Shinkansen

The Shinkansen (Japanese: 新幹線, ja, lit. new trunk line), colloquially known in English as the bullet train, is a network of high-speed railway lines in Japan. It was initially built to connect distant Japanese regions with Tokyo, the capital, to aid economic growth and development. Beyond long-distance travel, some sections around the largest metropolitan areas are used as a commuter rail network.[1][2] It is owned by the Japan Railway Construction, Transport and Technology Agency and operated by five Japan Railways Group companies.

Starting with the Tokaido Shinkansen (515.4 km (320.3 mi)*) in 1964,[3] the network has expanded to consist of 2,951.3 km (1,833.9 mi) of lines with maximum speeds of 260–320 km/h (160–200 mph), 283.5 km (176.2 mi) of Mini-shinkansen lines with a maximum speed of 130 km/h (80 mph), and 10.3 km (6.4 mi) of spur lines with Shinkansen services.[4] The network links most major cities on the islands of Honshu and Kyushu, and connects to Hakodate on the northern island of Hokkaido. An extension to Sapporo is under construction and was initially scheduled to open by fiscal year 2030,[5] but in December 2024, it was delayed until the end of FY2038.[6][7] The maximum operating speed is 320 km/h (200 mph) (on a 387.5 km (241 mi) section of the Tōhoku Shinkansen).[8] Test runs have reached 443 km/h (275 mph) for conventional rail in 1996, and up to a world record 603 km/h (375 mph) for SCMaglev trains in April 2015.[9]

The original Tokaido Shinkansen, connecting Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka —three of Japan's largest cities — is one of the world's busiest high-speed rail lines. In the one-year period preceding March 2017, it carried 159 million passengers,[10] and since its opening more than six decades ago, it has transported more than 6.4 billion total passengers.[3] At peak times, the line carries up to 16 trains per hour in each direction with 16 cars each (1,323-seat capacity and occasionally additional standing passengers) with a minimum headway of three minutes between trains.[11]

The Shinkansen network of Japan had the highest annual passenger ridership (a maximum of 353 million in 2007) of any high-speed rail network until 2011, when the Chinese high-speed railway network surpassed it at 370 million passengers annually.[12]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 History
* 2.1 Early proposals
* 2.2 Construction
* 2.3 Initial success
* 2.4 Network expansion
* 3 Technology
* 3.1 Routing
* 3.2 Track
* 3.3 Signal system
* 3.4 Electrical systems
* 3.5 Trains
* 3.6 Traction
* 4 Lines
* 4.1 Lines under construction
* 4.2 Planned lines
* 4.3 Cancelled lines
* 4.4 Proposed lines
* 5 Services
* 5.1 Tōkaidō, San'yō and Kyushu Shinkansen
* 5.2 Tōhoku, Hokkaido, Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen
* 5.3 Jōetsu Shinkansen
* 5.4 Hokuriku Shinkansen
* 5.5 Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen
* 6 Train types
* 6.1 Passenger trains
* 6.1.1 Tōkaidō and San'yō Shinkansen
* 6.1.2 Kyushu and Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen
* 6.1.3 Tohoku, Hokkaido, Joetsu, and Hokuriku Shinkansen
* 6.1.4 Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen
* 6.2 Experimental trains
* 6.3 Maglev trains
* 6.4 Maintenance vehicles
* 7 Speed records
* 7.1 Traditional rail
* 7.2 Maglev
* 8 Reliability
* 8.1 Punctuality
* 8.2 Safety record
* 9 Effects
* 9.1 Economics
* 9.2 Environment
* 10 Challenges
* 10.1 Noise pollution
* 10.2 Earthquake
* 10.3 Heavy snow
* 11 Ridership
* 11.1 Annual
* 11.2 Cumulative comparison
* 12 Future
* 12.1 Speed increases
* 12.1.1 Tōhoku Shinkansen
* 12.1.2 Hokkaido Shinkansen
* 12.2 Hokuriku extension
* 12.2.1 Abandoned interim Gauge Change plans
* 12.3 Tohoku extension/Hokkaido Shinkansen
* 12.4 Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen
* 12.5 Maglev (Chūō Shinkansen)
* 12.6 Mini-Shinkansen
* 12.6.1 Proposed Ou Base Tunnel
* 12.7 Gauge Change Train
* 13 Competition with air
* 14 Outside Japan
* 14.1 Existing
* 14.1.1 Taiwan
* 14.1.2 China
* 14.1.3 United Kingdom
* 14.2 Under negotiation
* 14.2.1 India
* 14.2.2 United States
* 14.3 Proposed subject to funding
* 14.3.1 Thailand
* 14.4 Potential opportunities
* 14.4.1 Australia
* 14.4.2 Ireland
* 14.4.3 United States and Canada
* 14.4.4 Brazil
* 14.4.5 Vietnam
* 15 See also
* 16 Notes
* 17 References
* 18 Further reading
* 19 External links

## Etymology

Shinkansen (新幹線) in Japanese means 'new trunk line' or 'new main line', but this word is used to describe both the railway lines the trains run on and the trains themselves.[13][14] In English, the trains are also known as the bullet train. The term bullet train (弾丸列車, dangan ressha) originates from 1939, and was the initial name given to the Shinkansen project in its earliest planning stages.[15] Furthermore, the name super express (超特急, chō-tokkyū), used exclusively until 1972 for Hikari trains on the Tōkaidō Shinkansen, is used today in English-language announcements and signage.

## History

A JNR map from the October 1964 English-language timetable, showing the then-new Tokaido Shinkansen line (in red) and conventional lines A 0 series set in front of Mount Fuji

Japan was the first country to build dedicated railway lines for high-speed travel. Because of the mountainous terrain, the existing network consisted of 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) narrow-gauge lines, which generally took indirect routes and could not be adapted to higher speeds due to technical limitations of narrow-gauge rail. For example, if a standard-gauge rail has a curve with a maximum speed of 145 km/h (90 mph), the same curve on narrow-gauge rail will have a maximum allowable speed of 130 km/h (81 mph).[16] Consequently, Japan had a greater need for new high-speed lines than countries where the existing standard-gauge or broad-gauge rail system had more upgrade potential.

Among the key people credited with the construction of the first Shinkansen are Hideo Shima, the Chief Engineer, and Shinji Sogō, the first President of Japanese National Railways (JNR) who managed to persuade politicians to back the plan. Other significant people responsible for its technical development were Tadanao Miki, Tadashi Matsudaira, and Hajime Kawanabe based at the Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI), part of JNR. They were responsible for much of the technical development of the first line, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen. All three had worked on aircraft design during World War II.[17]

### Early proposals

The popular English name bullet train is a literal translation of the Japanese term dangan ressha (弾丸列車), a nickname given to the project while it was initially discussed in the 1930s. The name stuck because of the original 0 Series Shinkansen's resemblance to a Minié ball and its high speed.

The Shinkansen name was first formally used in 1940 for a proposed standard-gauge passenger and freight line between Tokyo and Shimonoseki that would have used steam and electric locomotives with a top speed of 200 km/h (120 mph). Over the next three years, the Ministry of Railways drew up more ambitious plans to extend the line to Beijing (through a tunnel to Korea) and even Singapore, and build connections to the Trans-Siberian Railway and other trunk lines in Asia. These plans were abandoned in 1943 as Japan's position in World War II worsened. However, some construction did commence on the line; several tunnels on the present-day Shinkansen date to the war-era project.[18]

### Construction

Following the end of World War II, high-speed rail was forgotten for several years while traffic of passengers and freight steadily increased on the conventional Tōkaidō Main Line along with the reconstruction of Japanese industry and economy. By the mid-1950s the Tōkaidō Line was operating at full capacity, and the Ministry of Railways decided to revisit the Shinkansen project. In 1957, Odakyu Electric Railway introduced its 3000 series SE Romancecar train, setting a world speed record of 145 km/h (90 mph) for a narrow-gauge train when JNR leased a trainset in order to perform high-speed tests.[19] This train gave designers the confidence that they could safely build an even faster standard-gauge train. Thus the first Shinkansen, the 0 series, was built on the success of the Romancecar. In the 1950s, the Japanese national attitude was that as was happening in the United States, railways would soon be outdated and replaced by air travel and highways.[20] However, Shinji Sogō, President of Japanese National Railways, insisted strongly on the possibility of high-speed rail, and the Shinkansen project was implemented.[21]

Government approval came in December 1958, and construction of the first segment of the Tōkaidō Shinkansen between Tokyo and Osaka started in April 1959. The cost of constructing the Shinkansen was at first estimated at nearly 200 billion yen,[lower-alpha 1](equivalent to ¥1,138,547,778,068 in 2019) which was raised in the form of a government loan, railway bonds and a low-interest loan of US$80 million (equivalent to $862,922,374 in 2024) from the World Bank. Initial estimates, however, were understated and the actual cost was about 380 billion yen.[22] As the budget shortfall became clear in 1963, Sogo resigned to take responsibility.[23]

A test facility for rolling stock, called the Kamonomiya Model Section, opened in Odawara in 1962.[24]

### Initial success

1964 JNR Passenger Timetable, Table 1, showing shinkansen service on the New Tokaido Line

The Tōkaidō Shinkansen began service on 1 October 1964, in time for the first Tokyo Olympics.[25] The conventional Limited Express service took six hours and 40 minutes from Tokyo to Osaka, but the Shinkansen made the trip in just four hours, shortened to three hours and ten minutes by 1965. It enabled day trips between Tokyo and Osaka, the two largest metropolises in Japan, significantly changed the style of business and life of the Japanese people, and increased new traffic demand. The service was an immediate success, reaching the 100 million passenger mark in less than three years on 13 July 1967, and one billion passengers in 1976. Sixteen-car trains were introduced for Expo '70 in Osaka. With an average of 23,000 passengers per hour in each direction in 1992, the Tōkaidō Shinkansen was the world's busiest high-speed rail line.[26] As of 2014, the train's 50th anniversary, daily passenger traffic rose to 391,000 which, spread over its 18-hour schedule, represented an average of just under 22,000 passengers per hour.[27]

The first Shinkansen trains, the 0 series, ran at speeds of up to 210 km/h (130 mph), later increased to 220 km/h (137 mph). The last of these trains, with their classic bullet-nosed appearance, were retired on 30 November 2008. A driving car from one of the 0 series trains was donated by JR West to the National Railway Museum in York, United Kingdom in 2001.[28]

### Network expansion

The Tōkaidō Shinkansen's rapid success prompted an extension westward to Okayama, Hiroshima and Fukuoka (the San'yō Shinkansen), which was completed in 1975.[29] Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka was an ardent supporter of the Shinkansen, and his government proposed an extensive network paralleling most existing trunk lines. Two new lines, the Tōhoku Shinkansen and Jōetsu Shinkansen, were built following this plan. Many other planned lines were delayed or scrapped entirely as JNR slid into debt throughout the late 1970s, largely because of the high cost of building the Shinkansen network. By the early 1980s, the company was practically insolvent,{{citation needed|date=April 2025} 987.

Development of the Shinkansen by the privatised regional JR companies has continued, with new train models developed, each generally with its own distinctive appearance (such as the 500 series introduced by JR West). Since 2014, Shinkansen trains run regularly at speeds up to 320 km/h (200 mph) on the Tōhoku Shinkansen; only the Shanghai maglev train, China Railway High-speed networks, and the Indonesian Jakarta-Bandung High-speed railway have commercial services that operate faster.[30][31][needs update]

Since 1970, development has also been underway for the Chūō Shinkansen, a planned maglev line from Tokyo to Osaka. On 21 April 2015, a seven-car L0 series maglev trainset, planned to be used on the line, set a world speed record of 603 km/h (375 mph).[9] The line is expected to operate at 500 km/h (310 mph), with the estimated travel time between Tokyo and Osaka taking 67 minutes. Construction commenced in 2011 and was originally scheduled to open in 2027, though it has since been delayed to at least 2034.[32]

## Technology

To enable high-speed operation, Shinkansen uses a range of advanced technology compared with conventional rail, achieving not only high speed but also a high standard of safety and comfort. Its success has influenced other railways in the world, demonstrating the importance and advantages of high-speed rail.

### Routing

The majority of Shinkansen routes never intersect with slower, narrow-gauge conventional lines. Consequently, the Shinkansen is not affected by slower trains and has the capacity to operate many high-speed trains punctually. Routes are also completely grade separated from road traffic and tracks are strictly off-limits, with penalties against trespassing regulated by law. The routes make extensive use of tunnels and viaducts to go through and over obstacles rather than around them, with a minimum curve radius of 4,000 m (13,123 ft), although the older Tōkaidō Shinkansen line has a minimum of 2,500 m (8,202 ft).[16]

While most Shinkansen routes follow this pattern, two exceptions exist. They are the mini-shinkansen lines, which run on conventional lines converted to standard gauge; and the Hokkaido Shinkansen, which shares trackage with narrow-gauge freight trains through the Seikan Tunnel.

### Track

Shinkansen standard-gauge track, with welded rails to reduce vibration

The Shinkansen uses 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in) standard gauge in contrast to the 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) narrow gauge of most other lines in Japan. Continuous welded rail and swingnose crossing points are employed, eliminating gaps at turnouts and crossings. Long rails are used, joined by expansion joints to minimize gauge fluctuation due to thermal elongation and shrinkage.

A combination of ballasted and slab track is used, with slab track exclusively employed on concrete bed sections such as viaducts and tunnels. Slab track is significantly more cost-effective in tunnel sections, since the lower track height reduces the cross-sectional area of the tunnel, reducing construction costs up to 30%.[33] However, the smaller diameter of Shinkansen tunnels, compared to some other high-speed lines, has resulted in the issue of tunnel boom becoming a concern for residents living close to tunnel portals.

The slab track consists of rails, fasteners and track slabs with a cement asphalt mortar. On the roadbed and in tunnels, circular upstands, measuring 400–520 mm (16–20 inches) in diameter and 200 mm (7.9 inches) high, are located at 5-metre intervals. The prefabricated upstands are made of either reinforced concrete or pre-stressed reinforced concrete; they prevent the track slab from moving latitudinally or longitudinally. One track slab weighs approximately 5 tons and is 2,220–2,340 mm (87–92 inches) wide, 4,900–4,950 mm (193–195 inches) long and 160–200 mm (6.3–7.9 inches) thick.[34]

### Signal system

Braking curve for the original ATC-1 used on the Tokaido Shinkansen (Vertical axis represents the speed of the train whereas the horizontal axis represents the distance.) Replica of the Shinkansen CTC as seen at the Kyoto Railway Museum

The Shinkansen employs an ATC (automatic train control) system, eliminating the need for trackside signals. It uses a comprehensive system of automatic train protection.[23] Centralized traffic control manages all train operations, and all tasks relating to train movement, track, station and schedule are networked and computerized.

### Electrical systems

Shinkansen uses a 25 kV AC overhead power supply (20 kV AC on Mini-shinkansen lines), to overcome the limitations of the 1,500 V direct current used on the existing electrified narrow-gauge system. Power is distributed along the train's axles to reduce the heavy axle loads under single power cars.[23] The AC frequency of the power supply for the Tokaido Shinkansen is 60 Hz.

### Trains

Japanese loading gauge legend. Green: Shinkansen loading gauge
Grey: Conventional loading gauge
Blue: Rural loading gauge
Figures in brackets are former limits.

Shinkansen trains are electric multiple units (EMUs), offering fast acceleration, deceleration and reduced damage to the track because of the use of lighter vehicles compared to locomotives or power cars. The coaches are air-sealed to ensure stable air pressure when entering tunnels at high speed.

Shinkansen trains (excluding mini-Shinkansen) are also built to a larger loading gauge compared to conventional-speed rolling stock.[35] This larger loading gauge permits wider coaches, allowing for 5-abreast seating (2+3) in Standard Class coaches, compared to the more common 4-abreast (2+2) seating usually found elsewhere. On occasions, this wider loading gauge was also used to allow 6-abreast seating (3+3) on certain trains, such as the E1 and E4 series sets. This, combined with a lack of power cars, allows for a higher passenger capacity within a shorter train length. However, since mini-Shinkansen lines are effectively track-regauged conventional lines, the conventional loading gauge for 1,067mm lines still applies on mini-Shinkansen lines.

Shinkansen N700A Series, car 01

### Traction

The Shinkansen has used EMUs from the outset, with the 0 Series Shinkansen having all axles powered. Other railway manufacturers were traditionally reluctant or unable to use distributed traction configurations (Talgo, the German ICE 2 and the French (and subsequently South Korean) TGV (and KTX-I and KTX-Sancheon) use the locomotive (also known as power car) configuration with the Renfe Class 102 and continues with it for the Talgo AVRIL because it is not possible to use powered bogies as part of Talgo's bogie design, which uses a modified Jacobs bogie with a single axle instead of two and allows the wheels to rotate independently of each other, on the ICE 2, TGV and KTX it is because it easily allows for a high ride quality and less electrical equipment.[36]) In Japan, significant engineering desirability exists for the electric multiple unit configuration. A greater proportion of motored axles permits higher acceleration, so the Shinkansen does not lose as much time if stopping frequently. Shinkansen lines have more stops in proportion to their lengths than high-speed lines elsewhere in the world.

## Lines

Map of Shinkansen services in the Chūbu and Kantō regions as of March 2024

The main Shinkansen lines are:

Line  | Start  | End  | Operating
full route  | Operating
speed  | Length  | Operator  | Opened  | Passengers
(2023)[37] | Passenger-km
(2023)[37]

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

20x20px Tōkaidō Shinkansen  | Tokyo | Shin-Ōsaka |  | 285 km/h (177 mph)  | 515.4 km (320 mi)  | Template:Ric | 1964 | 160,705,000  | 52,935,160,000
San'yō Shinkansen  | Shin-Ōsaka | Hakata |  | 300 km/h (186 mph)  | 553.7 km (344 mi)  | Template:Ric | 1972–1975 | 70,301,000  | 18,722,736,000
20x20px Tōhoku Shinkansen  | Tokyo | Shin-Aomori |  | 320 km/h (199 mph)  | 674.9 km (419 mi)  | Template:Ric | 1982–2010 | 81,547,000  | 14,407,462,000
20x20px Jōetsu Shinkansen  | Saitama | Niigata | Tokyo – Niigata | 275 km/h (171 mph)  | 269.5 km (167 mi)  | 1982 | 39,776,000  | 4,577,061,000
20x20px  Hokuriku Shinkansen  | Takasaki | Tsuruga  | Tokyo – Tsuruga  | 260 km/h (162 mph)  | 470.6 km (292 mi)  | Template:Ric
Template:Ric | 1997–2024 | 30,308,000  | 3,610,142,000
20x20px Kyushu Shinkansen  | Hakata | Kagoshima-Chūō |  | 260 km/h (162 mph)  | 256.8 km (160 mi)  | Template:Ric | 2004–2011 | 16,089,000  | 1,952,403,000
20x20px Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen  | Takeo-Onsen | Nagasaki |  | 260 km/h (162 mph)  | 66.0 km (41 mi)  | 2022
20x20px Hokkaido Shinkansen  | Shin-Aomori | Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto |  | 260 km/h (162 mph)  | 148.8 km (92 mi)  | Template:Ric | 2016 | 1,401,000  | 239,125,000

In practice, the Tokaido, San'yō, and Kyushu lines form a contiguous west/southbound line from Tokyo, as train services run between the Tokaido and San'yō lines and between the San'yō and Kyushu lines, though the lines are operated by different companies.

The Tokaido Shinkansen tracks are not physically connected to the lines of the Tohoku Shinkansen at Tokyo Station, as they use different electrification standards, signaling systems, and earthquake mitigation devices. There also exists a dispute between JR East and JR Central about the use of the two platforms which were added to the Tokaido line's half of Tokyo station. Before JNR's privatization, they were conceived as being shared with the Tohoku line, and their construction used funds allocated to the Tohoku line's extension to Tokyo; however, the extension was finished after privatization, by which time the platforms were owned by JR Central. Therefore, there is no through service between those lines. All northbound services from Tokyo travel along the Tohoku Shinkansen until at least Ōmiya before splitting off towards Sendai or Takasaki.

Two further lines, known as Mini-shinkansen, have also been constructed by re-gauging and upgrading existing sections of line:

Line  | Start  | End  | Operating
full route  | Operating
speed  | Length  | Operator  | Opened

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Yamagata Shinkansen  | Fukushima  | Shinjō  | Tokyo – Shinjō  | 130 km/h (81 mph)  | 148.6 km (92 mi)  | Template:Ric | 1992–1999
Akita Shinkansen  | Morioka  | Akita  | Tokyo – Akita  | 130 km/h (81 mph)  | 127.3 km (79 mi)  | 1997

There are two standard-gauge lines not technically classified as Shinkansen lines but run Shinkansen trains as they use tracks leading to Shinkansen storage/maintenance yards:

* Hakata Minami Line (Hakata – Hakataminami)
* Gala-Yuzawa Line – technically a branch of the Jōetsu Line – (Echigo-Yuzawa – Gala-Yuzawa)

### Lines under construction

The following lines are under construction. These lines except Chūō Shinkansen, called Seibi Shinkansen (ja) or planned Shinkansen, are the Shinkansen projects designated in the Basic Plan of the Shinkansen Railway (ja) decided by the government.

* Hokkaido Shinkansen from Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto to Sapporo is under construction and scheduled to open by 2038.[7]
* Chūō Shinkansen (Tokyo–Nagoya–Osaka) is the first maglev Shinkansen line, which has been under construction since 2014. JR Central originally aimed to begin commercial service between Tokyo and Nagoya in 2027. However, in 2024, Central Japan Railway Co President Shunsuke Niwa said that due to construction delays a 2027 opening was now impossible and it is not expected to open until at least 2034.[38][32]

Line  | Route  | Speed  | Length  | Construction
began  | Expected start of
revenue services  | Operator

|
|
|
|
|
|

20x20px Hokkaido Shinkansen Phase 2  | Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto – Sapporo  | 260 km/h (162 mph)  | 211.3 km (131 mi)  | 2012  | FY 2038  | Template:Ric
Chūō Shinkansen Phase 1  | Shinagawa – Nagoya  | 505 km/h (314 mph)  | 285.6 km (177 mi)  | 2014  | 2034  | Template:Ric

### Planned lines

* The extension of Hokuriku Shinkansen to Osaka is proposed, with the route via Obama and Kyoto selected by the government on 20 December 2016.[39] Construction is proposed to commence in 2030, and take 15 years.
* Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen has been built to full Shinkansen standards between Takeo-Onsen and Nagasaki, with the existing narrow-gauge line from Shin-Tosu to Takeo Onsen to remain as narrow-gauge track, although there is a proposal to build the section between Shin-Tosu and Takeo Onsen to full Shinkansen standards. In 2018, the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism released cost-benefit analysis results to compare and contrast full Shinkansen, Mini-shinkansen, and Gauge Change Train for this section.[40]

Line  | Route  | Speed  | Length  | Construction
proposed  | Expected start of
revenue services

|
|
|
|
|

Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen Phase 2  | Takeo-Onsen – Shin-Tosu  | 260 km/h (162 mph)  | TBD  | TBD  | TBD
Hokuriku Shinkansen Phase 4  | Tsuruga – Shin-Ōsaka (via Obama and Kyoto)  | 260 km/h (162 mph)  | TBD  | 2030  | FY2045
Chūō Shinkansen Phase 2  | Nagoya – Shin-Ōsaka  | 505 km/h (314 mph)  | 152.4 km (95 mi)  | TBD  | Unknown[41] (Originally 2037)

### Cancelled lines

The Narita Shinkansen project to connect Tokyo to Narita International Airport, initiated in the 1970s but halted in 1983 after landowner protests, has been officially cancelled and removed from the Basic Plan governing Shinkansen construction. Parts of its planned right-of-way were used by the Narita Sky Access Line which opened in 2010, and the Keiyo Line reused space originally set aside for the Narita Shinkansen terminus at Tokyo Station. Although the Sky Access Line uses standard-gauge track, it was not built to Shinkansen specifications and there are no plans to convert it into a full Shinkansen line.

### Proposed lines

Map of proposed Shinkansen lines

Many Shinkansen lines were proposed during the boom of the early 1970s but have yet to be constructed and have subsequently been shelved indefinitely.

* Hokkaido Shinkansen northward extension: Sapporo–Asahikawa
* Hokkaido South Loop Shinkansen (北海道南回り新幹線, Hokkaidō Minami-mawari Shinkansen): Oshamanbe–Muroran–Sapporo
* Uetsu Shinkansen (羽越新幹線): Toyama–Niigata–Aomori
* Toyama–Jōetsu-Myōkō exists as part of the Hokuriku Shinkansen, and Nagaoka–Niigata exists as part of the Jōetsu Shinkansen, with provisions for the Uetsu Shinkansen at Nagaoka.
* Ōu Shinkansen (奥羽新幹線): Fukushima–Yamagata–Akita
* Fukushima–Shinjō and Ōmagari–Akita exist as the Yamagata Shinkansen and Akita Shinkansen, respectively, but as "Mini-Shinkansen" upgrades of existing track, they do not meet the requirements of the Basic Plan.
* Hokuriku-Chūkyō Shinkansen (北陸・中京新幹線): Nagoya–Tsuruga
* Sanin Shinkansen (山陰新幹線): Osaka–Tottori–Matsue–Shimonoseki
* Trans-Chūgoku Shinkansen (中国横断新幹線, Chūgoku Ōdan Shinkansen): Okayama–Matsue
* Shikoku Shinkansen (四国新幹線): Osaka–Tokushima–Takamatsu–Matsuyama–Ōita
* Trans-Shikoku Shinkansen (四国横断新幹線, Shikoku Ōdan Shinkansen): Okayama–Kōchi–Matsuyama
* There have been some activity regarding the Shikoku and Trans-Shikoku Shinkansen in recent years. In 2016, the Shikoku and Trans-Shikoku Shinkansen were identified as potential future projects in a review of long-term plans for the Shikoku area and funds allocated towards the planning of the route.[42] A profitability study has also been commissioned by the city of Oita in 2018 that found the route to be potentially profitable[43]
* East Kyushu Shinkansen (東九州新幹線, Higashi-Kyushu Shinkansen): Fukuoka–Ōita–Miyazaki–Kagoshima
* Trans-Kyushu Shinkansen (九州横断新幹線, Kyushu Ōdan Shinkansen): Ōita–Kumamoto

In addition, the Basic Plan specified that the Jōetsu Shinkansen should start from Shinjuku, not Tokyo Station, which would have required building an additional 30 km (19 mi) of track between Shinjuku and Ōmiya. While no construction work was ever started, land along the proposed track, including an underground section leading to Shinjuku Station, remains reserved. If capacity on the Tokyo–Ōmiya section proves insufficient at some point, construction of the Shinjuku–Ōmiya link may be reconsidered.

In December 2009, then transport minister Seiji Maehara proposed a bullet train link to Haneda Airport, using an existing spur that connects the Tōkaidō Shinkansen to a train depot. JR Central called the plan "unrealistic" due to tight train schedules on the existing line, but reports said that Maehara wished to continue discussions on the idea.[44] The succeeding minister has not indicated whether this proposal remains supported. While the plan may become more feasible after the opening the Chūō Shinkansen (sometimes referred to as a bypass to the Tokaido Shinkansen) frees up capacity, construction is already underway for other rail improvements between Haneda and Tokyo station expected to be completed prior to the opening of the 2020 Tokyo Olympics,[needs update] so any potential Shinkansen service would likely offer only marginal benefit. Despite these plans ultimately not being realized (owing in part due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic), rail projects in the vicinity of Haneda Airport, including the Haneda Airport Access Line and the Tokyo Rinkai Subway Line, continue to undergo planning.[45]

## Services

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Tokyo Station Tokaido Shinkansen platforms, September 2021 The Shinkansen fare system is integrated with Japan's low-speed intercity railway lines, with a surcharge required to ride the Shinkansen. Here, an ordinary ticket from Tokyo to Takamatsu is coupled with a Shinkansen express fare ticket from Tokyo to Okayama, allowing use of the Shinkansen from Tokyo to Okayama and use of local lines from Okayama to Takamatsu. For trips exclusively on one Shinkansen, the base fare and Shinkansen express fare may be combined into a single ticket.

Originally intended to carry passenger trains by day and freight trains by night, the Shinkansen lines carried exclusively passengers for the first five and a half decades of their operation. Light freight has been carried on some passenger services since 2019, and there are plans to expand this with freight-only trains in the future.[46][47]

The system shuts down between midnight and 06:00 every day for maintenance. Japan's few remaining overnight passenger trains run on the older, narrow-gauge network that the Shinkansen parallels.

There are three principal service types on the Shinkansen:

* Express services – these stop at only the very largest stations and, as a result, are the fastest Shinkansen services measured by average speed.
* Semi-express services – these stop at certain smaller stops alongside stopping at all the largest stations. These allow for faster connections from smaller stops to larger stations than would be otherwise possible with a local service.
* Local services – these stop at every station along the Shinkansen line. Consequently, local services are the slowest Shinkansen services measured by average speed. Frequently, these services only operate on a part of the line, instead of covering the entirety.

### Tōkaidō, San'yō and Kyushu Shinkansen

* Nozomi (express, Tokaido and San'yō)
* Hikari (semi-express, Tokaido and San'yō)
* Hikari Rail Star (semi-express, San'yō)
* Kodama (local, Tokaido and San'yō)
* Sakura (semi-express, San'yō and Kyushu)
* Mizuho (express, San'yō and Kyushu)
* Tsubame (local, Kyushu)

### Tōhoku, Hokkaido, Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen

* Hayabusa (express, Tohoku & Hokkaido, using E5 series/H5 series trains)
* Hayate (local, Tohoku & Hokkaido. Express discontinued in 2019)
* Yamabiko (semi-express, Tohoku)
* Nasuno (local, Tohoku)
* Aoba (discontinued)
* Komachi (Akita)
* Tsubasa (Yamagata)

### Jōetsu Shinkansen

* Toki / Max Toki (semi-express, Jōetsu)
* Tanigawa / Max Tanigawa (local, Jōetsu)
* Asahi / Max Asahi (discontinued)

### Hokuriku Shinkansen

* Kagayaki (express, Hokuriku)
* Hakutaka (semi-express, Hokuriku)
* Tsurugi (local, Hokuriku)
* Asama (local, Hokuriku)

### Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

* Kamome[48]

## Train types

Trains are up to sixteen cars long. With each car measuring 25 m (82 ft) in length, the longest trains are 400 m (​1⁄4 mile) end to end. Stations are similarly long to accommodate these trains. Some of Japan's high-speed maglev trains are considered Shinkansen,[49] while other slower maglev trains (such as Linimo, serving local communities in and nearby Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture) are intended as alternatives to conventional urban rapid transit systems.

### Passenger trains

#### Tōkaidō and San'yō Shinkansen

* 0 series: The first Shinkansen trains which entered service in 1964. Maximum operating speed was 220 km/h (135 mph). More than 3,200 cars were built. Withdrawn in December 2008.
* 100 series: Entered service in 1985, and featured bilevel cars with restaurant car and compartments. Maximum operating speed was 230 km/h (145 mph). Later used only on San'yō Shinkansen Kodama services. Withdrawn in March 2012.
* 300 series: Entered service in 1992, initially on Nozomi services with maximum operating speed of 270 km/h (170 mph). Withdrawn in March 2012.
* 500 series: Introduced on Nozomi services in 1997, with an operating speed of 300 km/h (185 mph). Since 2008, sets have been shortened from 16 to 8 cars for use on San'yō Shinkansen Kodama services.
* 700 series: Introduced in 1999, with maximum operating speed of 285 km/h (175 mph). The JR Central owned units were withdrawn in March 2020, with the JR West owned units continuing to operate on the San'yō Shinkansen line between Shin-Osaka and Hakata.
* N700 series: In service since 2007, with a maximum operating speed of 300 km/h (185 mph).
* N700A series: An upgraded version of N700 series with improved acceleration & deceleration and quieter traction motors. All N700 series sets have been converted to N700A.
* N700S series: An evolution of the N700 series. First trainset was rolled out in 2019 with passenger services commencing on 1 July 2020.

* 0 series

* 100 series

* 300 series

* 500 series

* 700 series

* 700 series (Hikari Rail Star)

* N700 series

* N700A series

* N700S series

#### Kyushu and Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

* 800 series: In service since 2004 on Tsubame services, with a maximum speed of 260 km/h (160 mph).
* N700-7000/8000 series In service since March 2011 on Mizuho and Sakura services with a maximum speed of 300 km/h (185 mph).
* N700S-8000 series: 6-car trains introduced in 2022[50] on the Kamome services with a maximum speed of 260 km/h (160 mph).

* 800 series

* N700 series (Kyushu)

* N700S-8000 series (Nishi Kyushu)

#### Tohoku, Hokkaido, Joetsu, and Hokuriku Shinkansen

* 200 series: The first type introduced on the Tohoku and Joetsu Shinkansen in 1982 and withdrawn in April 2013. Maximum speed was 240 km/h (150 mph). The final configuration was as 10-car sets. 12-car and 16-car sets also operated at earlier times.
* E1 series: Bilevel 12-car trains introduced in 1994 and withdrawn in September 2012. Maximum speed was 240 km/h (150 mph).
* E2 series: 8/10-car sets in service since 1997 with a maximum speed of 275 km/h (170 mph).
* E4 series: Bilevel 8-car trains introduced in 1997 and withdrawn in October 2021. Maximum speed was 240 km/h (150 mph).
* E5 series: 10-car sets in service since March 2011 with a maximum speed of 320 km/h (200 mph).
* H5 series: The cold weather derivative of the E5 series. 10-car sets entered service from March 2016 on the Hokkaido Shinkansen with a maximum speed of 320 km/h (200 mph).[51][52]
* E7 series: 12-car trains operated on the Hokuriku Shinkansen since March 2014, with a maximum speed of 260 km/h (160 mph).[53] In 2019, the E7 series began operating on the Joetsu Shinkansen.
* W7 series: 12-car trains operated on the Hokuriku Shinkansen since March 2015, with a maximum speed of 260 km/h (160 mph).[53]

* 200 series

* E1 series

* E2 series

* E4 series

* E5 series

* H5 series

* E7 series

* W7 series

#### Yamagata and Akita Shinkansen

* 400 series: The first Mini-shinkansen type, introduced in 1992 on Yamagata Shinkansen Tsubasa services with a maximum speed of 240 km/h. Withdrawn in April 2010.
* E3 series: Introduced in 1997 on Akita Shinkansen Komachi and Yamagata Shinkansen Tsubasa services with a maximum speed of 275 km/h, later operated solely on the Yamagata Shinkansen.
* E6 series: Introduced in March 2013 on Akita Shinkansen Komachi services, with a maximum speed of 300 km/h (185 mph), raised to 320 km/h (200 mph) in March 2014.
* E8 series: Replacement of the E3 series for Tsubasa services introduced from 2024.

* 400 series

* E3 series (Komachi)

* E3 series (Tsubasa)

* E6 series

* E8 series

### Experimental trains

* Class 1000 – 1961
* Class 951 – 1969
* Class 961 – 1973
* Class 962 – 1979
* 500-900 series "WIN350" – 1992
* Class 952/953 "STAR21" – 1992
* Class 955 "300X" – 1994
* Gauge Change Train – 1998 to present
* Class E954 "Fastech 360S" – 2004
* Class E955 "Fastech 360Z" – 2005
* Class E956 "ALFA-X" – 2019

* Class 1000

* Class 951

* Class 961

* Class 962

* Error creating thumbnail: Unable to save thumbnail to destination

WIN350

* STAR21

* 300X

* Gauge change train (2nd generation)

* Fastech 360S

* Fastech 360Z

* ALFA-X

### Maglev trains

These trains were and are used only for experimental runs, though the L0 series could be a passenger train.

* LSM200 – 1972
* ML100 – 1972
* ML100A – 1975
* ML-500 – 1977
* ML-500R – 1979
* MLU001 – 1981
* MLU002 – 1987
* MLU002N – 1993
* MLX01 – 1996
* L0 series – 2012

* ML100

* ML500

* MLX01

* L0 series

### Maintenance vehicles

* 911 Type diesel locomotive
* 912 Type diesel locomotive
* DD18 Type diesel locomotive
* DD19 Type diesel locomotive
* 941 Type (rescue train)
* 921 Type (track inspection car)
* 922 Type (Doctor Yellow sets T1, T2, T3)
* 923 Type (Doctor Yellow sets T4, T5)
* 925 Type (Doctor Yellow sets S1, S2)
* E926 Type (East i)

* Doctor Yellow Type 922

* Doctor Yellow Type 923

* Doctor Yellow Type 925

* Type E926 East-i

* Type 911 locomotive

* Track maintenance vehicles stabled along sidings outside Kyoto station

* Tamping machine

* Ballast cleaner

* Overhead line replacement vehicle

* Loading vehicle

## Speed records

### Traditional rail

Class 955 "300X" Speed[54] | Train  | Location  | Date  | Comments

|
|
|
|

km/h  | mph
200  | 124  | Class 1000 Shinkansen | Kamonomiya test track in Odawara, part of Tōkaidō Shinkansen  | 31 October 1962  |
256  | 159  | Class 1000 Shinkansen  | Kamonomiya test track  | 30 March 1963  | Former world speed record for EMU trains.
286  | 178  | Class 951 Shinkansen | San'yō Shinkansen  | 24 February 1972  | Former world speed record for EMU trains.
319  | 198  | Class 961 Shinkansen | Oyama test track, part of Tōhoku Shinkansen  | 7 December 1979  | Former world speed record for EMU trains.
326  | 203  | 300 series  | Tōkaidō Shinkansen  | 28 February 1991  |
336  | 209  | 400 series  | Jōetsu Shinkansen  | 26 March 1991  |
345  | 214  | 400 series  | Jōetsu Shinkansen  | 19 September 1991  |
346  | 215  | 500-900 series "WIN350" | San'yō Shinkansen  | 6 August 1992  |
350  | 217  | 500–900 series "WIN350" | San'yō Shinkansen  | 8 August 1992  |
352  | 219  | Class 952/953 "STAR21" | Jōetsu Shinkansen  | 30 October 1992  |
425  | 264  | Class 952/953 "STAR21"  | Jōetsu Shinkansen  | 21 December 1993  |
427  | 265  | Class 955 "300X" | Tōkaidō Shinkansen  | 11 July 1996  |
443  | 275  | Class 955 "300X"  | Tōkaidō Shinkansen  | 26 July 1996  |

### Maglev

L0 Series Shinkansen, unconventional world speed record holder (603 km/h or 374.7 mph) Speed  | Train  | Location  | Date  | Comments

|
|
|
|

km/h  | mph
550  | 342  | MLX01 | Chūō Shinkansen (Yamanashi test track)  | 24 December 1997  | Former world speed record
552  | 343  | 14 April 1999
581  | 361  | 2 December 2003
590  | 367  | L0 series  | 16 April 2015[55]
603  | 375  | 21 April 2015[9] | World speed record

## Reliability

### Punctuality

The Shinkansen is very reliable thanks to several factors, including its near-total separation from slower traffic. There are separate laws governing interfering with or otherwise obstructing Shinkansen trains, tracks, or its operation. In 2016, JR Central reported that the Shinkansen's average delay from schedule per train was 24 seconds. This includes delays due to uncontrollable causes, such as natural disasters.[56]

### Safety record

Over the Shinkansen's 60-plus year history, carrying over 10 billion passengers, there have been no passenger fatalities due to train accidents such as derailments or collisions,[3] despite frequent earthquakes and typhoons. Injuries and a single fatality have been caused by doors closing on passengers or their belongings; attendants are employed at platforms to prevent such accidents.[57] There have, however, been suicides by passengers jumping both from and in front of moving trains.[58] [59]

There have been two derailments of Shinkansen trains in passenger service. The first one occurred during the Chūetsu earthquake on 23 October 2004. Eight of ten cars of the Toki No. 325 train on the Jōetsu Shinkansen derailed near Nagaoka Station in Nagaoka, Niigata. There were no casualties among the 154 passengers.[60]

Another derailment happened on 2 March 2013 on the Akita Shinkansen when the Komachi No. 25 train derailed in blizzard conditions in Daisen, Akita. No passengers were injured.[61]

In the event of an earthquake, an earthquake detection system can bring the train to a stop very quickly; newer trainsets are lighter and have stronger braking systems, allowing for quicker stopping. New anti-derailment devices were installed on tracks after analysis of the Jōetsu derailment.[62][63]

Several months after the exposure of the Kobe Steel falsification scandal, which is among the suppliers of high-strength steel for Shinkansen trainsets, cracks were found upon inspection of a single bogie, and removed from service on 11 December 2017.[64]

On 23 January 2024, a massive power outage struck the Tohoku, Hokuriku and Joetsu Shinkansen lines, resulting in the cancellation of 283 trains and affecting about 120,000 passengers. JR East said that the outage was caused by a Kagayaki service train touching an overhead power cable which was left dangling after the metal rod supporting it fractured between Omiya Station in Saitama and Ueno Station in Tokyo. The incident damaged the train's pantographs and a window,[65] while two railway employees were hospitalized following an explosion that occurred at the site during repairs.[66] Most Shinkansen services were restored the following morning.[67]

In September 2024 and March 2025, two decoupling incidents took place on trains servicing the Tohoku line.[68]

## Effects

### Economics

The Shinkansen has had a significant beneficial effect on Japan's business, economy, society, environment and culture beyond mere construction and operational contributions.[69] The resultant time savings alone from switching from a conventional to a high-speed network have been estimated at 400 million hours, and the system has an economic contribution of ¥500 billion per year.[69] That does not include the savings from reduced reliance on imported fuel, which also has national security benefits. Shinkansen lines, particularly in the very crowded coastal Taiheiyō Belt megalopolis, met two primary goals:

* Shinkansen trains reduced the congestion burden on regional transportation by increasing throughput on a minimal land footprint, therefore being economically preferable compared to modes (such as airports or highways) common in less densely populated regions of the world.
* As rail was already the primary urban mode of passenger travel, from that perspective it was akin to a sunk cost; there was not a significant number of motorists to convince to switch modes. The initial megalopolitan Shinkansen lines were profitable and paid for themselves. Connectivity rejuvenated rural towns such as Kakegawa that would otherwise be too distant from major cities.[69]

However, upon the introduction of the 1973 Basic Plan the initial prudence in developing Shinkansen lines gave way to political considerations to extend the mode to far less populated regions of the country, partly to spread these benefits beyond the key centres of Kanto and Kinki. Although in some cases regional extension was frustrated by protracted land acquisition (sometimes influenced by the cancellation of the Narita Shinkansen following fierce protests by locals), over time Shinkansen lines were built to relatively sparsely populated areas with the intent to disperse the population away from the capital.

Such expansion had a significant cost. JNR, the national railway company, was already burdened with subsidizing unprofitable rural and regional railways. It then assumed Shinkansen construction debt until the government corporation eventually owed some ¥28 trillion, contributing to it being regionalised and privatized in 1987.[70] The privatized JRs eventually paid ¥9.2 trillion to acquire JNR's Shinkansen network.[69]

Following privatization, the JR group of companies have continued Shinkansen network expansion to less populated areas, but with far more flexibility to spin-off unprofitable railways or cut costs than in JNR days. An important factor is the post bubble zero interest-rate policy that allows JR to borrow huge sums of capital without significant concern regarding repayment timing.

A UCLA study found that the presence of a Shinkansen line had improved housing affordability by making it more realistic for lower-income city workers to live in exurban areas much further away from the city, which tend to have cheaper housing options. That in turn helps the city to "decentralise" and reduce city property prices.[71]

### Environment

Traveling by the Tokaido Shinkansen from Tokyo to Osaka produces only around 16% of the carbon dioxide of the equivalent journey by car, a saving of 15,000 tons of CO
2 per year.[69]

## Challenges

### Noise pollution

Noise pollution concerns have made increasing speed more difficult. In Japan, population density is high and there have been strong protests against the Shinkansen's noise pollution. Its noise is thus limited to less than 70 dB in residential areas.[72] Improvement and reduction of the pantograph, weight saving of cars, and construction of noise barriers and other measures have been implemented. Research is primarily aimed at reducing operational noise, particularly the tunnel boom phenomenon caused when trains transit tunnels at high speed.

### Earthquake

Because of the risk of earthquakes in Japan, the Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm System (UrEDAS) (an earthquake warning system) was introduced in 1992. It enables automatic braking of Shinkansen trains in the event of large earthquakes.

### Heavy snow

The Tōkaidō Shinkansen often experiences heavy snow in the area around Maibara Station between December and February, requiring trains to reduce speed thus disrupting the timetable. Snow-dispersing sprinkler systems have been installed, but delays of 10–20 minutes still occur during snowy weather. Snow-related treefalls have also caused service interruptions. Along the Jōetsu Shinkansen route, snow can be very heavy, with depths of two to three metres; the line is equipped with stronger sprinklers and slab track to mitigate the snow's effects. Despite having multiple days with delays longer than 30 minutes, the Tōhoku Shinkansen still presents a slight advantage in reliability compared to air travel on days with significant snowfall.[73]

## Ridership

| This engineering needs to be updated. Please update this engineering to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2024)

|

### Annual

Annual ridership figures for selected years (in millions of passengers)[74] | Tokaido | Tohoku | San'yō | Joetsu | Nagano (Hokuriku) | Kyushu | Hokkaido | Sum* | Total
(excl. transfers)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

FY2007  | 151.32  | 84.83  | 64.43  | 38.29  | 10.13  | 4.18  | \-  | 353.18 | 315.77
FY2015  | 162.97  | 90.45  | 72.06  | 42.96  | 31.84  | 13.65  | **0.10  | 414.03 | 365.71
FY2016  | 167.72  | 91.09  | 72.53  | 43.06  | 30.75  | 13.27  | 2.11  | 420.53 |
FY2017  | 170.09  | 91.98  | 74.46  | 43.80  | 31.03  | 14.24  | 2.19  | 427.78 |
FY2018  | 174.11  | 93.44  | 75.92  | 44.53  | 31.76  | 14.6  | 1.64  | 436.00
FY2023[75] | 160.71  | 81.55  | 70.30  | 39.78  | 30.31  | 16.09  | 1.40  |

* The sum of the ridership of individual lines does not equal the ridership of the system because a single rider may be counted multiple times when using multiple lines, to get proper ridership figures for a system, in the above case, is only counted once.

** Only refers to 6 days of operation: 26 March 2016 (opening date) to 31 March 2016 (end of FY2015).

Until 2011, Japan's high-speed rail system had the highest annual patronage of any system worldwide, when China's HSR network's patronage reached 1.7 billion and became the world's highest.[76] [77]

### Cumulative comparison

Cumulative high-speed rail passengers (in millions of passengers)[78] [79] Year | Shinkansen (see notes) | Asia (other) | Europe | World | Shinkansen share (%)

|
|
|
|
|

1964 | 11.0 | 0 | 0 | 11.0 | 100%
1980 | 1,616.3 | 0 | 0 | 1,616.3 | 100%
1985 | 2,390.3 | 0 | 45.7 | 2,436.0 | 98.1%
1990 | 3,559.1 | 0 | 129.9 | 3,689.0 | 96.5%
1995 | 5,018.0 | 0 | 461 | 5,479 | 91.6%
2000 | 6,531.7 | 0 | 1,103.5 | 7,635.1 | 85.5%
2005 | 8,088.3 | 52.2 | 2,014.6 | 10,155.1 | 79.6%
2010 | 9,651.0 | 965 | 3,177.0 | 15,417 | 70.8%
2012 | 10,344 | 2,230 | 3,715 | 16,210 | 64.5%
2014 | 11,050 | 3,910 | 4,300 | 19,260 | 57.4%

Notes:

* Data in italics includes extrapolated estimations where data is missing. Turkey and Russia data here is included in "Europe" column, rather than split between Asia and Europe. Only systems with 200 km/h or higher regular service speed are considered.
* "Shinkansen share(%)" refers to percent of Shinkansen ridership (including fully assembled exported trainsets) as a percent of "World" total. Currently this only pertains to Taiwan, but may change if Japan exports Shinkansen to other nations.
* "Shinkansen" column does not include Shinkansen knock down kits made in Japan exported to China for assembly, or any derivative system thereof in China)
* "Asia (other)" column refers to sum of riderships of all HSR systems geographically in Asia that do not use Shinkansen. (this data excludes Russia and Turkey, which geographically have parts in Asia but for sake of convenience included in Europe column)
* For 2013, Japan's Ministry of Transport has not updated data, nor is summed European data available (even 2012 data is very rough), however Taiwan ridership is 47.49 million[80] and Korea with 54.5 million[81] and China with 672 million in 2013.[82]

Cumulative ridership since October 1964 is over 5 billion passengers for the Tokaido Shinkansen Line alone and 10 billion passengers for Japan's entire shinkansen network.[76] Nevertheless, China's share is increasing fast, as close to 9.5 billion passengers in that nation have been served by the end of 2018 and is projected to pass Japan's cumulative numbers by as early as 2020.[83]

## Future

### Speed increases

#### Tōhoku Shinkansen

E5 series trains, capable of up to 320 km/h (200 mph), initially limited to 300 km/h (186 mph), were introduced on the Tōhoku Shinkansen in March 2011. Operation at the maximum speed of 320 km/h (200 mph) between Utsunomiya and Morioka on this route commenced on 16 March 2013. It reduced the journey time to around 3 hours for trains from Tokyo to Shin-Aomori, a distance of 674 km (419 mi).

Extensive trials using the Fastech 360 test trains have shown that operation at 360 km/h (224 mph) is not feasible because of problems of noise pollution (particularly tunnel boom), overhead wire wear, and braking distances. On 30 October 2012, JR East announced that it was pursuing research and development to increase speeds to 360 km/h (224 mph) on the Tohoku Shinkansen by 2020.[84] The ALFA-X is undergoing testing.

#### Hokkaido Shinkansen

Upon commencement of services in 2016, the maximum speed on the approximately 82 km (51 mi) dual gauge section of the Hokkaido Shinkansen (including through the Seikan Tunnel) was 140 km/h (85 mph), which was increased to 160 km/h (100 mph) by March 2019.[85] There are approximately 50 freight trains using the dual gauge section each day, so limiting the travel of such trains to times outside of Shinkansen services is not an option. Because of this and other weather-related factors cited by JR East and JR Hokkaido, the fastest journey time between Tokyo and Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto is 3 hours, 57 minutes.

During the 2020-21 New Year Holiday period, certain Shinkansen services were operated at 210 km/h (130 mph) on the dual gauge section and was proposed again for the Golden Week Holiday period from 3–6 May 2021, due to fewer freight trains operating.[85]

To achieve the full benefit of Shinkansen trains travelling on the dual gauge section at 260 km/h (160 mph) (the maximum speed proposed through the tunnel), alternatives are being considered, such as a system to automatically slow Shinkansen trains to 200 km/h (125 mph) when passing narrow-gauge trains, and/or loading freight trains onto special "Train on Train" standard-gauge trains (akin to a covered piggyback flatcar train) built to withstand the shock wave of oncoming Shinkansen trains traveling at full speed. This would enable a travel time from Tokyo to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto of 3 hours and 45 minutes, a saving of 12 minutes.

### Hokuriku extension

Construction of the Hokuriku Shinkansen in Fukui

The Hokuriku Shinkansen was extended from Kanazawa to Tsuruga on 16 March 2024.[86]

There are further plans to extend the line from Tsuruga to Osaka, with the Obama-Kyoto route chosen by the government on 20 December 2016,[39] after a government committee investigated the five nominated routes.[87]

Construction of the extension beyond Tsuruga is not expected to commence before 2030, with a projected 15-year construction period. On 6 March 2017 the government committee announced the chosen route from Kyoto to Shin-Osaka is to be via Kyotanabe, with a station at Matsuiyamate on the Katamachi Line.[88][89]

#### Abandoned interim Gauge Change plans

To extend the benefits of the Hokuriku Shinkansen to stations west of Tsuruga before the line to Osaka is completed, JR West was working in partnership with Talgo on the development of a Gauge Change Train (CGT) capable of operating under both the 25 kV AC electrification used on the Shinkansen and the 1.5 kV DC system employed on conventional lines. A trial of the proposed bogie was undertaken on a purpose-built 180 m (590 ft) gauge-changer at Tsuruga, but it was unsuccessful and the plans were abandoned.[90]

### Tohoku extension/Hokkaido Shinkansen

The Hokkaido Shinkansen forms an extension of the Tohoku Shinkansen north of Shin-Aomori to Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto Station (north of the Hokkaido city of Hakodate) through the Seikan Tunnel, which was converted to dual gauge as part of the project, opening in March 2016.

JR Hokkaido is extending the Hokkaido Shinkansen from Shin-Hakodate-Hokuto to Sapporo to open by 2038. The 211.3 km (131.3 mi) extension will be approximately 76% in tunnels, including major tunnels such as Toshima (~32.675 km (20.303 mi)) Oshima (~26.5 km (16.5 mi)), Teine (~26.5 km (16.5 mi)) and Shiribeshi (~18 km (11 mi)).[91]

Although an extension from Sapporo to Asahikawa was included in the 1973 list of planned lines, at this time it is unknown whether the Hokkaido Shinkansen will be extended beyond Sapporo.

### Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen

JR Kyushu opened the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen from Takeo-Onsen to Nagasaki (built to full Shinkansen standard) on 23 September 2022, with the existing narrow-gauge section between Shin-Tosu and Takeo Onsen proposed to be upgraded as part of this project.

This proposal initially involved introducing Gauge Change Trains (GCT) travelling from Hakata to Shin-Tosu (26.3 km (16.3 mi)) on the existing Kyushu Shinkansen line, then passing through a specific gauge changing (standard to narrow) section of track linking to the existing Nagasaki Main Line, along which it would travel to Hizen Yamaguchi (37.6 km (23.4 mi)), then onto the Sasebo Line to Takeo-Onsen (13.7 km (8.5 mi)), where another gauge changing section (narrow to standard) would lead onto the final Shinkansen line to Nagasaki (66 km (41 mi)). However, significant technical issues with the axles of the GCT resulted in its cancellation.

On 28 October 2020, JR Kyushu announced it would utilize a 6-car version of the N700S for the isolated Shinkansen section from Nagasaki, with 'cross platform' change to a relay service at Takeo Onsen station to connect to Hakata.[50] JR Kyushu also announced the service would continue to use the name 'Kamome' for the Hakata-Nagasaki service, which has been in use since 1961.[48]

The Shinkansen line shortens the distance between Hakata and Nagasaki by 6.2% (9.6 km (6.0 mi)), and while only 64% of the route is built to full Shinkansen standards, it eliminated the slowest sections of the previous narrow-gauge route.

As part of the GCT proposal, the 12.8 km (8.0 mi) section of single track between Hizen Yamaguchi and Takeo Onsen was proposed to be duplicated. However, due to the issues with the development of the GCT, the proposal did not advance.

The initial section between Nagasaki and Takeo Onsen opened on 23 September 2022.[92]

### Maglev (Chūō Shinkansen)

Maglev trains have been undertaking test runs on the Yamanashi test track since 1997, running at speeds of over 500 km/h (310 mph). As a result of this extensive testing, maglev technology is almost ready for public usage.[93] An extension of the test track from 18.4 to 42.8 km (11.4 to 26.6 mi) was completed in June 2013, enabling extended high-speed running trials to commence in August 2013. This section will be incorporated into the Chūō Shinkansen which will eventually link Tokyo to Osaka. Construction of the Shinagawa to Nagoya section began in 2014, with 86% of the 286 km (178 mi) route to be in tunnels. Plans were approved in 2017 for the Chūō Shinkansen to begin at Tokyo Station, rather than Shinagawa Station as initially planned due to difficulties in securing land.[94]

JR Central originally aimed to begin commercial service between Tokyo and Nagoya in 2027. However, in 2024, Central Japan Railway Co President Shunsuke Niwa said that due to construction delays a 2027 opening was now impossible and it is not expected to open until at least 2034.[38][32]

Following the shortest route (through the Japanese Alps), JR Central estimates that it will take 40 minutes to run from Shinagawa to Nagoya. The planned travel time from Shinagawa to Shin-Osaka is 1 hour 7 minutes. The Tokaido Shinkansen as of 2010[update] had a minimum connection time of 2 hours 19 minutes.[95]

While the government has granted approval[96] for the shortest route between Tokyo and Nagoya, some prefectural governments, particularly Nagano, lobbied to have the line routed farther north to serve the city of Chino and either Ina or Kiso-Fukushima. However, that would increase both the travel time (from Tokyo to Nagoya) and the cost of construction.[97] JR Central has confirmed it will construct the line through Kanagawa Prefecture, and terminate at Shinagawa Station.

The route for the Nagoya to Osaka section is also contested. It is planned to go via Nara, about 40 km (25 mi) south of Kyoto. Kyoto is lobbying to have the route moved north and be largely aligned with the existing Tokaido Shinkansen, which services Kyoto and not Nara.[98]

### Mini-Shinkansen

Mini-shinkansen (ミニ新幹線) is the name given to the routes where former narrow-gauge lines have been converted to standard gauge to allow Shinkansen trains to travel to cities without the expense of constructing full Shinkansen standard lines.

Two mini-shinkansen routes have been constructed: the Yamagata Shinkansen and Akita Shinkansen. Shinkansen services to these lines traverse the Tohoku Shinkansen line from Tokyo before branching off to traditional main lines. On both the Yamagata/Shinjo and Akita lines, the narrow-gauge lines were regauged, resulting in the local services being operated by standard-gauge versions of 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) suburban/interurban rolling stock. On the Akita line between Omagari and Akita, one of the two narrow-gauge lines was regauged, and a section of the remaining narrow-gauge line is dual gauge, providing opportunity for Shinkansen services to pass each other without stopping.

The maximum speed on these lines is 130 km/h (81 mph), however the overall travel time to/from Tokyo is improved due to the elimination of the need for passengers to change trains at Fukushima and Morioka respectively.

As the Loading gauge (size of the train that can travel on a line) was not altered when the rail gauge was widened, only Shinkansen trains specially built for these routes can travel on the lines. They are the E3 and E6 series trains.

#### Proposed Ou Base Tunnel

Construction of a Base tunnel on the Yamagata Shinkansen is proposed, with JR East having undertaken a survey of a planned route from Niwasaka to Sekine, just south of Yonezawa station.[99] 23.1 km (14.4 mi) of the proposed 24.9 km (15.5 mi) line would be in tunnel, mostly to the north of the existing 88 km (55 mi) Fukushima – Yamagata section. To be built on an improved alignment, the tunnel would lower journey times between Fukushima and Yamagata by ~10 min due to a proposed line speed of up to 200 km/h.

The tunnel would avoid the Itaya Toge pass through the Ou mountains west of Fukushima. Gradients range from 3.0% to 3.8% and the line reaches an altitude of 548 m (1,798 ft). The curvature and steep grades limit train speeds to 55 km/h (34 mph) or less, and the line is vulnerable to heavy rain and snowfall as well as high winds. Between 2011 and 2017 a total of 410 Yamagata mini-Shinkansen services were either suspended or delayed, and 40% of these incidents occurred on the line over the Itaya Toge pass.

If the ¥150 billion base tunnel is authorised, detailed design would take five years and construction another 15 years. The cost could increase by ¥12 billion if the tunnel were to be built with a cross-section large enough to permit the line to be upgraded to the full Shinkansen loading gauge.

### Gauge Change Train

This is the name for the concept of using a single train that is designed to travel on both 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) narrow-gauge railway lines and the 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in) standard gauge used by Shinkansen train services in Japan. The trucks/bogies of the Gauge Change Train (GCT) allow the wheels to be unlocked from the axles, narrowed or widened as necessary, and then relocked. This allows a GCT to traverse both standard-gauge and narrow-gauge tracks without the expense of regauging lines.

Three test trains were constructed, with the second set having completed reliability trials on the Yosan Line east of Matsuyama (in Shikoku) in September 2013. The third set was undertaking gauge changing trials at Shin-Yatsushiro Station (on Kyushu), commencing in 2014 for a proposed three-year period, however testing was suspended in December 2014 after accumulating approximating 33,000 km (21,000 mi), following the discovery of defective thrust bearing oil seals on the bogies.[100] The train was being trialled between Kumamoto, travelling on the narrow-gauge line to Shin-Yatsushiro, where a gauge changer was installed, so the GCT could be trialled on the Shinkansen line to Kagoshima. It was anticipated the train would travel approximately 600,000 km (370,000 mi) over the three-year trial.

A new "full standard" Shinkansen line was opened in 2022 from Takeo Onsen to Nagasaki, with the Shin-Tosu – Takeo Onsen section of the Nishi Kyushu Shinkansen remaining narrow gauge. GCTs were proposed to provide Shinkansen service from the line's opening, however with the GCT being cancelled, JR Kyushu announced it would provide an interim 'relay' service.[50]

There are currently no further proposals for use of the GCT, nor any development work on it.

## Competition with air

Compared with air transport, the Shinkansen has several advantages, including scheduling frequency and flexibility, punctual operation, comfortable seats, lower carbon emissions, and convenient city-centre terminals.

Shinkansen fares are generally competitive with domestic air fares. From a speed and convenience perspective, the Shinkansen's market share has surpassed that of air travel for journeys of less than 750 km (470 mi), while air and rail remain highly competitive with each other in the 800–900 km (500–560 mi) range and air has a higher market share for journeys of more than 1,000 km (620 mi).[101]

During snowy weather, the Shinkansen is known to face fewer delays compared to air travel due to snow. One study done in 2016 concluded that the Tohoku Shinkansen between Tokyo and Aomori had substantially fewer days with delays longer than 30 minutes compared to air travel.[73]

* Tokyo – Nagoya (342 km (213 mi)*), Tokyo – Sendai (325 km (202 mi)*), Tokyo – Hanamaki (Morioka) (496 km (308 mi)*), Tokyo – Niigata (300 km (190 mi)*): There were air services between these cities, but they were withdrawn after Shinkansen services started. Shinkansen runs between these cities in about two hours or less.
* Tokyo – Osaka (515 km (320 mi)*): Shinkansen is dominant because of fast (2 hours 22 minutes) and frequent service (up to every 10 minutes by Nozomi); however, air travel has a certain share (~20–30%).
* Tokyo – Okayama (676 km (420 mi)*), Tokyo – Hiroshima (821 km (510 mi)*): Shinkansen is reported to have increased its market share from ~40% to ~60% over the last decade.[102] The Shinkansen takes about three to four hours and there are Nozomi trains every 30 minutes, but airlines may provide cheaper fares, attracting price-conscious passengers.
* Tokyo – Fukuoka (1,069 km (664 mi)*): The Shinkansen takes about five hours on the fastest Nozomi, and discount carriers have made air travel far cheaper, so most people choose air. Additionally, unlike many cities, there is very little convenience advantage for the location of the Shinkansen stations of the two cities as Fukuoka Airport is located near the central Tenjin district, and Fukuoka City Subway Line 1 connects the Airport and Tenjin via Hakata Station and Haneda Airport is similarly conveniently located.
* Osaka – Fukuoka (554 km (344 mi)*): One of the most competitive sections. The Shinkansen takes about two and a half hours by Nozomi or Mizuho, and the JR West Hikari Rail Star or JR West/JR Kyushu Sakura trains operate twice an hour, taking about 2 hours and 40 minutes between the two cities. Again the location of the airports involved (Itami Airport in Osaka's case) helps with the popularity of air travel.
* Tokyo – Aomori (675 km (419 mi)*): The fastest Shinkansen service between these cities is 3 hours. JAL is reported to have reduced the size of planes servicing this route since the Shinkansen extension opened in 2010.[102]
* Tokyo – Hokuriku (345 km (214 mi)*): The fastest Shinkansen service between these areas is 2​1⁄2 hours. ANA is reported to have reduced the number of services from Tokyo to Kanazawa and Toyama from 6 to 4 per day since the Shinkansen extension opened in 2015. The share of passengers travelling this route by air is reported to have dropped from 40% to 10% in the same period.[87]

## Outside Japan

Shinkansen 700T train on a test run on the Taiwan High Speed Rail in September 2013 China Railway CRH2 based on the E2 Series Shinkansen, September 2018 British Rail Class 395 in the United Kingdom, September 2009

Railways using Shinkansen technology are not limited to those in Japan.

### Existing

#### Taiwan

A 0 Series Shinkansen power car which was used in Taiwan for testing is on display at Tainan HSR station. This is one of only two Shinkansen on display in a museum outside of Japan. The 700T Series, operated by Taiwan High Speed Rail, is the first operational Shinkansen type exported outside Japan. Based on the 700 series, they were built by Kawasaki Heavy Industries and are operated as 12-car sets. They first entered service in January 2007, with a maximum speed of 300 km/h (190 mph).

#### China

The China Railway CRH2 is based on the E2-1000 series design. The trains are built by CSR Sifang Loco & Rolling stocks corporation under a license purchased in 2004 from a consortium formed of Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, and Hitachi. Trial services started in January 2007.

#### United Kingdom

A retired 0 Series Shinkansen power car was donated to the National Railway Museum, in 2000. This is one of only two Shinkansen on display in a museum outside of Japan.[103]

Twenty nine Hitachi A-Train AT300 InterCity, EMU, sets, that incorporate technology from the 400 Series Shinkansen, entered service, from June 2009, as the British Rail Class 395.[104][105] The sets were ordered from Hitachi for commuter services on the High Speed 1 line, and operate at a maximum speed of 140 mph (225 km/h).[106] Hitachi continued to develop and build AT300 InterCity trains for railway operators in the United Kingdom. Between 2014 and 2025, a further 182 AT300 InterCity sets have been delivered, and categorised as British Rail Class 800-810 sets,[105] these included eighty, 5 or 9 car, bi-mode Class 800 trains, forty two, 5 or 9 car, EMU Class 801, twenty four, 5 or 9 car, bi-mode Class 802, five, 5 car, EMU Class 803, thirteen, 5 car, bi-mode Class 805, ten, 7 car, EMU Class 807, and thirty three, 5 car, bi-mode Class 810.[107][108]

### Under negotiation

#### India

In December 2015, India and Japan signed an agreement for the construction of India's first high speed rail link connecting Mumbai to Ahmedabad, the intention being to initially operate imported E5 Series Shinkansen sets on the line. To be funded primarily through Japanese soft loans, the link was expected to cost up to US$18.6 billion and operational by 2024.[109][110] The project has been delayed by several years, and forecast costs risen. A contract to purchase up to 24 modified E5 sets is expected to be agreed and signed by the end of 2024, with delivery approximately 24 months later.[111] The sets are to incorporate design changes such as the modification of air conditioning system, in order to operate efficiently at temperatures up to 50 degrees Celsius, larger capacity particulate filters, and increased large luggage spaces. One of the goal of Indian Railways is to replace the high-end technical offerings on Japan's train sets with indigenous bio-toilets. Similarly, the primary languages for documentation of facility usage instructions must be Hindi and English.[112][113]

#### United States

In 2014, it was announced that Texas Central Railway would build a ~300 mi (480 km) long line using the N700 series rolling stock.[114] The trains are proposed to operate at over 320 km/h (200 mph).[115]

### Proposed subject to funding

#### Thailand

| Parts of this engineering (those related to section) need to be updated. Please update this engineering to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2022)

|

Japan will provide Shinkansen technology for a high-speed rail link between Bangkok and Chiang Mai under an agreement reached with Thailand on 27 May 2015. Total project costs are estimated in excess of 1 trillion yen ($8.1 billion). Several hurdles remain, however, including securing the funding.[116]

### Potential opportunities

#### Australia

A private organization dedicated to aiding the Australian Government in delivering high speed rail, Consolidated Land and Rail Australia, has considered purchasing Shinkansen technology or SC Maglev rolling stock for a potential Melbourne-Canberra-Sydney-Brisbane line.[117]

In 2023, the High Speed Rail Authority was established by the Government. The Government committed AU$500 million to progress planning for a future high speed rail network – of this, AU$78.8 million was allocated to deliver the business case for the Sydney to Newcastle section, which is expected to be provided to the Government by the end of 2024.[118][119] Japan Railways Group and Hitachi attended an industry briefing on 27 August 2024.[120]

#### Ireland

#### United States and Canada

| Parts of this engineering (those related to section) need to be updated. Please update this engineering to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2022)

|

The U.S. Federal Railroad Administration was in talks with a number of countries concerning high-speed rail, notably Japan, France and Spain. On 16 May 2009, FRA Deputy Chief Karen Rae expressed hope that Japan would offer its technical expertise to Canada and the United States. Transportation Secretary Ray LaHood indicated interest in test riding the Japanese Shinkansen in 2009.[121][122]

On 1 June 2009, JR Central Chairman, Yoshiyuki Kasai, announced plans to export both the N700 Series Shinkansen high-speed train system and the SCMaglev to international export markets, including the United States and Canada.[123]

#### Brazil

Japan had promoted its Shinkansen technology to the Government of Brazil for use on the once planned high-speed rail set to link Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Campinas.[124] On 14 November 2008, Japanese Deputy Prime Minister Tarō Asō and Brazilian President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva talked about this rail project. President Lula asked a consortium of Japanese companies to participate in the bidding process. Prime Minister Aso concurred on the bilateral cooperation to improve rail infrastructure in Brazil, including the Rio–São Paulo–Campinas high-speed rail line.[125] The Japanese consortium included the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Mitsui & Co., Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Toshiba.[126][127] Nothing was implemented.

#### Vietnam

Vietnam Railways was considering the use of Shinkansen technology for high-speed rail between the capital Hanoi and the southern commercial hub of Ho Chi Minh City, according to the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, citing an interview with Chief Executive Officer Nguyen Huu Bang. The Vietnamese government had already given basic approval for the Shinkansen system, although it still requires financing and formal consent from the prime minister. Vietnam rejected a funding proposal in 2010, so funding for the $56 billion project is uncertain. Hanoi was exploring additional Japanese funding Official Development Assistance as well as funds from the World Bank and Asian Development Bank. The 1,560-kilometre (970 mi) line would replace the current colonial-era rail line. Vietnam hoped to launch high-speed trains by 2020 and planned to start by building three sections, including a 90 km (56 mi) stretch between the central coastal cities of Da Nang and Huế, seen as potentially most profitable. Vietnam Railways had sent engineers to Central Japan Railway Company for technical training.[128][129]

## See also

* High speed rail in China
* High speed rail in Europe
* High speed rail in India
* High speed rail in the United States
* Rail transport in Japan
* Shanghai Maglev Train
* Shinkansen too hard ice cream
* Transport in Japan

## Notes

1. ↑ 194,800 million yen

## References

1. ↑ Joe Pinker (6 October 2014). "What 50 Years of Bullet Trains Have Done for Japan". The Atlantic (The Atlantic Monthly Group). https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/10/what-50-years-of-bullet-trainss-have-done-for-japan/381143/.
2. ↑ Brasor, Philip; Tsubuku, Masako (30 September 2014). "How the Shinkansen bullet train made Tokyo into the monster it is today". The Guardian (Guardian News and Media Limited). https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/sep/30/-sp-shinkansen-bullet-train-tokyo-rail-japan-50-years.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "About the Shinkansen" (in en). Central Japan Railway Company. https://global.jr-central.co.jp/en/company/about_shinkansen/.
4. ↑ "Fact Sheet Service Areas and Business Contents". East Japan Railway Company. http://www.jreast.co.jp/investor/factsheet/pdf/factsheet_01.pdf.
5. ↑ Ayateru, Hosozawa (8 June 2018). "Next Shinkansen will not only be faster, safer, but save on power". Asahi Shimbun. http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/AJ201806080003.html.
6. ↑ "Hokkaido bullet train extension delayed 8 years, rattling local communities" (in en). https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Transportation/Hokkaido-bullet-train-extension-delayed-8-years-rattling-local-communities.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "北海道新幹線札幌開業、2038年度が軸 国交省が調整 1月以降に決定 開業時期変更は2度目（北海道新聞" (in ja). https://news.yahoo.co.jp/articles/daa765f8d10de4b886178993eca9b3fb17ba0cad.
8. ↑ "Tohoku Shinkansen Speed Increase: Phased speed increase after the extension to Shin-Aomori Station". East Japan Railway Company. 6 November 2007. http://www.jreast.co.jp/e/press/20071101/index.html.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Japan's maglev train breaks world speed record with 600 km/h test run". The Guardian. UK: Guardian News and Media Limited. 21 April 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/21/japans-maglev-train-notches-up-new-world-speed-record-in-test-run.
10. ↑ ﻿Annual Report 2017﻿ (Report). Central Japan Railway Company. 2017. p. 23. http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/ir/annualreport/_pdf/annualreport2017.pdf. Retrieved 26 April 2018.
11. ↑ "Annual Report 2019". Central Japan Railway Company. 16 November 2020. https://global.jr-central.co.jp/en/company/ir/annualreport/_pdf/annualreport2019.pdf.
12. ↑ "2024年中国高铁行业研究报告 - 21经济网" (in ja). https://www.21jingji.com/article/20240129/herald/68b413a05bb425b73016157b5bf43b0a.html.
13. ↑ "Shinkansen". Shinkansen. Oxford University Press. http://www.lexico.com/definition/Shinkansen.
14. ↑ "The Shinkansen Japan's High-Speed Rail Is Full of Miracles" (in en). 12 November 2014. https://www.japan.go.jp/tomodachi/2014/autumn2014/the_shinkansen_japans_high-speed_rail.html.
15. ↑ Shinsaku Matsuyama (2015) (in ja). 鉄道の「鉄」学: 車両と軌道を支える金属材料のお話. Tokyo: Ohmsha. ISBN 978-4-274-21763-0.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Yasuo, Wakuda (April 1997). "Railway Modernization and Shinkansen". Japan Railway & Transport Review. https://www.ejrcf.or.jp/jrtr/jrtr11/history.html.
17. ↑ Hood, Christopher P. (2007). Shinkansen – From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan. Routledge Contemporary Japan Series. London: Routledge. pp. 18–43. ISBN 978-0-415-32052-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=cwbklrvmS-oC.
18. ↑ Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen: From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan. Routledge. pp. 21–23. ISBN 978-0-415-32052-8.
19. ↑ Nishiyama, Takashi (2014) (in en). Engineering War and Peace in Modern Japan, 1868–1964. JHU Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-4214-1266-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=oG3eAgAAQBAJ. Retrieved 24 May 2024.
20. ↑ "The Shinkansen Turns 50: The History and Future of Japan's High-Speed Train" (in en). 1 October 2014. https://www.nippon.com/en/features/h00078/.
21. ↑ Wakuda, Yasuo. "Japanese Railway History 10- Railway Modernization and Shinkansen". Japan Railway & Transport Review (Japan Railways (JR)) 11: 60–63. http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr11/history.html. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
22. ↑ Straszak, A.; Tuch, R., eds (1977). The Shinkansen High-Speed Rail Network of Japan. Proceedings of an IIASA Conference, 27–30 June 1977. pp. 15, 18–19. https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/1225/1/XB-80-508.pdf.
23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 Smith, Roderick A. (2003). "The Japanese Shinkansen". The Journal of Transport History (Imperial College, London) 24/2 (2): 222–236. doi:10.7227/TJTH.24.2.6.
24. ↑ "Shinkansen" (in en). https://doyouknowjapan.com/shinkansen/.
25. ↑ Fukada, Takahiro, "Shinkansen about more than speed", The Japan Times, 9 December 2008, p. 3.
26. ↑ Okada, Hiroshi (October 1994). "Features and Economic and Social Effects of The Shinkansen". Japan Transport and Railway Review 3: 9–16. https://www.ejrcf.or.jp/jrtr/jrtr03/pdf/f09_oka.pdf.
27. ↑ "Half century on the shinkansen". The Japan Times. 20 September 2014. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2014/09/20/editorials/half-century-shinkansen/#.WsU4yNPwbOQ.
28. ↑ "Shinkansen comes to York". Railway Gazette. 1 August 2001. http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/shinkansen-comes-to-york.html.
29. ↑ Taniguchi, Mamoru (1993). "The Japanese Shinkansen". Built environment 19 (3/4): 216.
30. ↑ "The 10 fastest trains in the world". cntraveler.com. 18 May 2016. https://www.cntraveler.com/stories/2016-05-18/the-10-fastest-trains-in-the-world.
31. ↑ "雅万高铁助力印尼民众加速奔向美好生活" (in zh). 11 October 2023. https://www.gov.cn/yaowen/liebiao/202310/content_6908475.htm.
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 "Japan railway firm pushes back maglev plan, possibly to 2034 or later". https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2024/03/bd9e1d3aec6a-urgent-japan-rail-operator-gives-up-plan-to-launch-maglev-train-in-2027.html.
33. ↑ Miura, S., Takai, H., Uchida, M., and Fukada, Y. "The Mechanism of Railway Tracks". Japan Railway & Transport Review, 15, 38–45, 1998
34. ↑ Ando, Katsutoshi (2001). "Development of Slab Tracks for Hokuriku Shinkansen Line". Quarterly Report of RTRI 42 (1): 35–41. doi:10.2219/rtriqr.42.35.
35. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. http://www.mlit.go.jp/pubcom/06/pubcomt129/03.pdf.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.pub=Ministry+of+Land,+Infrastructure,+Transport+and+Tourism&rft_id=http://www.mlit.go.jp/pubcom/06/pubcomt129/03.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
36. ↑ Hiroshi Hata. "What Drives Electrical Multiple Units?". http://www.ejrcf.or.jp/jrtr/jrtr17/pdf/f40_technology.pdf.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "鉄道輸送統計調査（令和 5 年度、国土交通省） Rail Transport Statistics (2023, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport) (Japanese)". 31 October 2024. https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-search/files?page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00600350&kikan=00600&tstat=000001011026&cycle=8&year=20231&month=0&result_back=1&tclass1val=0&metadata=1&data=1.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 "Japan rail operator gives up plan to launch maglev train in 2027" (in en-GB). 30 March 2024. https://japantoday.com/category/business/update1-japan-rail-operator-gives-up-plan-to-launch-maglev-train-in-2027.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Hokuriku extension route agreed". Railway Gazette. http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/infrastructure/single-view/view/hokuriku-extension-route-agreed.html.
40. ↑ "九州新幹線（西九州ルート）の整備のあり方に係る調査について" (in ja). 30 March 2018. https://www.mlit.go.jp/report/press/tetsudo03_hh_000081.html.
41. ↑ "JR Central gives up on opening new maglev train service in 2027". Kyodo. 3 July 2020. https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/07/a97dfd2524f6-shizuoka-says-no-to-construction-for-new-maglev-train-service.html.
42. ↑ "新幹線誘致、オ– ル四国で 4県や四経連で新組織結成". 日本経済新聞. https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXLZO18571700W7A700C1LA0000/.
43. ↑ "豊予海峡ル –ト・新幹線案 １日６８００人利用で黒字 大分市試算 [大分県"] (in ja). 西日本新聞. https://www.nishinippon.co.jp/nnp/oita/article/385544/.
44. ↑ "Maehara sounds out JR Tokai over shinkansen link for Haneda airport". Japan Today. 28 December 2009. http://www.japantoday.com/category/national/view/maehara-sounds-out-jr-tokai-over-shinkansen-link-for-haneda-airport.
45. ↑ "JR East's Haneda Airport Access Line to Open in FY 2029". 21 January 2021. https://www.nippon.com/en/news/yjj2021012001065/.
46. ↑ "Japanese high speed rail freight services expand". Railway Gazette International (DVV Media International). 5 June 2024. https://www.railwaygazette.com/high-speed/japanese-high-speed-rail-freight-services-expand/66634.article.
47. ↑ "荷物専用の臨時列車、上越新幹線を走る JR東が初めて実験：朝日新聞デジタル" (in ja). 朝日新聞デジタル. 31 August 2023. https://www.asahi.com/articles/ASR805WFFR80ULFA022.html.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "2022年度秋頃に西九州新幹線が開業します!列車名「かもめ」" (in ja). https://www.jrkyushu.co.jp/train/nishikyushu/.
49. ↑ "FY2009 Key Measures and Capital Investment – Central Japan Railway Company". 27 March 2009. http://english.jr-central.co.jp/news/n20090327/.
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 "Shorter N700S to serve Nagasaki". https://www.railwaygazette.com/high-speed/shorter-n700s-to-serve-nagasaki/57681.article.
51. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). News release. Japan: Hokkaido Railway Company. 16 April 2014. https://www.jrhokkaido.co.jp/press/2014/140416-1.pdf.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=News+release&rft.date=16+April+2014&rft.place=Japan&rft.pub=Hokkaido+Railway+Company&rft_id=https://www.jrhokkaido.co.jp/press/2014/140416-1.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
52. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). Yomiuri Online. Japan: The Yomiuri Shimbun. 16 April 2014. http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/hokkaido/news/20140416-OYTNT50008.html.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=Yomiuri+Online&rft.date=16+April+2014&rft.place=Japan&rft.pub=The+Yomiuri+Shimbun&rft_id=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/hokkaido/news/20140416-OYTNT50008.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). Press release. Japan: JR East & JR West. 4 September 2012. http://www.jreast.co.jp/press/2012/20120903.pdf.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=Press+release&rft.date=4+September+2012&rft.place=Japan&rft.pub=JR+East+&+JR+West&rft_id=http://www.jreast.co.jp/press/2012/20120903.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
54. ↑ Semmens, Peter (1997). High Speed in Japan: Shinkansen – The World's Busiest High-speed Railway. Sheffield, UK: Platform 5 Publishing. ISBN 1-872524-88-5.
55. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). Yomiuri Online. Japan: The Yomiuri Shimbunl. 16 April 2015. http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/national/20150416-OYT1T50132.html.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=Yomiuri+Online&rft.date=16+April+2015&rft.place=Japan&rft.pub=The+Yomiuri+Shimbunl&rft_id=http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/national/20150416-OYT1T50132.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
56. ↑ "Central Japan Railway Company Annual Report 2016". p. 18. http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/ir/annualreport/_pdf/annualreport2016.pdf.
57. ↑ "Railway to pay for 1995 fatality; Shinkansen victim's parents win 49 million yen in damages", The Japan Times, 8 March 2001, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2001/03/08/national/railway-to-pay-for-1995-fatality/
58. ↑ All Tohoku Shinkansen services halted after person hit by train Kyodo News. March 10, 2025.
59. ↑ Japan bullet train 'self-immolation' fire kills two. June 30, 2015. BBC News
60. ↑ "Report on Niigata Chuetsu Earthquake". http://www.jreast.co.jp/e/investor/ar/2005/pdf/ar2005_17.pdf. (43.8 KB)
61. ↑ "High-speed bullet train derails in Japan: Media". The Sunday Times (Singapore: Singapore Press Holdings Ltd. Co.). 2 March 2013. http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/asia/story/high-speed-bullet-train-derails-japan-media-20130302.
62. ↑ "Development of Device to Prevent Deviation of the Tokaido Shinkansen during an Earthquake". https://www.jsme.or.jp/jsme/uploads/2016/11/awardn11-3.pdf.
63. ↑ Norimichi Kumagai. "Preparing for Major Earthquakes". https://www.ejrcf.or.jp/jrtr/jrtr60/pdf/34-41_web.pdf.
64. ↑ "Crack found in Shinkansen trainset bogie". Railway Gazette. 13 December 2017. http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/high-speed/single-view/view/crack-found-in-shinkansen-trainset-bogie.html.
65. ↑ "JR East: Damage to overhead power cable part led to Shinkansen disruption". NHK. 24 January 2024. https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/20240124_22/.
66. ↑ "Disruption of Japan's Shinkansen service sends passengers scrambling". NHK. 24 January 2024. https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/backstories/3009/.
67. ↑ "Bullet trains restart in east Japan 20 hours after power outage". Kyodo News. 24 January 2024. https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2024/01/7398611df12a-bullet-train-services-restart-in-east-japan-after-power-outage.html.
68. ↑ "Suspended bullet trains in Japan restart after decoupling incident". Kyodo News. 14 March 2025. https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2025/03/bb2b35f5abe4-urgent-suspended-bullet-trains-in-japan-restart-after-decoupling-incident.html.
69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 "Features and Economic and Social Effects of The Shinkansen". Jrtr.net. http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr03/f09_oka.html.
70. ↑ "Sensible Politics and Transport Theories?". Jrtr.net. http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr22/F23_Kakumoto.html.
71. ↑ Eaton, Joe (28 January 2019). "High-Speed Rail Helped Keep Housing Affordable in Japan. Could It Do the Same for California?" (in en). https://psmag.com/economics/high-speed-rail-means-low-cost-housing.
72. ↑ "新幹線鉄道騒音に係る環境基準について" (in ja). http://www.env.go.jp/kijun/oto3.html.
73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Kojima, Yasuhiro (2017). "The impact of new Shinkansen lines (Tohoku Shinkansen (Hachinohe – Shin-Aomori) and Kyusyu Shinkansen (Hakata – Shin-Yatsushiro))". Transportation Research Procedia 25: 344–357. doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2017.05.412.
74. ↑ "国土交通省鉄道輸送統計年報（平成19年度）" (in ja). http://www.mlit.go.jp/k-toukei/10/10a0excel.html.
75. ↑ "鉄道輸送統計調査 年度次 2023年度 | ファイル | 統計データを探す" (in ja). https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-search/files?page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00600350&kikan=00600&tstat=000001011026&cycle=8&year=20231&month=0&result_back=1&result_page=1&tclass1val=0.
76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 "KTX vs 新幹線 徹底比較". Whhh.fc2web.com. http://whhh.fc2web.com/ktx/hikaku.html.
77. ↑ "2017年中国铁路投资8010亿元 投产新线3038公里-中新网" (in zh). http://www.chinanews.com/cj/2018/01-02/8414612.shtml.
78. ↑ "KTX vs 新幹線 徹底比較". http://whhh.fc2web.com/ktx/hikaku.html.
79. ↑ "新幹線旅客輸送量の推移" (in ja). http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000232384.pdf.
80. ↑ "Taiwan HSR operator pitches restructuring idea to shareholders｜WCT". Wantchinatimes.com. 28 June 2014. http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20140628000066&cid=1206.
81. ↑ "월별 일반철도 역간 이용인원" (in ko). Ktdb.go.kr. http://ktdb.go.kr/web/guest/419.
82. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in zh). 30 January 2015. http://finance.people.com.cn/stock/n/2015/0130/c67815-26478015.html.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.date=30+January+2015&rft_id=http://finance.people.com.cn/stock/n/2015/0130/c67815-26478015.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
83. ↑ "中国高铁动车组发送旅客90亿人次：2018年占比超60％" (in zh). http://tech.ifeng.com/a/20190101/45277984_0.shtml.
84. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). Japan: East Japan Railway Company. 30 October 2012. p. 5. http://www.jreast.co.jp/press/2012/20121013.pdf.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.date=30+October+2012&rft.pages=p.+5&rft.place=Japan&rft.pub=East+Japan+Railway+Company&rft_id=http://www.jreast.co.jp/press/2012/20121013.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 "Seikan tunnel Shinkansen speed-up saves 3 min". 31 March 2021. https://www.railwaygazette.com/high-speed/seikan-tunnel-shinkansen-speed-up-saves-3-min/58804.article.
86. ↑ "Tsuruga joined to Shinkansen network". https://www.railwaygazette.com/high-speed/tsuruga-joined-to-shinkansen-network/66140.article?ID=z9xqh~9jrfnt~q9qqr~W4ik~Ky0gk&utm_campaign=RG-WEEKLY-Hitachi-220324-DE&utm_medium=email&utm_source=email&utm_content=newsletter.
87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 "Japan's newest bullet train line has busy first year". 15 March 2016. https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics-Economy/Economy/Japan-s-newest-bullet-train-line-has-busy-first-year.
88. ↑ 京都新聞. "北陸新幹線新駅「松井山手」検討 京都－新大阪南回り案" (in ja). http://www.kyoto-np.co.jp/top/article/20170307000013.
89. ↑ 日本テレビ. "北陸新幹線"京田辺市ルート"最終調整へ" (in ja). http://www.news24.jp/articles/2017/03/06/04355784.html.
90. ↑ Barrow, Keith (7 August 2015). "Talks begin on Hokuriku Shinkansen extension". http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/high-speed/talks-begin-on-hokuriku-shinkansen-extension.html?channel=523+*+*.
91. ↑ "今回の認可対象区間 概要図" (in Ja). http://www.mlit.go.jp/common/000215188.pdf.
92. ↑ "九州新幹線の開業日について" [Opening date of the Nishi Kyusyu Shinkansen] (PDF) (Press release) (in Japanese). 九州旅客鉄道. 22 February 2022. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2022.`{{cite press release}}`: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
93. ↑ "Promoting the Tokaido Shinkansen Bypass by the Superconducting Maglev system". english.jr-central.co.jp. http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/ir/annualreport/_pdf/annualreport2010-05.pdf.
94. ↑ "Chūō Shinkansen: Tokyo to Osaka by Maglev" (in en). 15 November 2019. https://www.jrailpass.com/blog/chuo-shinkansen-maglev.
95. ↑ "Maglev car design unveiled". The Japan Times. 28 October 2010. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2010/10/28/business/maglev-car-design-unveiled/.
96. ↑ "Most direct line for maglev gets panel OK". The Japan Times. 16 December 2010. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2010/12/16/business/most-direct-line-for-maglev-gets-panel-ok/.
97. ↑ "LDP OKs maglev line selections". The Japan Times. 21 October 2008. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/10/22/business/ldp-oks-maglev-line-selections/.
98. ↑ "Economy, prestige at stake in Kyoto-Nara maglev battle". The Japan Times. 3 May 2012. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2012/05/03/national/economy-prestige-at-stake-in-kyoto-nara-maglev-battle/.
99. ↑ "Yamagata mini-Shinkansen base tunnel proposal makes progress". 7 November 2022. https://www.railwaygazette.com/infrastructure/yamagata-mini-shinkansen-base-tunnel-proposal-makes-progress/62884.article.
100. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). Mynavi News. Japan: Mynavi Corporation. 24 December 2014. http://news.mynavi.jp/news/2014/12/24/335/.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=Mynavi+News&rft.date=24+December+2014&rft.place=Japan&rft.pub=Mynavi+Corporation&rft_id=http://news.mynavi.jp/news/2014/12/24/335/&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
101. ↑ Shiomi, Eiji. "Do Faster Trains Challenge Air Carriers?". http://www.jrtr.net/jrtr19/F04_Shiomi.html.
102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 "Japanese airlines facing threat from below- Nikkei Asian Review". Nikkei Asian Review. Asia.nikkei.com. 25 November 2013. http://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Trends/Japanese-airlines-facing-threat-from-below.
103. ↑ "Shinkansen: High-speed revolution". https://www.railwaymuseum.org.uk/whats-on/shinkansen-high-speed-revolution.
104. ↑ "Hitachi preferred for CTRL domestic trains". Railway Gazette International (Sutton: DVV Media International). 1 December 2004. http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view//hitachi-preferred-for-ctrl-domestic-trains.html.
105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 "Intercity Trains | Intercity Rail Solutions | Hitachi Rail". https://www.hitachirail.com/products-and-solutions/rolling-stock/intercity-trains/.
106. ↑ "Sent from Kent with a real team effort" (in en). https://www.railmagazine.com/trains/current-trains/sent-from-kent-with-a-real-team-effort.
107. ↑ "East Midlands Railway reveals the interior looks of its new Aurora train fleet". Railways Illustrated (254): 7. April 2024.
108. ↑ "Our new Azuma trains" (in en). https://www.lner.co.uk/the-east-coast-experience/azuma-trains/azuma-is-here/.
109. ↑ "India bites the $18.6 billion high speed bullet". Hindustan Times. 13 December 2015. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india/india-bites-the-18-6-billion-high-speed-bullet/story-pLq1MHnB98MFbicQJOlFGJ.html.
110. ↑ "India and Japan sign high speed rail memorandum". Railway Gazette. http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/india-and-japan-sign-high-speed-rail-memorandum.html. Retrieved 11 July 2022.
111. ↑ "First bullet train will arrive from Japan in 2 years". Sep 2024. https://www.hindustantimes.com/cities/mumbai-news/first-bullet-train-will-arrive-from-japan-in-2-years-101726945881769.html.
112. ↑ Law, Abhishek (20 May 2024). "Japanese companies Hitachi, Kawasaki vying for India's bullet train sets" (in en). https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/logistics/japanese-companies-hitachi-kawasaki-vying-for-indias-bullet-train-sets/article68196026.ece.
113. ↑ "IR-DRDO Bio-Toilet System in Indian Railways". Ministry of Railways. https://indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/eff_res/camtech/mechanical/YearWise/Flex Banner - Bio-Toilet.pdf.
114. ↑ Dixon, Scott (2 August 2014). "Texas to get shinkansen system". Japan Times Online. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/08/02/business/economy-business/private-u-s-railway-wants-bullet-train-line-for-texas-by-2021/.
115. ↑ "Learn the Facts – Texas Central". 28 October 2015. http://www.texascentral.com/facts/.
116. ↑ Yo Noguchi (28 May 2015). "Japan to provide Shinkansen technology to Thailand". The Asahi Shimbun. http://ajw.asahi.com/article/business/AJ201505280053.
117. ↑ "Consolidated Land and Rail Australia Pty Ltd". http://www.clara.com.au/high-speed-rail.html.
118. ↑ "High Speed Rail Authority Project". https://www.hsra.gov.au/project#current-progress.
119. ↑ "All aboard High Speed Rail Authority". 5 June 2023. https://minister.infrastructure.gov.au/c-king/media-release/all-aboard-high-speed-rail-authority.
120. ↑ Parris, Michael (27 August 2024). "Newcastle-Sydney high-speed rail possible by 2037 as tunnel plan emerges" (in en-AU). https://www.newcastleherald.com.au/story/8743698/newcastle-high-speed-rail-possible-by-2037-as-tunnel-plan-emerges/. "The briefing attracted a host  [sic] major international rail, infrastructure and design contractors, including Japan Railways, Siemens, Alstom, Hitachi, CPB and John Holland."
121. ↑ "U.S. wants to study shinkansen technology". Kyodo News. 16 May 2009. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20090516a2.html.
122. ↑ "U.S. railroad official seeks Japan's help". United Press International. 16 May 2009. http://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/05/16/US-railroad-official-seeks-Japans-help/UPI-84921242508429/.
123. ↑ "JR Tokai chief urges U.S. and Canada together to introduce Japan's N700 bullet rail system". JapanToday. 1 July 2009. http://www.japantoday.com/category/business/view/jr-tokai-chief-urges-us-to-introduce-japans-n700-bullet-rail-system.
124. ↑ (in ja)Nikkei Shimbun. 31 January 2008. http://www.nikkeyshimbun.com.br/080131-71colonia.html.
125. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. 14 November 2008. http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/kaidan/s_aso/fwe_08/jp_brazil.html.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.date=14+November+2008&rft.pub=The+Ministry+of+Foreign+Affairs+of+Japan&rft_id=http://www.mofa.go.jp/mofaj/kaidan/s_aso/fwe_08/jp_brazil.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
126. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). Kyodo News. 12 August 2008. http://www.47news.jp/CN/200808/CN2008081201000767.html.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.date=12+August+2008&rft.pub=Kyodo+News&rft_id=http://www.47news.jp/CN/200808/CN2008081201000767.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
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128. ↑ "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ja). The Nikkei Net. 13 August 2009. http://www.nikkei.co.jp/news/kaigai/20090813AT2M1203A12082009.html.Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.date=13+August+2009&rft.pub=The+Nikkei+Net&rft_id=http://www.nikkei.co.jp/news/kaigai/20090813AT2M1203A12082009.html&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:Shinkansen">
129. ↑ "Vietnam plans Japanese bullet train link". AFP. 13 August 2009. https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gv5p5C0gfrQ43JZcXx7lZ39KyfTg.

## Further reading

* Katsuji Iwasa; Masanobu Ishido; Tatsuhiko Suga; Robert Hancock (2015) (in English). Shinkansen: the half century. Tokyo: Kotsu Shimbunsha. ISBN 978-4-330-59615-0.
* Shimomae, Tetsuo (2022) (in en). Birth of the Shinkansen. The Origin Story of the World-First Bullet Train. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-981-16-6538-7. ISBN 978-981-16-6537-0. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-16-6538-7.
* Abel, Jessamyn R. (2022) (in en). Dream Super-Express: A Cultural History of the World's First Bullet Train. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-1-5036-2995-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=CDNPEAAAQBAJ.

## External links

| Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Rail travel in Japan.

|

* Shinkansen Data , explanation by International High-speed Rail Association (IHRA)
* Biting the Bullet: What we can learn from the Shinkansen, discussion paper by Christopher Hood in the electronic journal of contemporary Japanese studies, 23 May 2001
* East meets West, a story of how the Shinkansen brought Tokyo and Osaka closer together.
* Bullet on wheels, a travel report by Vinod Jacob 19 August 2005
* Shinkansen Wheelchair Accessibility, review for riders with disabilities.

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