VVER

Short description: Soviet / Russian nuclear reactor type

VVER reactor class

View of the Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant site, with four operational VVER-1000 reactors.

Generation| Generation I reactor
Generation II reactor
Generation III reactor
Generation III+ reactor
Reactor concept| Pressurized water reactor
Reactor line| VVER (Voda Voda Energo Reactor)
Reactor types| VVER-210
VVER-365
VVER-440
VVER-1000
VVER-1200
VVER-TOI
Main parameters of the reactor core
Fuel (fissile material)| 235U (LEU)
Fuel state| Solid
Neutron energy spectrum| Thermal
Primary control method| Control rods
Primary moderator| Water
Primary coolant| Liquid (light water)
Reactor usage
Primary use| Generation of electricity
Power (thermal)| VVER-210: 760 MWth
VVER-365: 1,325 MWth
VVER-440: 1,375 MWth
VVER-1000: 3,000 MWth
VVER-1200: 3,212 MWth
VVER-TOI: 3,300 MWth
Power (electric)| VVER-210: 210 MWel
VVER-365: 365 MWel
VVER-440: 440 MWel
VVER-1000: 1,000 MWel
VVER-1200: 1,200 MWel
VVER-TOI: 1,300 MWel

The water-water energetic reactor (WWER),[1] or VVER (from Russian: водо-водяной энергетический реактор (ВВЭР), romanized: vodo-vodyanoi enyergeticheskiy reaktor) is a series of pressurized water reactor designs developed in the Soviet Union and Russia by OKB Gidropress.[2] The name refers to the use of water as both the nuclear coolant and the neutron moderator, in a reactor intended for energy generation.

The idea of such a reactor was proposed[when?] at the Kurchatov Institute by Savely Moiseevich Feinberg. The first prototype VVER-210 was built at the Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant before the 1970s, as one of two initial Soviet reactor designs (the other being the RBMK). There have been several subsequent generations of VVER design, so the name is associated with substantially different reactors from original generation I to modern generation III+ designs. Electrical power output ranges from 70 to 1300 MWe, with designs of up to 1700 MWe currently[when?] in development.[3][4]

VVER power stations have been installed in Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, China, the Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Slovakia, Bulgaria, India, and Iran. Countries that are planning to introduce VVER reactors include Bangladesh, Egypt, Jordan, Turkey, Uzbekistan and Vietnam. Germany shut down its older generation VVER reactors in 1989-90,[5] and cancelled those under construction.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Design
* 2.1 Primary cooling circuits
* 2.2 Secondary circuit and electrical output
* 2.3 Tertiary cooling circuit and district heating
* 2.4 Safety barriers
* 2.5 Fuel cycle extension
* 2.6 Remix Fuel
* 3 Versions
* 3.1 VVER-440
* 3.2 VVER-1000
* 3.3 VVER-1200
* 3.3.1 Safety features
* 3.4 VVER-TOI
* 3.5 VVER-S-600
* 4 Power plants
* 5 Technical specifications
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 External links

## History

The earliest VVERs were built before 1970. The VVER-440 Model V230 was the most common design, delivering 440 MW of electrical power. The V230 employs six primary coolant loops each with a horizontal steam generator. A modified version of VVER-440, Model V213, was a product of the first nuclear safety standards adopted by Soviet designers. This model includes added emergency core cooling and auxiliary feedwater systems as well as upgraded accident localization systems.[6]

The larger VVER-1000 was developed after 1975 and is a four-loop system housed in a containment-type structure with a spray steam suppression system (Emergency Core Cooling System). VVER reactor designs have been elaborated to incorporate automatic control, passive safety and containment systems associated with Western generation III reactors.

The VVER-1200 is the version currently offered for construction, being an evolution of the VVER-1000 with increased power output to about 1200 MWe (gross) and providing additional passive safety features.[7]

In 2012, Rosatom stated that in the future it intended to certify the VVER with the British and U.S. regulatory authorities, though was unlikely to apply for a British licence before 2015.[8][9]

The construction of the first VVER-1300 (VVER-TOI) 1300 MWE unit was started in 2018.[4]

## Design

VVER-1000 (direct transliteration of Russian ВВЭР-1000), a 1000 MWe Russian nuclear power reactor of PWR type.
1: control rod drives
2: reactor cover[10] or vessel head[11]
3: Reactor pressure vessel
4: inlet and outlet nozzles
5: reactor core barrel or core shroud
6: reactor core
7: fuel rods The arrangement of hexagonal fuel assemblies compared to a Westinghouse PWR design. Note that there are 163 assemblies on this hexagonal arrangement and 193 on the Westinghouse arrangement.

The Russian abbreviation VVER stands for 'water-water energy reactor' (i.e. water-cooled water-moderated energy reactor). The design is a type of pressurised water reactor (PWR). The main distinguishing features of the VVER[3] compared to other PWRs are:

* Horizontal steam generators
* Hexagonal fuel assemblies
* No bottom penetrations in the pressure vessel
* High-capacity pressurizers providing a large reactor coolant inventory

VVER-440 reactor hall at Mochovce Nuclear Power Plant

Reactor fuel rods are fully immersed in water kept at (12,5 / 15,7 / 16,2 ) MPa (1812/2277/2349 psi) pressure respectively so that it does not boil at the normal (220 to over 320 °C [428 to >608°F]) operating temperatures. Water in the reactor serves both as a coolant and a moderator which is an important safety feature. Should coolant circulation fail, the neutron moderation effect of the water diminishes due to increased heat which creates steam bubbles which do not moderate neutrons, thus reducing reaction intensity and compensating for loss of cooling, a condition known as negative void coefficient. Later versions of the reactors are encased in massive steel reactor pressure vessels. Fuel is low enriched (ca. 2.4–4.4% 235U) uranium dioxide (UO2) or equivalent pressed into pellets and assembled into fuel rods.

Reactivity is controlled by control rods that can be inserted into the reactor from above. These rods are made from a neutron absorbing material and, depending on depth of insertion, hinder the chain reaction. If there is an emergency, a reactor shutdown can be performed by full insertion of the control rods into the core.

### Primary cooling circuits

Layout of the four primary cooling circuits and the pressurizer of a VVER-1000 Construction of a VVER-1000 reactor vessel at Atommash.

As stated above, the water in the primary circuits is kept under a constant elevated pressure to avoid its boiling. Since the water transfers all the heat from the core and is irradiated, the integrity of this circuit is crucial. Four main components can be distinguished:

1. Reactor vessel: water flows through the fuel assemblies which are heated by the nuclear chain reaction.
2. Volume compensator (pressurizer): to keep the water under constant but controlled pressure, the volume compensator regulates the pressure by controlling the equilibrium between saturated steam and water using electrical heating and relief valves.
3. Steam generator: in the steam generator, the heat from the primary coolant water is used to boil the water in the secondary circuit.
4. Pump: the pump ensures the proper circulation of the water through the circuit.

To provide for the continued cooling of the reactor core in emergency situations the primary cooling is designed with redundancy.

### Secondary circuit and electrical output

The secondary circuit also consists of different subsystems:

1. Steam generator: secondary water is boiled taking heat from the primary circuit. Before entering the turbine remaining water is separated from the steam so that the steam is dry.
2. Turbine: the expanding steam drives a turbine, which connects to an electrical generator. The turbine is split into high and low pressure sections. To boost efficiency, steam is reheated between these sections. Reactors of the VVER-1000 type deliver 1 GW of electrical power.
3. Condenser: the steam is cooled and allowed to condense, shedding waste heat into a cooling circuit.
4. Deaerator: removes gases from the coolant.
5. Pump: the circulation pumps are each driven by their own small steam turbine.

To increase efficiency of the process, steam from the turbine is taken to reheat coolant in the secondary circuit before the deaerator and the steam generator. Water in this circuit is not supposed to be radioactive.

### Tertiary cooling circuit and district heating

The tertiary cooling circuit is an open circuit diverting water from an outside reservoir such as a lake or river. Evaporative cooling towers, cooling basins or ponds transfer the waste heat from the generation circuit into the environment.

In most VVERs this heat can also be further used for residential and industrial heating. Operational examples of such systems are Bohunice NPP (Slovakia) supplying heat to the towns of Trnava[12] (12 kilometres [7.5 mi] away), Leopoldov (9.5 kilometres [5.9 mi] away), and Hlohovec (13 kilometres [8.1 mi] away), and Temelín NPP (Czech Republic) supplying heat to Týn nad Vltavou 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) away and České Budějovice 26 kilometres (16 mi) away. Plans are made to supply heat from the Dukovany NPP to Brno (the second-largest city in the Czech Republic), covering two-thirds of its heat needs.[13]

### Safety barriers

The two VVER-440 units in Loviisa, Finland have containment buildings that fulfil Western safety standards.

A typical design feature of nuclear reactors is layered safety barriers preventing escape of radioactive material. VVER reactors have three layers:

1. Fuel rods: the hermetic zirconium alloy (Zircaloy) cladding around the uranium oxide sintered ceramic fuel pellets provides a barrier resistant to heat and high pressure.
2. Reactor pressure vessel wall: a massive steel shell encases the whole fuel assembly and primary coolant hermetically.
3. Reactor building: a concrete containment building that encases the whole first circuit is strong enough to resist the pressure surge a breach in the first circuit would cause.

Compared to the RBMK reactors - the type involved in the Chernobyl disaster - the VVER uses an inherently safer design because the coolant is also the moderator, and by nature of its design has a negative void coefficient like all PWRs. It does not have the graphite-moderated RBMK's risk of increased reactivity and large power transients in the event of a loss of coolant accident. The RBMK reactors were also constructed without containment structures on grounds of cost due to their size; the VVER core is considerably smaller.[14]

### Fuel cycle extension

In 2024, Rosatom started testing fuel which contains a neutron absorber (erbium), and uranium enriched to 5% (instead of the typical 3%-4.95% range). The experiments have been carried out at the MIR.M1 research reactor at the Dimitrovgrad Research Institute of Nuclear Reactors. It will allow to extend the current fuel cycle from 12-18 months to 24 months.[15]

### Remix Fuel

The Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant is used for Remix Fuel experiments. In December 2024 the third final 18-month phase of the pilot program has started with the goal to achieve a closed nuclear cycle for VVER reactors. A mixture of enriched uranium with recycled uranium and plutonium received from the used nuclear fuel of other VVER reactors is used instead of a standard enriched uranium. After the first 2 stages of 3, fuel elements were inspected and were approved for the 3rd final stage. The 3rd stage concluded by the end of March 2026 when the fuel was unloaded, and after some time spent in the used fuel pool, it will be further studied in the Research Institute of Atomic Reactors (JSC SSC RIAR).[16] Remix fuel has a lower plutonium content of up to 5% compared with MOX fuel.[17]

## Versions

### VVER-440

One of the earliest versions of the VVER-type, the VVER-440, manifested certain problems with its containment building design. As the V-230 and older models were from the outset not built to resist a design-critical large pipe break, the manufacturer added, with the newer V-213 model, a so called Bubble condenser tower that – with its additional volume and a number of water layers – aims to suppress the forces of rapidly escaping steam without the onset of a containment-leak. As a consequence, all member-countries[citation needed] with plants of the VVER-440 V-230 type, as well as older types, were forced by the politicians of the European Union to shut them down permanently. Because of this, the Bohunice Nuclear Power Plant had to close two reactors and the Kozloduy Nuclear Power Plant had to close four. Whereas in the case of the Greifswald Nuclear Power Plant, the German regulatory body had already made the same decision in the wake of the fall of the Berlin Wall.

### VVER-1000

Control room of a VVER-1000 in 2009, Kozloduy Unit 5

When first built, the VVER design was intended to be operational for 35 years. A mid-life major overhaul including a complete replacement of critical parts such as fuel and control rod channels was thought necessary after that.[18] Since RBMK reactors specified a major replacement programme at 35 years designers originally decided this needed to happen in the VVER type as well, although they are of more robust design than the RBMK type. Most of Russia's VVER plants are now reaching and passing the 35 year mark. More recent design studies have allowed for an extension of lifetime up to 50 years with replacement of equipment. New VVERs will be nameplated with the extended lifetime.

In 2010 the oldest VVER-1000, at Novovoronezh, was shut down for modernization to extend its operating life for an additional 20 years; the first to undergo such an operating life extension. The work includes the modernization of management, protection and emergency systems, and improvement of security and radiation safety systems.[19]

In 2018 Rosatom announced it had developed a thermal annealing technique for reactor pressure vessels which ameliorates radiation damage and extends service life by between 15 and 30 years. This had been demonstrated on unit 1 of the Balakovo Nuclear Power Plant.[20]

### VVER-1200

Wide angle view of Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant in Bangladesh that consists of two 1200 MWe VVER-1200 reactors

The VVER-1200 (or NPP-2006 or AES-2006)[7] is an evolution of the VVER-1000 being offered for domestic and export use.[21][22] The reactor design has been refined to optimize fuel efficiency. Specifications include a $1,200 per kW overnight construction cost, requiring about 35% fewer operational personnel than the VVER-1000. The VVER-1200 has a gross and net thermal efficiency of 37.5% and 34.8%. The VVER 1200 will produce 1,198 MWe of power.

VVER-1200 has a 60 years design lifetime with the possibility of extension by 20 years.[23][24]

The first two units have been built at Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant II and Novovoronezh Nuclear Power Plant II. More reactors with a VVER-1200/491[25] like the Leningrad-II-design are planned (Kaliningrad and Nizhny Novgorod NPP) and under construction. The type VVER-1200/392M[26] as installed at the Novovoronezh NPP-II has also been selected for the Seversk, Zentral and South-Urals NPP. A standard version was developed as VVER-1200/513 and based on the VVER-TOI (VVER-1300/510) design.

In July 2012, the construction of two AES-2006 reactors at the Ostrovets NPP in Belarus was agreed upon. The total cost was said to be $10 billion.[27] An AES-2006 was discussed for the Hanhikivi Nuclear Power Plant in Finland in 2014.[28] The plant supply contract was signed in 2013, but terminated in 2022 mainly due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[29]

From 2015 to 2017, Egypt and Russia came to an agreement for the construction of four VVER-1200 units at the El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant.[30]

On 30 November 2017, concrete was poured for the nuclear island basemat for the first of two VVER-1200/523 units at the Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant in Bangladesh. The power plant will be a 2.4 GWe plant. The two units were planned to be operational in 2023 and 2024.[31]

On 7 March 2019 China National Nuclear Corporation and Atomstroyexport signed the detailed contract for the construction of four VVER-1200s, two each at the Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant and the Xudabao Nuclear Power Plant. Construction will start in May 2021 and commercial operation of all the units is expected between 2026 and 2028.[32]

From 2020 an 18-month refuelling cycle will be piloted, resulting in an improved capacity utilisation factor compared to the previous 12-month cycle.[33] The VVER-1200 is designed to be capable of varying power between 100% and 40% for daily load following, which was tested in 2024.[34]

#### Safety features

The nuclear part of the plant is housed in a single building acting as containment and missile shield. Besides the reactor and steam generators this includes an improved refueling machine, and the computerized reactor control systems. Likewise protected in the same building are the emergency systems, including an emergency core cooling system, emergency backup diesel power supply, and backup feed water supply,

A passive heat removal system had been added to the existing active systems in the AES-92 version of the VVER-1000 used for the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in India. This has been retained for the newer VVER-1200 and future designs. The system is based on a cooling system and water tanks built on top of the containment dome.[35] The passive systems handle all safety functions for 24 hours, and core safety for 72 hours.[7]

Other new safety systems include aircraft crash protection, hydrogen recombiners, and a core catcher to contain the molten reactor core in the event of a severe accident.[22][27][36] The core catcher will be deployed in the Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant and El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant.[37] [38]

The ones on Akkuyu Nuclear Plant are based on AES-2006 with updated seismic and regulatory conditions from VVER-TOI to satisfy both Turkey's geographical conditions and post-Fukushima measures.[39][40]

### VVER-TOI

The VVER-TOI is developed from the VVER-1200. It is aimed at development of typical optimized informative-advanced project of a new generation III+ Power Unit based on VVER technology, which meets a number of target-oriented parameters using modern information and management technologies.[41]

The main improvements from the VVER-1200 are:[4]

* power increased to 1300 MWe gross
* upgraded pressure vessel
* improved core design to improve cooling
* further developments of passive safety systems
* lower construction and operating costs with a 40-month construction time
* use of low-speed turbines
* up to 100 years service life (60 years design lifetime with 40 years of extension)[42][43]

In June 2019 the VVER-TOI was certified as compliant with European Utility Requirements (with certain reservations) for nuclear power plants.[4]

The construction of the first two VVER-TOI units has started in 2018 and 2019 at the Kursk II Nuclear Power Plant.[44][4] The first VVER-TOI was connected to the grid in December 2025.[45][44][46] Kursk II-1 has entered commercial operation on May 1st 2026.[47]

### VVER-S-600

The medium-powered VVER-S-600 is an under-development VVER technology that aims to facilitate the closure of the fuel cycle by utilizing a full load of MOX fuel.[48] Rosatom claims that this could reduce the consumption of natural uranium by 50%.[48] The letter 'S' in the name represents spectral shift control.[49]

In contrast to conventional VVER technology, which utilizes a boron system for initial reactivity control for burnup and absorption, the VVER-S reactor manages control by adjusting the moderator-to-fuel ratio during operation, without relying on boron.[49] This is accomplished by taking out the water displacer rods found in designated fuel assembly channels within the core.[50] These displacers are introduced into the core at the start of the fuel cycle to lower the moderator-to-fuel ratio, thereby hardening the neutron spectrum, which enhances neutron capture in U-238 and leads to the production of Pu-239.[50] However, these displacer rods removed at the end of cycle, which softens the neutron spectrum, resulting in an increase in reactivity.[50]

The VVER-S-600 is to have a design life of 80 years.[48] The estimated breeding ratio of the VVER-S-600 is 0.7 to 0.8, compared to 0.35 to 0.4 of the conventional VVERs.[50] It is expected to have a cycle length of at least 24 months using MOX fuel.[51]

## Power plants

List of operational, planned, and closed VVER installations[52] Power plant  | Reactors  | Status | Notes  | Ref

|
|
|
|

Unit  | Country  | Geolocation  | Model  | Ver  | Gen
Akkuyu-1 | Turkey |  [ ⚑ ] 36°08′40″N 33°32′28″E﻿ / ﻿36.14444°N 33.54111°E﻿ / 36.14444; 33.54111﻿ (Akkuyu NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-509  | III+  | Under construction |  | [53]
Akkuyu-2  | Turkey  |  [ ⚑ ] 36°08′40″N 33°32′28″E﻿ / ﻿36.14444°N 33.54111°E﻿ / 36.14444; 33.54111﻿ (Akkuyu NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-509  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [53]
Akkuyu-3  | Turkey  |  [ ⚑ ] 36°08′40″N 33°32′28″E﻿ / ﻿36.14444°N 33.54111°E﻿ / 36.14444; 33.54111﻿ (Akkuyu NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-509  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [53]
Akkuyu-4  | Turkey  |  [ ⚑ ] 36°08′40″N 33°32′28″E﻿ / ﻿36.14444°N 33.54111°E﻿ / 36.14444; 33.54111﻿ (Akkuyu NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-509  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [53]
Astravets-1 | Belarus |  [ ⚑ ] 54°45′40″N 26°5′21″E﻿ / ﻿54.76111°N 26.08917°E﻿ / 54.76111; 26.08917﻿ (Astravets NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491 (AES-2006)  | III+  | Operational | Unit 1 operational since 2020.  | [54]
Astravets-2  | Belarus  |  [ ⚑ ] 54°45′40″N 26°5′21″E﻿ / ﻿54.76111°N 26.08917°E﻿ / 54.76111; 26.08917﻿ (Astravets NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491 (AES-2006)  | III+  | Operational  | Unit 2 started operating in May 2023.  | [55]
Balakovo-1  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 52°5′28″N 47°57′19″E﻿ / ﻿52.09111°N 47.95528°E﻿ / 52.09111; 47.95528﻿ (Balakovo NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Balakovo-2  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 52°5′28″N 47°57′19″E﻿ / ﻿52.09111°N 47.95528°E﻿ / 52.09111; 47.95528﻿ (Balakovo NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Balakovo-3  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 52°5′28″N 47°57′19″E﻿ / ﻿52.09111°N 47.95528°E﻿ / 52.09111; 47.95528﻿ (Balakovo NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Balakovo-4  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 52°5′28″N 47°57′19″E﻿ / ﻿52.09111°N 47.95528°E﻿ / 52.09111; 47.95528﻿ (Balakovo NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Balakovo-5  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 52°5′28″N 47°57′19″E﻿ / ﻿52.09111°N 47.95528°E﻿ / 52.09111; 47.95528﻿ (Balakovo NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | construction cancelled. To be dismantled.  | [56]
Balakovo-6  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 52°5′28″N 47°57′19″E﻿ / ﻿52.09111°N 47.95528°E﻿ / 52.09111; 47.95528﻿ (Balakovo NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | construction cancelled. To be dismantled.  | [56]
Belene-1 | Bulgaria |  [ ⚑ ] 43°37′46″N 25°11′12″E﻿ / ﻿43.62944°N 25.18667°E﻿ / 43.62944; 25.18667﻿ (Belene NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-466B  |  | Cancelled | Suspended in 2012.  | [57]
Belene-2  | Bulgaria  |  [ ⚑ ] 43°37′46″N 25°11′12″E﻿ / ﻿43.62944°N 25.18667°E﻿ / 43.62944; 25.18667﻿ (Belene NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-466B  |  | Cancelled  | Suspended in 2012.  | [57]
Bohunice-V1-1  | Slovakia  |  [ ⚑ ] 48°29′40″N 17°40′55″E﻿ / ﻿48.49444°N 17.68194°E﻿ / 48.49444; 17.68194﻿ (Bouhunice NPP) | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Permanent Shutdown  | Closed in 2006  | [58]
Bohunice-V1-2  | Slovakia  |  [ ⚑ ] 48°29′40″N 17°40′55″E﻿ / ﻿48.49444°N 17.68194°E﻿ / 48.49444; 17.68194﻿ (Bouhunice NPP) | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Permanent Shutdown  | Closed in 2008  | [58]
Bohunice-V2-1  | Slovakia  |  [ ⚑ ] 48°29′40″N 17°40′55″E﻿ / ﻿48.49444°N 17.68194°E﻿ / 48.49444; 17.68194﻿ (Bouhunice NPP) | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  | [58]
Bohunice-V2-2  | Slovakia  |  [ ⚑ ] 48°29′40″N 17°40′55″E﻿ / ﻿48.49444°N 17.68194°E﻿ / 48.49444; 17.68194﻿ (Bouhunice NPP) | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  | [58]
Bushehr-1 | Iran |  [ ⚑ ] 28°49′46.64″N 50°53′09.46″E﻿ / ﻿28.8296222°N 50.8859611°E﻿ / 28.8296222; 50.8859611﻿ (Bushehr NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-446  | III | Operational  | Unit 1 operational since 2011.[59] | [59]
Bushehr-2  | Iran  |  [ ⚑ ] 28°49′46.64″N 50°53′09.46″E﻿ / ﻿28.8296222°N 50.8859611°E﻿ / 28.8296222; 50.8859611﻿ (Bushehr NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-528 (AES-92)  | III+  | Under construction (Frozen)  |  | [60]
Bushehr-3  | Iran  |  [ ⚑ ] 28°49′46.64″N 50°53′09.46″E﻿ / ﻿28.8296222°N 50.8859611°E﻿ / 28.8296222; 50.8859611﻿ (Bushehr NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-528 (AES-92)  | III+  | Planned  | being prepared  | [60]
Dukovany-1  | Czech Republic  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  | Upgraded to 510 MW in 2009-2012. Upgrade to 522 MW planned.[61] | [61]
Dukovany-2  | Czech Republic  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  | Upgraded to 510 MW in 2009-2012. Upgrade to 522 MW planned.[61] | [61]
Dukovany-3  | Czech Republic  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  | Upgraded to 510 MW in 2009-2012. Upgrade to 522 MW planned.[61] | [61]
Dukovany-4  | Czech Republic  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  | Upgraded to 510 MW in 2009-2012. Upgrade to 522 MW planned.[61] | [61]
El Dabaa-1 | Egypt |  [ ⚑ ] 31°2′39″N 28°29′52″E﻿ / ﻿31.04417°N 28.49778°E﻿ / 31.04417; 28.49778﻿ (El Dabaa NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-529  | III+  | Under construction |  | [62][63][64]
El Dabaa-2  | Egypt  |  [ ⚑ ] 31°2′39″N 28°29′52″E﻿ / ﻿31.04417°N 28.49778°E﻿ / 31.04417; 28.49778﻿ (El Dabaa NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-529  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [62][63][64]
El Dabaa-3  | Egypt  |  [ ⚑ ] 31°2′39″N 28°29′52″E﻿ / ﻿31.04417°N 28.49778°E﻿ / 31.04417; 28.49778﻿ (El Dabaa NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-529  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [62][63][64]
El Dabaa-4  | Egypt  |  [ ⚑ ] 31°2′39″N 28°29′52″E﻿ / ﻿31.04417°N 28.49778°E﻿ / 31.04417; 28.49778﻿ (El Dabaa NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-529  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [62][63][64]
Greifswald-1  | Germany  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Decommissioned  |  | [citation needed]
Greifswald-2  | Germany  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Decommissioned  |  | [citation needed]
Greifswald-3  | Germany  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Decommissioned  |  | [citation needed]
Greifswald-4  | Germany  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Decommissioned  |  | [citation needed]
Greifswald-5  | Germany  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Decommissioned  |  | [citation needed]
Greifswald-6  | Germany  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Built  | Unit 6 finished, but never operated.  | [citation needed]
Greifswald-7  | Germany  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Cancelled  |  | [citation needed]
Greifswald-8  | Germany  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Cancelled  |  | [citation needed]
Jizzakh-3  | Uzbekistan |  | VVER-1000  |  |  | Planned | Agreement signed.  | [65]
Jizzakh-4  | Uzbekistan  |  | VVER-1000  |  |  | Planned  | Agreement signed.  | [65]
Juragua-1  | Cuba  |  | VVER-440  | V-318  | II | Cancelled  |  |
Juragua-2  | Cuba  |  | VVER-440  | V-318  | II | Cancelled  |  |
Kalinin-1  | Russia  |  | VVER-1000  | V-338  | III | Operational  |  |
Kalinin-2  | Russia  |  | VVER-1000  | V-338  | III | Operational  |  |
Kalinin-3  | Russia  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | construction slow down in 1990, restarted construction in early 1990s, commissioned in 2004  | [66]
Kalinin-4  | Russia  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | suspended in 1991, restarted and commissioned in 2012  | [66]
Kaliningrad-1  | Russia  |  | VVER-1200  | V-491  | III+  | Construction suspended  |  |
Kaliningrad-2  | Russia  |  | VVER-1200  | V-491  | III+  | Construction suspended  |  |
Khmelnytskyi-1  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  | [67]
Khmelnytskyi-2  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  | [67]
Khmelnytskyi-3  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-392B  | III | Under construction  | Unit 3 planned to be completed with Czech company Škoda JS as VVER-1000 and units 5 and 6 contract signed - Westinghouse AP1000  | [67]
Khmelnytskyi-4  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-392B  | III | Cancelled  | Cancelled in 2021  | [67]
Kola-1  | Russia  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Operational  | prolonged to 60-year operation lifespan  | [68]
Kola-2  | Russia  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Operational  | prolonged to 60-year operation lifespan  | [68]
Kola-3  | Russia  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  | prolonged to 60-year operation lifespan  | [68]
Kola-4  | Russia  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  | prolonged to 60-year operation lifespan  | [68]
Kola II-1  | Russia |  | VVER-S  |  |  | Planned | Four 600 MW units are planned with a service life of 80 years, construction is expected to happen during 2027-2037  | [49]
Kola II-2  | Russia  |  | VVER-S  |  |  | Planned  |  |
Kola II-3  | Russia  |  | VVER-S  |  |  | Planned  |  |
Kola II-4  | Russia  |  | VVER-S  |  |  | Planned  |  |
Kudankulam-1  | India  |  [ ⚑ ] 8°10′08″N 77°42′45″E﻿ / ﻿8.16889°N 77.7125°E﻿ / 8.16889; 77.7125﻿ (Kudankulam NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-412 (AES-92)  | III | Operational  | Operational since 13 July 2013  | [69]
Kudankulam-2  | India  |  [ ⚑ ] 8°10′08″N 77°42′45″E﻿ / ﻿8.16889°N 77.7125°E﻿ / 8.16889; 77.7125﻿ (Kudankulam NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-412 (AES-92)  | III | Operational  | Operational since 10 July 2016  | [69]
Kudankulam-3  | India  |  [ ⚑ ] 8°10′08″N 77°42′45″E﻿ / ﻿8.16889°N 77.7125°E﻿ / 8.16889; 77.7125﻿ (Kudankulam NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-412 (AES-92)  | III | Under construction  |  |
Kudankulam-4  | India  |  [ ⚑ ] 8°10′08″N 77°42′45″E﻿ / ﻿8.16889°N 77.7125°E﻿ / 8.16889; 77.7125﻿ (Kudankulam NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-412 (AES-92)  | III | Under construction  |  |
Kudankulam-5  | India  |  [ ⚑ ] 8°10′08″N 77°42′45″E﻿ / ﻿8.16889°N 77.7125°E﻿ / 8.16889; 77.7125﻿ (Kudankulam NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-412 (AES-92)  | III | Under construction  |  |
Kudankulam-6  | India  |  [ ⚑ ] 8°10′08″N 77°42′45″E﻿ / ﻿8.16889°N 77.7125°E﻿ / 8.16889; 77.7125﻿ (Kudankulam NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-412 (AES-92)  | III | Under construction  |  |
Kozloduy-1  | Bulgaria  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Permanent Shutdown  | Shutdown in 2002  | [70]
Kozloduy-2  | Bulgaria  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Permanent Shutdown  | Shutdown in 2002  |
Kozloduy-3  | Bulgaria  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Permanent Shutdown  | Shutdown in 2006  |
Kozloduy-4  | Bulgaria  |  | VVER-440  | V-230  | II | Permanent Shutdown  | Shutdown in 2006  | [71]
Kozloduy-5  | Bulgaria  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Uprated to 1040 MW  | [72]
Kozloduy-6  | Bulgaria  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Uprated to 1040 MW  | [73]
Kursk II-1  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 51°41′18″N 35°34′24″E﻿ / ﻿51.68833°N 35.57333°E﻿ / 51.68833; 35.57333﻿ (Kursk II NPP) | VVER-TOI

VVER-1300

| V-510K  | III+  | Operational  |  |
Kursk II-2  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 51°41′18″N 35°34′24″E﻿ / ﻿51.68833°N 35.57333°E﻿ / 51.68833; 35.57333﻿ (Kursk II NPP) | VVER-TOI

VVER-1300

| V-510K  | III+  | Under construction  |  |
Kursk II-3  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 51°41′18″N 35°34′24″E﻿ / ﻿51.68833°N 35.57333°E﻿ / 51.68833; 35.57333﻿ (Kursk II NPP) | VVER-TOI

VVER-1300

| V-510K  | III+  | Under construction  | Pouring of the concrete for the foundation of the 3rd unit has started in May 2026, the goal is for all 4 units to be in operation by 2034.[74] | [74]
Kursk II-4  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 51°41′18″N 35°34′24″E﻿ / ﻿51.68833°N 35.57333°E﻿ / 51.68833; 35.57333﻿ (Kursk II NPP) | VVER-TOI

VVER-1300

| V-510K  | III+  | Under construction  |  |
Leningrad II-1 | Russia |  [ ⚑ ] 59°49′52″N 29°03′35″E﻿ / ﻿59.83111°N 29.05972°E﻿ / 59.83111; 29.05972﻿ (Leningrad II NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491 (AES-2006)  | III+  | Operational  | Prototype. In commercial operation since October 2018.  |
Leningrad II-2  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 59°49′52″N 29°03′35″E﻿ / ﻿59.83111°N 29.05972°E﻿ / 59.83111; 29.05972﻿ (Leningrad II NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491 (AES-2006)  | III+  | Operational  | Prototype. In commercial operation since March 2021.  |
Leningrad II-3  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 59°49′52″N 29°03′35″E﻿ / ﻿59.83111°N 29.05972°E﻿ / 59.83111; 29.05972﻿ (Leningrad II NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491 (AES-2006)  | III+  | Under construction  |  |
Leningrad II-4  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 59°49′52″N 29°03′35″E﻿ / ﻿59.83111°N 29.05972°E﻿ / 59.83111; 29.05972﻿ (Leningrad II NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491 (AES-2006)  | III+  | Under construction  |  |
Loviisa-1  | Finland  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  | Western control systems, clearly different containment structures. Later modified for a 530 MW output.  |
Loviisa-2  | Finland  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  | Western control systems, clearly different containment structures. Later modified for a 530 MW output.  |
Metsamor-1  | Armenia  |  | VVER-440  | V-270  | II | Permanent Shutdown  | Shutdown in 1989.  |
Metsamor-2  | Armenia  |  | VVER-440  | V-270  | II | Operational  | Decommissioning planned in 2036  |
Mochovce-1  | Slovakia  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  | [75]
Mochovce-2  | Slovakia  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  | [75]
Mochovce-3  | Slovakia  |  | VVER-440  | V-213+  | II | Operational  | Commissioned in 2023  | [75]
Mochovce-4  | Slovakia  |  | VVER-440  | V-213+  | II | Under construction  | Under construction since 1985, to be commissioned in 2026.  | [75]
Ninh Thuan 1-1 | Vietnam |  | VVER-1200  | V-491 (AES-2006)  | III+  | Planned | The agreement to build 2 VVER-1200 with the new Leningrad units as the reference project was signed on 23th March 2026  | [76]
Ninh Thuan 1-2  | Vietnam  |  | VVER-1200  | V-491 (AES-2006)  | III+  | Planned  |  |
Novovoronezh-1  | Russia  |  | VVER  | V-210 (V-1)[77] | I  | Decommissioned  | Prototype  | [77]
Novovoronezh-2  | Russia  |  | VVER  | V-365 (V-3M)  | I  | Decommissioned  | Prototype  | \-  | Novovoronezh-3  | Russia  |  | VVER-440  | V-179  | II | Decommissioned  | Prototype. Unit 3 modernised in 2002.[79] | [79]
Novovoronezh-4  | Russia  |  | VVER-440  | V-179  | II | Operational  |  |
Novovoronezh-5  | Russia  |  | VVER-1000  | V-187  | II | Operational  | Prototype.  |
Novovoronezh II-1 | Russia |  [ ⚑ ] 51°15′53.964″N 39°12′41.22″E﻿ / ﻿51.26499°N 39.21145°E﻿ / 51.26499; 39.21145﻿ (Novovoronezh II NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-392M (AES-2006)  | III+  | Operational | Prototype. Commissioned in 2017.  |
Novovoronezh II-2  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 51°15′53.964″N 39°12′41.22″E﻿ / ﻿51.26499°N 39.21145°E﻿ / 51.26499; 39.21145﻿ (Novovoronezh II NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-392M (AES-2006)  | III+  | Operational  | Commissioned in 2019.  |
Paks-1  | Hungary  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  | [80]
Paks-2  | Hungary  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  | [80]
Paks-3  | Hungary  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  | [80]
Paks-4  | Hungary  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  | [80]
Paks-5  | Hungary  |  | VVER-1200  | V-517  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [80]
Paks-6  | Hungary  |  | VVER-1200  | V-517  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [80]
Rheinsberg | Germany |  | VVER  | VVER-70 (V-2)  | I  | Decommissioned | Unit decommissioned in 1990  | [78]
Rivne-1  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  |
Rivne-2  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-440  | V-213  | II | Operational  |  |
Rivne-3  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Rivne-4  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Unit 4 suspended in 1990, restarted in 1993 with a very slow progress.  |
Rivne-5  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Planning Suspended  | Planning suspended in 1990.  |
Rivne-6  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Planning Suspended  | Planning suspended in 1990.  |
Rooppur-1 | Bangladesh |  [ ⚑ ] 24°6′47″N 89°4′07″E﻿ / ﻿24.11306°N 89.06861°E﻿ / 24.11306; 89.06861﻿ (Rooppur NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-523  | III+  | Under construction |  | [81]
Rooppur-2  | Bangladesh  |  [ ⚑ ] 24°6′47″N 89°4′07″E﻿ / ﻿24.11306°N 89.06861°E﻿ / 24.11306; 89.06861﻿ (Rooppur NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-523  | III+  | Under construction  |  | [81]
Rostov-1  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°35′57.63″N 42°22′18.76″E﻿ / ﻿47.5993417°N 42.3718778°E﻿ / 47.5993417; 42.3718778﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Plant construction suspended in 1990 - unit 1 was nearly 100% completed. Construction restarted in 1999-2000. Commissioned in 2001  | [82]
Rostov-2  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°35′57.63″N 42°22′18.76″E﻿ / ﻿47.5993417°N 42.3718778°E﻿ / 47.5993417; 42.3718778﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Plant construction suspended in 1990. Construction restarted in 1999-2000.  | [82]
Rostov-3  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°35′57.63″N 42°22′18.76″E﻿ / ﻿47.5993417°N 42.3718778°E﻿ / 47.5993417; 42.3718778﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Plant construction suspended in 1990. Construction restarted in 1999-2000.  | [82]
Rostov-4  | Russia  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°35′57.63″N 42°22′18.76″E﻿ / ﻿47.5993417°N 42.3718778°E﻿ / 47.5993417; 42.3718778﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Plant construction suspended in 1990. Construction restarted in 1999-2000. Commissioned in 2018  | [82]
South Ukraine-1  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-302  | III | Operational  |  |
South Ukraine-2  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-338  | III | Operational  |  |
South Ukraine-3  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
South Ukraine-4  | Ukraine  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | Construction suspended in 1989 and cancelled in 1991.  | [83]
Stendal-1  | Germany  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | Cancelled in 1991 after German reunification  | [84]
Stendal-2  | Germany  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | Cancelled in 1991 after German reunification  | [84]
Stendal-3  | Germany  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | Cancelled in 1991 after German reunification  | [84]
Stendal-4  | Germany  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | Cancelled in 1991 after German reunification  | [84]
Temelin-1  | Czech Republic  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Western control systems. Both units upgraded to 1086 MWe and commissioned in 2000  | [85]
Temelin-2  | Czech Republic  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Western control systems. Both units upgraded to 1086 MWe and commissioned in 2002  | [85]
Temelin-3  | Czech Republic  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | cancelled in 1990 due to change of political regime, only foundation was completed. planned with KHNP's APR1000.  | [85]
Temelin-4  | Czech Republic  |  | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Cancelled  | cancelled in 1990 due to change of political regime, only foundation was completed. planned with KHNP's APR1000.  | [85]
Tianwan-1  | China  |  [ ⚑ ] 34°41′13″N 119°27′35″E﻿ / ﻿34.68694°N 119.45972°E﻿ / 34.68694; 119.45972﻿ (Tianwan NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-428 (AES-91)  | III | Operational  |  |
Tianwan-2  | China  |  [ ⚑ ] 34°41′13″N 119°27′35″E﻿ / ﻿34.68694°N 119.45972°E﻿ / 34.68694; 119.45972﻿ (Tianwan NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-428 (AES-91)  | III | Operational  |  |
Tianwan-3  | China  |  [ ⚑ ] 34°41′13″N 119°27′35″E﻿ / ﻿34.68694°N 119.45972°E﻿ / 34.68694; 119.45972﻿ (Tianwan NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-428M (AES-91)  | III | Operational  |  |
Tianwan-4  | China  |  [ ⚑ ] 34°41′13″N 119°27′35″E﻿ / ﻿34.68694°N 119.45972°E﻿ / 34.68694; 119.45972﻿ (Tianwan NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-428M (AES-91)  | III | Operational  |  |
Tianwan-7  | China  |  [ ⚑ ] 34°41′13″N 119°27′35″E﻿ / ﻿34.68694°N 119.45972°E﻿ / 34.68694; 119.45972﻿ (Tianwan NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491  | III+  | Under construction  | VVER-1200 construction started in May 2021 and February 2022.  | [86][87]
Tianwan-8  | China  |  [ ⚑ ] 34°41′13″N 119°27′35″E﻿ / ﻿34.68694°N 119.45972°E﻿ / 34.68694; 119.45972﻿ (Tianwan NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491  | III+  | Under construction  | VVER-1200 construction started in February 2022.  | [86][87]
Xudabao-3 | China |  [ ⚑ ] 40°21′5″N 120°32′45″E﻿ / ﻿40.35139°N 120.54583°E﻿ / 40.35139; 120.54583﻿ (Xudabao NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491  | III+  | Under construction | Construction on the first reactor commenced on 28 July 2021  | [88][89]
Xudabao-4  | China  |  [ ⚑ ] 40°21′5″N 120°32′45″E﻿ / ﻿40.35139°N 120.54583°E﻿ / 40.35139; 120.54583﻿ (Xudabao NPP) | VVER-1200  | V-491  | III+  | Under construction  | Construction starting on 19 May 2022.  | [88][89]
Zaporizhzhia-1  | Ukraine  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°30′30″N 34°35′04″E﻿ / ﻿47.50833°N 34.58444°E﻿ / 47.50833; 34.58444﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Zaporizhzhia-2  | Ukraine  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°30′30″N 34°35′04″E﻿ / ﻿47.50833°N 34.58444°E﻿ / 47.50833; 34.58444﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Zaporizhzhia-3  | Ukraine  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°30′30″N 34°35′04″E﻿ / ﻿47.50833°N 34.58444°E﻿ / 47.50833; 34.58444﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Zaporizhzhia-4  | Ukraine  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°30′30″N 34°35′04″E﻿ / ﻿47.50833°N 34.58444°E﻿ / 47.50833; 34.58444﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Zaporizhzhia-5  | Ukraine  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°30′30″N 34°35′04″E﻿ / ﻿47.50833°N 34.58444°E﻿ / 47.50833; 34.58444﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  |  |
Zaporizhzhia-6  | Ukraine  |  [ ⚑ ] 47°30′30″N 34°35′04″E﻿ / ﻿47.50833°N 34.58444°E﻿ / 47.50833; 34.58444﻿ (Zaporizhzhia NPP) | VVER-1000  | V-320  | III | Operational  | Commissioned in 1996.  |
Zhambyl-1 | Kazakhstan |  | VVER-1200  |  | III+  | Planned | VVER-1200 was selected to be built in Kazakhstan, the first large (more than 1GW) nuclear power plant in Kazakhstan (previous unit in operation was BN-350)  | [90]
Zhambyl-2  | Kazakhstan  |  | VVER-1200  |  | III+  | Planned  |  | [90]

## Technical specifications

Specifications  | VVER-210  | VVER-365  | VVER-440  | VVER-1000  | VVER-1200
(V-392M)  | VVER-TOI

VVER-1300

|
|
|
|
|
|

References  | [91] |  |  |  | [92][93][94] | [95][96][97]
Thermal output, MW | 760 | 1325 | 1375 | 3000 | 3212 | 3300
Efficiency, net % | 25.5 | 25.7 | 29.7 | 31.7 | 35.7[nb 1] | 37.9
Vapor pressure, in 100 kPa  |
in front of the turbine | 29.0 | 29.0 | 44.0 | 60.0 | 70.0 |
in the first circuit | 100 | 105 | 125 | 160.0 | 165.1 | 165.2
Water temperature, °C: |
core coolant inlet | 250 | 250 | 269 | 289 | 298.2[98] | 297.2
core coolant outlet | 269 | 275 | 300 | 319 | 328.6 | 328.8
Equivalent core diameter, m | 2.88 | 2.88 | 2.88 | 3.12 | — |
Active core height, m | 2.50 | 2.50 | 2.50 | 3.50 | — | 3.73[99]
Outer diameter of fuel rods, mm | 10.2 | 9.1 | 9.1 | 9.1 | 9.1 | 9.1
Number of fuel rods in assembly | 90 | 126 | 126 | 312 | 312 | 313
Number of fuel assemblies[91][100] | 349

(312+ARK (SUZ) 37)

| 349

(276+ARK 73)

| 349 (276+ARK 73),
(312+ARK 37) Kola | 151 (109+SUZ 42),

163

| 163 | 163
Uranium loading, tons | 38 | 40 | 42 | 66 | 76-85.5 | 87.3
Average uranium enrichment, % | 2.0 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 4.26 | 4.69 |
Average fuel burnup, MW · day / kg | 13.0 | 27.0 | 28.6 | 48.4 | 55.5 |

## See also

* Nuclear power in Russia
* Russian floating nuclear power station
* VBER-300

## Notes

1. ↑ Other sources \- 34,8.

## References

1. ↑ "Kudankulam nuclear plant starts generating power, connected to southern grid". The Times Of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Kudankulam-nuclear-plant-starts-generating-power-connected-to-southern-grid/articleshow/24518920.cms.
2. ↑ "Historical notes". OKB Gidropress. http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/about/history.php.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "WWER-type reactor plants". OKB Gidropress. http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/projects/wwer.php.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 "Russia's VVER-TOI reactor certified by European utilities". World Nuclear News. 14 June 2019. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Russia-s-VVER-VOI-reactor-certified-by-European-ut.
5. ↑ "Nuclear Reactors in Germany", World Nuclear Association, https://www.world-nuclear.org/country/default.aspx/Germany
6. ↑ Prof. H. Böck. "WWER/ VVER (Soviet Designed Pressurized Water Reactors)". Austria Atominstitute. http://www.ati.ac.at/fileadmin/files/research_areas/ssnm/nmkt/04_WWER_Overview.pdf.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Fil, Nikolay (26–28 July 2011). "Status and perspectives of VVER nuclear power plants". IAEA. http://www.iaea.org/NuclearPower/Downloads/Technology/meetings/2011-Jul-26-28-TWG-LWR-HWR/Session-I/21.TWG-LWR-Russia.pdf.
8. ↑ "Rosatom Intends to Certify VVER in Great Britain and USA". Novostienergetiki.re. 6 June 2012. http://novostienergetiki.ru/rosatom-intends-to-certify-vver-in-great-britain-and-usa/.
9. ↑ Svetlana Burmistrova (13 August 2013). "Russia's Rosatom eyes nuclear contracts in Britain". Reuters. http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-nuclear-russia-britain-idUKBRE97C0GS20130813.
10. ↑ "Reactor Vessel Head Degradation - Images | NRC.gov". https://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/ops-experience/vessel-head-degradation/images.html.
11. ↑ "Atommash has manufactured the reactor cover for the First Unit of Akkuyu NPP (Turkey)". Aemtech.ru. 2020-11-26. http://www.aemtech.ru/en/mediacenter/news-aemtech/atommash-has-manufactured-the-reactor-cover-for-the-first-unit-of-akkuyu-npp-(turkey).html. Retrieved 2022-03-08.
12. ↑ "Energy in Slovakia". http://www.energyinslovakia.sk/2016/07/nuclearpower-plant-jaslovske-bohunice.html.
13. ↑ "Nuclear Power in the Czech Republic - Nuclear Power in Czechia". World Nuclear Association. http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-a-f/czech-republic.aspx.
14. ↑ Higginbotham, Adam (February 4, 2020). Midnight in Chernobyl: The Untold Story of the World's Greatest Nuclear Disaster. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781501134630. https://books.google.com/books?id=WwPJDwAAQBAJ&q=rbmk+serpentinite&pg=PA61.
15. ↑ "Rosatom starts reactor tests aiming to increase nuclear fuel enrichment". World Nuclear News. 11 December 2024. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/rosatom-launches-reactor-tests-of-5-enriched-nuclear-fuel.
16. ↑ "Pilot operation for REMIX fuel completed". World Nuclear News. 25 March 2026. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/pilot-operation-for-remix-fuel-completed. Retrieved 26 March 2026.
17. ↑ "Final cycle of REMIX nuclear fuel trial under way". World Nuclear News. 3 December 2024. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/final-cycle-of-remix-nuclear-fuel-trial-under-way. Retrieved 18 March 2025.
18. ↑ Martti Antila, Tuukka Lahtinen. "Recent Core Design and Operating Experience in Loviisa NPP". Fortum Nuclear Services LTD, Espoo, Finland (IAEA). http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/39/050/39050533.pdf. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
19. ↑ "Modernization works begin at Russia's oldest VVER-1000". Nuclear Engineering International. 30 September 2010. http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?sectionCode=132&storyCode=2057673.
20. ↑ "Rosatom launches annealing technology for VVER-1000 units". World Nuclear News. 27 November 2018. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Rosatom-launches-annealing-technology-for-VVER-100.
21. ↑ "AES-2006 (VVER-1200)". Rosatom. http://www.old.rosatom.ru/en/about/projects/npp_2006/.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Asmolov, V. G. (10 September 2009). "Development of the NPP Designs Based on the VVER Technology". Rosatom. http://www.oecd-nea.org/mdep/events/conf_sept_2009/conference-presentations/Session 4 -1-4 - ROSATOM.pdf.
23. ↑ "Novovoronezh II-2 nears physical start-up". 25 March 2019. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Novovoronezh-II-2-completes-physical-start-up.
24. ↑ "Loading of dummy fuel into Rooppur 1 begins". 18 September 2024. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/loading-of-dummy-fuel-in-rooppur-1-begins.
25. ↑ ﻿Status report 108 - VVER-1200 (V-491)﻿ (Report). Rosatom. 2014. https://www.iaea.org/NuclearPower/Downloadable/aris/2013/36.VVER-1200(V-491).pdf. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
26. ↑ "WWER-1000 reactor plant (V-392)". OKB Gidropress. http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/en/projects/wwer1000.php.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "$10 billion construction contract signed for two AES 2006 Russian reactors in Belarus". I-Nuclear. 19 July 2012. http://www.i-nuclear.com/2012/07/19/10-billion-construction-contract-signed-for-two-aes-2006-russian-reactors-in-belarus/.
28. ↑ "Rosatom buys into Fennovoima". World Nuclear News. 28 March 2014. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/C-Rosatom-buys-into-Fennovoima-2803144.html.
29. ↑ "Fennovoima has terminated the contract for the delivery of the Hanhikivi 1 nuclear power plant with Rosatom" (in en). https://www.hanhikivi1.fi/en/press-releases/fennovoima-has-terminated-contract-delivery-hanhikivi-1-nuclear-power-plant-rosatom.
30. ↑ "'Notice to proceed' contracts signed for El Dabaa". World Nuclear News. 11 December 2017. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Notice-to-proceed-contracts-signed-for-El-Dabaa-1112178.html.
31. ↑ "First Concrete Poured For Unit 1 At Bangladesh's Rooppur". NucNet a.s.b.l Brussels. 30 November 2017. https://www.nucnet.org/all-the-news/2017/11/30/first-concrete-poured-for-unit-1-at-bangladesh-s-rooppur.
32. ↑ "AtomStroyExport unveils schedule for China projects". World Nuclear News. 3 April 2019. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/AtomStroyExport-unveils-schedule-for-China-project.
33. ↑ "Russia to transition VVER-1200 to longer fuel cycle". Nuclear Engineering International. 3 March 2020. https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsrussia-to-transition-vver-1200-to-longer-fuel-cycle-7803196.
34. ↑ "VVER fuel reliable in flexible power output tests, says Rosatom". 16 July 2024. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/VVER-fuel-reliable-in-flexible-power-output-tests.
35. ↑ V.G. Asmolov (26 August 2011). "Passive safety in VVERs". JSC Rosenergoatom (Nuclear Engineering International). http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=2060518.
36. ↑ "First VVER-1200 reactor enters commercial operation". World Nuclear News. 2 March 2017. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-First-VVER-1200-reactor-enters-commercial-operation-02031701.html.
37. ↑ "Core catcher installation under way at Rooppur 1". http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Core-catcher-installation-under-way-at-Rooppur-1.
38. ↑ "Melt traps ordered for Egyptian nuclear plant". Nuclear Engineering International. 6 February 2018. http://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsmelt-traps-ordered-for-egyptian-nuclear-plant-6046143.
39. ↑ "Concrete progress at Akkuyu". 10 April 2019. https://www.neimagazine.com/analysis/concrete-progress-at-akkuyu-7148151/.
40. ↑ "Putting Akkuyu on firm foundations". 4 June 2019. https://www.modernpowersystems.com/analysis/putting-akkuyu-on-firm-foundations-7243288/.
41. ↑ "Создание типового проекта оптимизированного и информатизированного энергоблока технологии ВВЭР (ВВЭР-ТОИ)". Rosatom Nuclear Energy State Corporation. http://rosatom.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosatom/rosatomsite/investor/projects/.
42. ↑ "Kursk II-1 reactor vessel delivered". 20 September 2021. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Kursk-II-2-reactor-vessel-delivered.
43. ↑ "Reactor vessel delivered to Kursk II's second unit". 21 November 2023. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Reactor-vessel-delivered-to-Kursk-II-s-second-unit.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "AEM Technology sees milestone with first VVER-TOI". World Nuclear News. 17 April 2018. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-AEM-Technology-sees-milestone-with-first-VVER-TOI-17041801.html.
45. ↑ "First Kursk II unit connected to the grid". World Nuclear News. 2 January 2026. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/first-kursk-ii-unit-connected-to-the-grid. Retrieved 12 January 2026.
46. ↑ "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=903.
47. ↑ "Kursk II's first VVER-TOI 'has generated 2 billion kWh'". World Nuclear News. 22 May 2026. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/kursk-2-first-vver-toi-has-generated-two-billion-kwh. Retrieved 22 May 2026.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 "Fresh stage of tests for VVER-S and MOX fuel" (in en). 2025-03-18. https://world-nuclear-news.org/articles/fresh-stage-of-research-for-vver-s-and-mox-fuel.
49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 "Four 600 MW units planned for Kola II" (in en). 2025-07-02. https://world-nuclear-news.org/articles/four-600-mw-units-planned-for-kola-ii.
50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 "Fresh Look at Reactor Classics" (in en). 2025-07-16. https://rosatomnewsletter.com/2023/11/29/fresh-look-at-reactor-classics/.
51. ↑ "Что известно о строительстве Кольской АЭС-2". Vedomosti. 2025-07-02. https://spb.vedomosti.ru/technology/articles/2025/07/02/1121561-chto-izvestno-o-stroitelstve-kolskoi-aes-2.
52. ↑ "The VVER today". ROSATOM. http://www.rosatom.ru/upload/iblock/0be/0be1220af25741375138ecd1afb18743.pdf.
53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 53.3 "Turkey to begin work on 2 more nuclear power plants: Erdoğan" (in en-US). 2021-11-09. https://www.dailysabah.com/business/energy/turkey-to-begin-work-on-2-more-nuclear-power-plants-erdogan.
54. ↑ Nagel, Christina (7 Nov 2020). "Belarus' erstes AKW geht ans Netz" (in de). Tagesschau. https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/belarus-akw-101.html.
55. ↑ "Second unit of Belarus nuclear plant connected to grid - 15 May 2023". 2023-05-15. https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Second-unit-of-Belarus-nuclear-plant-connect-to-gr.
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 "На Балаковской АЭС снесут 2 энергоблока... | Типичный Балаково! | VK" (in en). https://vk.com/wall-39325472_2315686.
57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 "Bulgarian Parliament Votes to Abandon Belene Nuclear Plant". World Nuclear Report. 27 Feb 2013. http://www.worldnuclearreport.org/Bulgarian-Parliament-Votes-to.html. Retrieved 22 Sep 2014.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 "Vyřazování reaktorů V1 v Jaslovských Bohunicích bylo dokončeno" (in cs-CZ). oEnergetice.cz. 2025-07-24. https://oenergetice.cz/jaderne-elektrarny/vyrazovani-reaktoru-v1-v-jaslovskych-bohunicich-bylo-dokonceno.
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=310.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=311.
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 61.2 61.3 61.4 61.5 61.6 61.7 "Dukovany na vyšší výkon. ČEZ chce z elektrárny vytáhnout více energie" (in cs). https://www.euro.cz/clanky/dukovany-na-vyssi-vykon-1477459/.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 Ezzidin, Toqa (29 November 2015). "El-Dabaa nuclear station to generate electricity in 2024: Prime Minister". Daily News (Egypt). http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2015/11/29/el-dabaa-nuclear-station-to-generate-electricity-in-2024-prime-minister/.
63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 63.3 "Egypt and Russia agree on two contracts for El Dabaa NPP". Nuclear Engineering International. 20 March 2017. http://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsegypt-and-russia-agree-on-two-contracts-for-el-dabaa-npp-5765715.
64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 Farag, Mohamed (14 March 2017). "Russia launches operations of nuclear unit similar to Dabaa units". Daily News (Egypt). http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2017/03/14/618490/.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 "Uzbekistan and Russia mark SMR construction progress". World Nuclear News. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/uzbekistan-russia-mark-smr-construction-progress.
66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 "Kernkraftwerk Kalinin – Nucleopedia". https://de.nucleopedia.org/wiki/Kernkraftwerk_Kalinin.
67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 67.3 "Khmelnytskyi Nuclear Power Plant, Ukraine". https://www.power-technology.com/projects/khmelnytskyi-nuclear-power-plant/.
68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 "Kola nuclear power plant much safer". http://barentsobserver.com/en/energy/2013/09/kola-nuclear-power-plant-much-safer-17-09.
69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant attains criticality
70. ↑ "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/pris/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=16.
71. ↑ "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=19.
72. ↑ "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=20.
73. ↑ "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=21.
74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 "Concreting completed of Kursk II's third reactor building foundation". World Nuclear News. 8 May 2026. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/concreting-of-kursk-iis-third-reactor-building-foundation-completed.
75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 75.3 "New Slovak nuclear plant moves closer to launch". 2022-10-24. https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/new-slovak-nuclear-plant-moves-closer-launch-2022-10-24/. "Once Mochovce Unit 4 is complete, around two years after Unit 3 is functioning, Slovakia is expected to become a net electricity exporter to other European Union countries."
76. ↑ "Vietnam, Russia sign agreement on new nuclear plant". World Nuclear News. 23 March 2026. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/vietnam-russia-intergovernmental-agreement-on-new-nuclear.
77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Сергей Панов. "У истоков водо-водяных". http://atomicexpert.com/page299069.html.
78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 Денисов В.П.. "Эволюция водо-водяных энергетических реакторов для АЭС p.246". http://elib.biblioatom.ru/text/istoriya-atomnoy-energetiki_v2_2002/go,246.
79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 "New life of Novovoronezh 3". Nuclear Engineering International. 3 June 2002. http://www.neimagazine.com/story.asp?storyCode=2015522.
80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 80.2 80.3 80.4 80.5 "Elkezdődött a -5 méterig terjedő talajkiemelés". 2022-08-29. https://paks2.hu/web/guest/w/elkezdodott-a-5-meterig-terjedo-talajkiemeles.
81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 "Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, Ishwardi". https://www.power-technology.com/projects/rooppur-nuclear-power-plant-ishwardi/.
82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 82.3 "Kernkraftwerk Rostow – Nucleopedia". https://de.nucleopedia.org/wiki/Rostow.
83. ↑ "South-Ukraine NPP" (in en-US). 2015-07-16. https://www.uatom.org/en/general-information/south-ukraine-npp.
84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 84.2 84.3 "(GRS 112) Safety Releated Assessment of the Stendal Nuclear Power Plant, Unit A, of the Type WWER-1000/ W-320 | GRS gGmbH" (in de). https://www.grs.de/en/node/1010.
85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 85.3 "Korejský reaktor APR1000: nejlepší řešení pro Česko - iDNES.cz" (in cs). iDNES.cz. 2024-06-22. https://sdeleni.idnes.cz/zpravy/korejsky-reaktor-apr1000-nejlepsi-reseni-pro-cesko.A240617_103853_zpr_sdeleni_okov.
86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=1105.
87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=1110.
88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=1104.
89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 "PRIS - Reactor Details". https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/CountryStatistics/ReactorDetails.aspx?current=1112.
90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 "Kazakhstan selects Rosatom for first nuclear power plant". World Nuclear News. 16 June 2025. https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/articles/kazakhstan-selects-rosatom-for-first-nuclear-power-plant.
91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 V.V. Semenov (1979). "Основные физико-технические характеристики реакторных установок ВВЭР". IAEA. http://www.iaea.org/inis/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/11/514/11514338.pdf.
92. ↑ "Нововоронежская АЭС-2". http://www.rosenergoatom.ru/upload/iblock/f01/f01b5ca309dbda1917c112d6897c0959.pdf.
93. ↑ "Реакторные установки ВВЭР с. 49". http://www.gidropress.podolsk.ru/files/publication/st-2013/documents/283.pdf.
94. ↑ Андрушечко С.А. и др. (2010). "АЭС с реактором типа ВВЭР-1000". http://elib.biblioatom.ru/text/andrushechko_aes-s-reaktorom-vver-1000_2010/go,538/.
95. ↑ Беркович В.Я., Семченков Ю.М. (2012). "Перспективные проекты реакторных установок ВВЭР". http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/Doklady/Berkovich.pdf.
96. ↑ Долгов А.В. (2014). "Разработка и усовершенствование ядерного топлива для активных зон энергетических установок". http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2014/Plenar/Dolgov_A.B..pdf.
97. ↑ Якубенко И. А. (2013). "Основные перспективные конфигурации активных зон новых поколений реакторов типа ВВЭР". Издательство Национального исследовательского ядерного университета "МИФИ". p. 52. https://cyberleninka.ru/article/v/osnovnye-perspektivnye-konfiguratsii-aktivnyh-zon-novyh-pokoleniy-reaktorov-tipa-vver.
98. ↑ В.П.Поваров (2016). "Перспективные проекты реакторных установок ВВЭР с. 7". http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2016/Materials_2016/Plenar_rus/Povarov_V.P._Prezentaciya_rus_bez_zametok.pdf.
99. ↑ Беркович Вадим Яковлевич, Семченков Юрий Михайлович (May 2016). "Error: no `|title=` specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in ru). p. 5. http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2016/Materials_2016/Plenar_rus/MNTK_Berkovich+Semchenkov_RUS.pdf. "25-27"Error:+no+`|title=`+specified when+using+{{[[Template:Cite+web|Cite+web]]}}&rft.atitle=&rft.aulast=Беркович+Вадим+Яковлевич,+Семченков+Юрий+Михайлович&rft.au=Беркович+Вадим+Яковлевич,+Семченков+Юрий+Михайлович&rft.date=May+2016&rft.pages=p.+5&rft_id=http://mntk.rosenergoatom.ru/mediafiles/u/files/2016/Materials_2016/Plenar_rus/MNTK_Berkovich+Semchenkov_RUS.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikibooks.org:Engineering:VVER">
100. ↑ Сергей ПАНОВ. "У истоков водо-водяных". http://atomicexpert.com/page299069.html.

## External links

* The VVER today, Rosatom, 2013
* WWER-type reactor plants , OKB Gidropress
* "VVER-1200 Reactor" (in en). http://www.aem-group.ru/static/images/infografix/2019/1200-2019-05/AEM_reaktor_ENG.pdf. \- on AEM official pdfScript error: The function "in_lang" does not exist.
* VVER 1200 Construction \- on AEM Official YouTube ChannelScript error: The function "in_lang" does not exist.

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