* CCSDS standards
* ODCWG standards
* CEOS standards
* COSPAR standards
* International Designator
* IPDA standards
* GSC standards
* GEO standards
* ISECG standards
* Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs

Commercial use|

* Space industry
* India
* Russia
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Private spaceflight
* Launch market competition
* Space tourism
* Space advertising
* Space technology
* Space-based economy
* Space trade
* Space manufacturing
* Lunar resources
* Project Harvest Moon
* Asteroid mining

Militarisation|

| Space forces,
units and formations|

* Space forces
* Australia
* Brazil
* Canada
* China
* Colombia
* France
* Germany
* Iran
* AJA
* IRGC
* Israel
* Japan
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* North Korea
* Pakistan
* Russia
* South Korea
* Spain
* Thailand
* Turkey
* United Kingdom
* United States
* History
* Structure
* Vietnam
* Ranks and insignia
* Space commands
* France
* India
* Italy
* NATO
* NORAD
* United Kingdom
* United States

|

Space warfare|

* Space domain awareness
* Space weapon
* Anti-satellite weapon
* China
* India
* Russia
* United States
* Kinetic bombardment
* Kill vehicle
* Missile defense
* Military satellite
* Reconnaissance satellite
* Spaceplane
* Satellite jamming

Space advocacy|

* Air & Space Forces Association
* Alliance for Space Development
* National Space Society
* Space Frontier Foundation
* Mars Society
* Moon Society
* Students for the Exploration and Development of Space
* Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies
* British Interplanetary Society
* Coalition for Deep Space Exploration
* International Academy of Astronautics
* International Astronautical Federation
* International Astronomical Union
* Lunar Explorers Society
* Space Exploration Alliance
* Space Fellowship
* Space Force Association
* Space Foundation
* The Planetary Society

* v
* t
* e

Public-sector space agencies

Africa|

| Pan-African
and pan-Arab|

* RASCOM
* Arabsat

|

National|

* ASAL
* EgSA
* NARSS
* ESSTI
* GSSTC
* KSA
* NASRDA
* SANSA

Americas|

| North America|

* CSA
* NASA
* NESDIS
* OSC
* FAA/AST
* FCC
* USSF
* USSPACECOM
* NRO

|

Latin America
and the Caribbean|

* ALCE
* AEM
* CONAE
* ABE
* AEB
* DCTA
* INPE
* ITA
* CCE
* ABAE
* IVIC

Asia|

| Pan-Asian|

* APSCO

|

Central Asia|

* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VK
* TNSA1

East Asia|

* CNSA
* SASTIND
* CASC
* CALT
* CAST
* CCF
* CGWIC
* PLAASF
* CASIC
* JAXA
* ISAS
* JSS
* NICT
* NATA
* KASA
* KARI
* KASI
* SaTReC
* TASA

South Asia|

* SPARRSO
* ISRO2
* Antrix Corp
* DoS
* NRSC
* NSIL
* DSA
* SUPARCO

Southeast Asia|

* BRIN
* ORPA
* INASA
* MYSA
* PhilSA
* SSTL
* GISTDA
* VNSC

West Asia|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* NSSA
* NEHSA
* ISA
* ISRC
* ISA
* NCSR
* SSA
* KACST-SRI
* SSA2
* GORS
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* UAESA (MBRSC)

Europe|

| Pan-European|

* CEN/CENELEC
* CEPT
* ETSI
* Eurocontrol
* ECAC
* ESA
* ECSS
* ESTEC
* EAC
* ESRIN
* ECSAT
* ESAC
* ESOC
* ESTRACK
* Guiana Space Centre
* EUMETSAT
* EUTELSAT IGO
* ESO

|

EU and EEA|

* DG DEFIS
* EUSPA
* EU SatCen
* EASA
* BEREC
* ALR2
* BELSPO
* BIRA-IASB
* SRTI2
* CSO2
* DTU Space
* ESO1
* CNES2
* AAE
* CdE
* DLR2
* HSA
* HSO2
* ASI
* LSA
* LSO1
* SRON
* NSO
* NOSA
* POLSA2
* CBK PAN
* UKE
* KRRiT
* ORO
* ULC
* PTSPACE
* ROSA2
* INTA
* AEC
* EAE
* AEE
* SNSA

Other|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* BSA1
* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VVKO
* SSO
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* SSAU1
* UKSA2

Oceania|

* ASA
* CSIRO
* NZSA

World|

* CCSDS
* CEOS
* COSPAR
* IPDA
* Cospas-Sarsat
* GEO
* GSC
* IADC
* ICSMD
* IMSO
* ISECG
* ISS MCB
* ITSO
* Intersputnik
* ODCWG
* ITU-R
* UNCOPUOS
* UNOOSA
* UNOSAT

Former|

* BNSC
* KCST
* INCOSPAR
* LAPAN
* NAL
* NASDA
* SSP
* MOM
* Interkosmos

* See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country
* 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program
* 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation

Template:Soviet Union–United States relations

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