Chronic inflation

Short description: Economic accrual of large inflation for many years

Chronic inflation is an economic phenomenon occurring when a country experiences high inflation for a prolonged period (several years or decades) due to continual increases in the money supply among other things. In countries with chronic inflation, inflation expectations become 'built-in', and it becomes extremely difficult to reduce the inflation rate[1] because the process of reducing inflation by, for example, slowing down the growth rate of the money supply, will often lead to high unemployment until inflationary expectations have adjusted to the new situation.

Chronic inflation is distinct from hyperinflation.

## Contents

* 1 Occurrence
* 2 Causes
* 3 Examples
* 3.1 Argentina
* 3.2 Bulgaria
* 3.3 Chile
* 3.4 Guinea
* 3.5 Israel
* 3.6 Iraq
* 3.7 Japan
* 3.8 Laos
* 3.9 Madagascar
* 3.10 Mexico
* 3.11 Mozambique
* 3.12 North Korea
* 3.13 Syria
* 3.14 Turkey
* 3.15 Uzbekistan
* 3.16 Venezuela
* 3.17 Zambia
* 4 See also
* 5 References

## Occurrence

Even more so than hyperinflation, chronic inflation is a 20th-century phenomenon, being first observed by Felipe Pazos in 1972.[2] High inflation can only be sustained with unbacked paper currencies over long periods, and before World War II unbacked paper currencies were rare except in countries affected by war – which often produced extremely high inflation but never for more than a few years. Most economists believe chronic inflation first emerged in Latin America following World War II, with the result that it was originally called "Latin inflation".[3] Some economists, however, argue that the experience of France in the 1920s was the first case of chronic inflation.[4] Japan (see below) in the years surrounding World War II is another case with characteristics very akin to well-studied cases of chronic inflation.

## Causes

Monetarists state that chronic inflation is caused by chronic growth of the money supply, a position that is accepted by most mainstream economists. This paragraph describes reasons for persistent monetary growth.

In the 1960s and 1970s, chronic inflation was attributed to powerful political group interests with radically divergent policy demands; the power of labour unions to demand high wages for workers, often in obsolete economic sectors, conflicted with the somewhat feudal political structures of the affected countries.[5] Under these conditions, a return to a commodity money that would curb inflation quickly is politically suicidal, so governments of countries affected by chronic inflation have invariably had to resort to more subtle methods of reducing inflation, such as central bank reforms or indexing price and wage levels to the future value of money. This, however, leads to "inflation inertia"[6] and ultimately to a public that becomes skeptical of attempts to reduce inflation: unlike hyperinflation, history has shown that communities can live with moderate chronic inflation relatively easily.

Other sources have argued that chronic inflation is caused by governments seeking to optimize seignorage taxes in order to pay most efficiently for public programmes, or because the societies in which it developed have consistently imported more than they can export and their currencies have had to devalue constantly to make their imports more expensive without elasticity being sufficient to reduce demand.[7] Along the same lines, there have also been arguments for demographic causes of chronic inflation as resulting from populations growing more rapidly than production in developing nations from the 1950s to the 1980s, and until today in sub-Saharan Africa. Increasingly it is also thought that environmental or ecological stresses and disasters can trigger a period of systemic inflation by governments unable to effectively handle the situation.

## Examples

### Argentina

The Argentine economy has a long history of experiencing trouble with prolonged high inflation rates. In 1989, Argentina experienced a hyperinflation crisis as a result of bad economic policies, which led to an inflation rate of 257%. The hyperinflation crisis caused protests, riots, looting and a general decline of the government popularity among the public. This hyperinflation crisis had also taken place in the middle of the presidential elections, which led to the governing party to lose the elections.

During the 1990s, thanks to the convertibility plan, which pegged the austral (and, afterward, the peso) to the United States Dollar value, inflation rates decreased nearly to 0%. These policies ended with a catastrophic economic crisis in 2001.

During the 21st century, Argentina didn't experience real inflationary troubles until 2007, which saw a rise in inflation rates. During Cristina Kirchner's government, inflation rates were at an all-time high, with the highest inflation rates experienced in 2013, which saw a rise of the inflation rate to 30% to 40%.

This was compensated, albeit partly, with high purchasing power and subsidization, the latter increasing the fiscal deficit.

In December 2015, Mauricio Macri assumed the presidency of the nation, with a 40% inflation from Cristina Kirchner's presidency. When 2016 ended, inflation was in a recent of 42%.

The Argentine Ministry of Economy had put in action a project that claimed to reduce inflation from 40% to 20% (+/- 2%) in 2017, to 10% (+/- 2%) in 2018 and to 5% (+/- 1%) in 2019. The project initially led to 24% inflation in 2017, but it did not work in 2018, with an inflation rate of 47.6%, and in 2019, inflation was 53%.

### Bulgaria

In 1996, the Bulgarian economy collapsed due to the slow and mismanaged economic reforms of several governments in a row, shortages of wheat, and an unstable and decentralized banking system, which led to an inflation rate of 311% and the collapse of the lev, with the exchange rate to dollars reaching 3000. When pro-reform forces came into power in the spring 1997, an ambitious economic reform package, including introduction of a currency board regime and pegging the Bulgarian Lev to the German Deutsche Mark (and subsequently to the euro), was agreed to with the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and the economy began to stabilize.

### Chile

Chile had prolonged inflation for the greater part of the twentieth century.[8] Inflation first became persistent at the tail end of the 1930s as the government began a process of import substitution, rising steady to 84 percent in 1955.[9] After slowing in the late 1950s, inflation rose again under Allende and peaked anywhere between 500% and 1,000% in late 1973 (which some consider hyperinflation, though the monthly inflation rate reached 30% for a single month[10]). A 1973 coup d'état deposed Allende and installed a military government led by Augusto Pinochet. Pinochet's free-market economic policy gradually ended chronic inflation, which stabilised in single figures for the first time in forty-five years. Overall impact of chronic inflation: 1 current peso = 1,000,000 pre-1960 pesos.

### Guinea

Guinea has seen year on year inflation rates hover well above 50% since the late 1990s, though many months have seen much lower levels in the single digits. In Guinea the normal drivers of inflation are food supply and distribution, and global commodity prices. Political instability has also contributed greatly to the fall in the Guinean franc's value in recent years due to a series of coups following the ouster of longtime military strongman Lansana Conté and mass protests. Some government mitigation policies and economic growth have progressively stabilized inflation rates which reached their peak in July 2005 at 42.6% for the month to a current average of 9.7% per month. On 21 July 2010, Yahoo! Finance quoted the rate as 5,050 GNF to 1 USD. As of 17 January 2020[update], the exchange rate was 7,023 GNF to 1 USD.

### Israel

Inflation accelerated in the 1970s, rising steadily from 13% in 1971 to 111% in 1979. From 133% in 1980, it leaped to 191% in 1983 and then to 445% in 1984, threatening to become a four-digit figure within a year or two. In 1985 Israel froze most prices by law[11] and enacted other measures as part of an economic stabilization plan. That same year, inflation more than halved, to 185%. Within a few months, the authorities began to lift the price freeze on some items; in other cases it took almost a year. By 1986, inflation was down to 19%.

### Iraq

Years of constant war and rebuilding resulted in large amounts of government spending, with international sanctions creating shortages and limits on borrowing. Between 1987 and 1995 the Iraqi Dinar went from an official value of 0.306 Dinars/USD (or US$3.26 per dinar; the black market rate is thought to have been substantially fewer dinars per dollar) to 3000 Dinars/USD due to government loss of their Swiss printing press and the printing of inferior quality notes. This equates to approximately 315% inflation per year averaged over that eight-year period.[12]

### Japan

As Hirohito prepared for war to gain access to rubber and mineral resources, Japan began experiencing steady inflation from 1934. By the end of 1949, retail prices were more than 150 times their level in 1939, and the highest denomination was a 75,000,000,000 Yen bank cheque. The Japan wholesale price index (relative to 1 as the average of 1930) shot up to 16.3 in 1943, 127.9 in 1948 and 342.5 in 1951. In the early 1950s, after the end of US military occupation, Japan controlled its own money. Through its rapidly growing export trade, Japan stabilized the yen quickly.

### Laos

Starting in the late 1980s financial aid and trade with the USSR greatly decreased, which began a two-decade long period of high inflation that began to accelerate by 1996 with the East Asian financial crisis which had severely impacted Laos, burdened with large amounts of foreign debt coupled with very slow growth. By January 1998 inflation had reached 100% a month and did not dip below that level again until late 1999, after it had peaked well above 167%. For a short time the Lao kip gained the less than respected title of being "least valued currency unit." Although the kip has officially returned to lower inflation levels the local inflation rates remain much higher, spurred on by rising food and import prices. The emergence of a new debt crisis in 2013 has brought more uncertainty.

### Madagascar

The Malagasy franc (iraimbilanja) had a turbulent time in 2004, losing nearly half its value and sparking rampant inflation. On 1 January 2005, the ariary, worth five francs, became the main currency unit in Madagascar. In May 2005, there were riots over rising inflation. Disinflation calmed the situation from 2005 to 2008, but riots ensued in 2009 as prices continued to rise.[13]

### Mexico

In spite of the oil crisis of the late 1970s (Mexico is a producer and exporter), and due to excessive social spending, Mexico defaulted on its external debt in 1982. As a result, the country suffered a severe case of capital flight and over a decade of chronic inflation and peso devaluation. In 1984, the highest denomination was 10,000 pesos [1] [2], by 1991 it was 100,000 pesos and many Mexicans took to putting their savings into dollars. On 1 January 1993, Mexico created a new currency, the nuevo peso ("new peso", or MXN), which chopped 3 zeros off the old peso, an inflation rate of 10,000% over the decade of the crisis. (One new peso was equal to 1000 of the obsolete MXP pesos). The actual highest denomination was 1,000 pesos, worth 1,000,000 old pesos.

### Mozambique

Mozambique was one of the world's poorest and most underdeveloped countries when it became independent of Portugal in 1975, the last colonial power to relinquish its African territories. A brutal civil war between the communist government and rebel forces from 1977 to 1992 led to continuous inflation. The highest denomination in 1976 was 100 meticais. By 2004, it was 500,000 meticais. In the 2006 currency reform, 1 new metical was exchanged for 1,000 old meticais.

### North Korea

Though the North Korean Won, officially called the Korean People's won (KPW) never technically failed it had been steadily devalued since 2002 when the dollar peg was removed. During a North Korean currency reform (ko), the government gave citizens seven days to turn in their old won for new won — with 1,000 old worth 10 of the new — but allowed a maximum exchange of only 150,000 of the old won. That meant each adult could legally exchange about US$740-worth of won. The exchange cap wiped out the savings of many North Koreans, and reportedly caused unrest in parts of the country. Many of the exchange and time limits for conversion were either dropped or extended after prices soared over 1000% in some regions in the first week as people rushed to buy as much things as they could. According to a September 2009 BBC report,[14] some department stores in Pyongyang even stopped accepting North Korean won, instead insisting upon payment in U.S. dollars, Chinese renminbi, euros, or even Japanese yen.

### Syria

The Syrian Civil War has resulted in a substantial capital fight of Syrian goods and services to nearby Arab countries. Before the war, the exchange rate was remarkably stable; one U.S. dollar was quoted at 47 Syrian pounds. As of 19 January 2020[update], profound effects of the Syrian Civil War to the Syrian economy reduced the value of the Syrian pound to less than one thousandth of a U.S. dollar in the black market, representing a devaluation of 96% since the start of the war. Between 1 January and 16 January 2020, the Syrian pound lost a quarter of its value relative to the U.S. dollar, from 900 SYP/USD to 1200 SYP/USD.[15]

Further compounding the problem, the use of currencies other than Syrian pounds in any transaction is forbidden under Syrian law, and on 18 January 2020, Syrian president Bashar al-Assad increased the penalty for unauthorised use of foreign currency anywhere in Syria to seven years of hard labour. Despite the law, Syrians continue to resort to hard currencies such as U.S. dollars or euros to maintain their purchasing power.[16]

### Turkey

Throughout the 1990s Turkey dealt with severe inflation rates that finally crippled the economy into a recession in 2001. The highest denomination in 1995 was 1,000,000 lira. By 2005 it was 20,000,000 lira. Recently Turkey has achieved single digit inflation for the first time in decades, and in the 2005 currency reform, introduced the New Turkish Lira; 1 was exchanged for 1,000,000 old lira.

### Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan has perpetually experienced high inflation since the time of independence. In 1994 the highest denomination available was 100 som, the current highest is 5000 som with a face value of roughly $2.00 as of 2014 and large bundles of currency are required for any substantial purchase, with most prices rounded off to the nearest thousand.

### Venezuela

Venezuela has a legacy of multiple inflation crises linked to mismanagement and lack of economic diversification. The largest and longest period was in the 1980s and 1990s; inflation peaked in 1996, increasing from 60% in January to an all-time high of 118.8% in July of that same year. Revenue from petroleum exports accounts for more than 50% of the country's GDP and roughly 95% of total exports, and after decades of some of the strongest economic growth in South America the trend went into sharp reversal as oil prices began their steady drop following the end of the 1970s oil crisis, from which both OPEC member and non-member producers had benefited greatly. This period of economic contraction in Venezuela coincided with the beginning of the 1980s oil glut, which saw large cutbacks in production and state revenue. Since the early 2000s the administration of Hugo Chavez responded to the ongoing crisis with a series of often flawed price controls, state acquisition and reappropriation of both public and private assets and funds, and a revaluation of the bolivar in 2008 which slashed three zeroes off the currency. However, changes in economic reliance on petroleum and mining exports were never made, and Venezuela remained vulnerable to global supply of and demand for oil, and continued to suffer systemic economic problems and a return to high inflation. As of January 2014, Venezuela had the highest inflation rate in the world at 56.2% (63.4% in August 2014), though official numbers are stated to be much lower. The national economy has contracted for three consecutive quarters, officially putting the country in recession, while a global crash in oil prices crimp revenue and contribute to fears of a potential default which could bring inflation levels even higher.[17]

### Zambia

Falling copper prices, the oil crisis, and failed economic management in the 1970s led to shortfalls and severe economic crisis in Zambia by the early 80s, instigating a nationwide famine and forcing the government to borrow massive amounts of money and commit to extreme IMF economic reforms which led to anti-government riots and the devaluation of the kwacha. Inflation held around 15% in the 1980s until hitting 54% in 1988, to 191% in 1992, and 183% in 1993, compounded further by a prolonged drought. A "cash-budgeting system" and free market reforms brought inflation down to 55% in 1994, and 25% in 1998.

## See also

* Hyperinflation
* Hyperstagflation
* Disinflation
* Inflationism
* Spanish Price Revolution (c. 1450–c. 1650)
* Stagflation

## References

1. ↑ Carmen Reinhart and Carlos A. Vegh (7 January 2009). "EconPapers: Inflation stabilization in chronic inflation countries: The empirical evidence". Econpapers.repec.org. http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/pramprapa/13689.htm. Retrieved 7 January 2010.
2. ↑ Pazos, Felipe. Chronic Inflation in Latin America. Präger Special Studies in International Economics and Development. ISBN 0-275-28282-1.
3. ↑ Maier, Charles S.. In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy. pp. 206–210. ISBN 0-521-34698-3.
4. ↑ Hirsch, Fred; Goldthorpe, John H.. The Political Economy of Inflation. pp. 53–55. ISBN 0-674-68584-9.
5. ↑ Maier. In Search of Stability. pp. 205, 208.
6. ↑ Agénor, Pierre-Richard. The Economics of Adjustment and Growth. pp. 209–210. ISBN 0-674-01578-9.
7. ↑ "INFLATION, CHRONIC INFLATION". http://www.systemdynamics.org/conferences/1997/paper240.htm.
8. ↑ Christ, Carl P.. Measurement in Economics: Studies in Mathematical Economics and Econometrics. p. 219. ISBN 0-8047-0136-9.
9. ↑ Geddes, Barbara. Paradigms and Sand Castles: Theory Building and Research Design in Comparative Politics. Analytical Perspectives on Politics. p. 121. ISBN 0-472-06835-0.
10. ↑ "Inflation Chile 1973". http://www.inflation.eu/inflation-rates/chile/historic-inflation/cpi-inflation-chile-1973.aspx.
11. ↑ The Rise & Fall of Israeli Inflation, Jewish Virtual Library, 2011, http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-rise-and-fall-of-israeli-inflation, retrieved 16 May 2018
12. ↑ "History page". Central Bank of Iraq. http://cbi.iq/index.php?pid=History.
13. ↑ "Deaths as thousands riot in Madagascar". 26 January 2009. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/madagascar/4348449/Deaths-as-thousands-riot-in-Madagascar.html.
14. ↑ "North Korea currency change sparks panic". British Broadcasting Corporation. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8394987.stm.
15. ↑ "Syrian pound falls 33% against US dollar in 2 weeks". 17 January 2020. https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/2020/01/17/syrian-pound-falls-33-against-us-dollar-in-2-weeks.
16. ↑ "Syria's Assad raises penalty on foreign-currency use to seven years hard labour" (in en). http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syrias-assad-raises-penalty-foreign-currency-use-seven-years-hard-labour.
17. ↑ "It's Official — Venezuela Has Plunged into Recession". http://www.businessinsider.com/afp-venezuela-enters-recession-inflation-tops-63-2014-12.

* v
* t
* e

Economic history of the United States and Commonwealth of Nations countries

Commercial revolution
(1000–1760)|

* Great Bullion Famine (c. 1400–c. 1500)
* Great Slump (1430–1490)
* The Great Debasement (1544–1551)
* Financial Revolution (1690–1800)
* Slump of 1706
* Great Frost of 1709
* South Sea bubble (1713–1720)
* Mississippi bubble (1717–1720)
* Economic impact of the Seven Years' War (1754–1763)

1st Industrial Revolution/
Market Revolution
(1760–1870)|

* Industrial Revolution
* Scotland
* United States
* Wales
* Bengal Bubble of 1769 (1769–1784)
* British credit crisis of 1772–1773
* American Revolutionary War inflation (1775–1783)
* Panic of 1785 (1785–1788)
* Copper Panic of 1789/Panic of 1792 (1789–1793)
* Canal Mania (c. 1790–c. 1810)
* Panic of 1796–1797 (1796–1799)
* 1802–1804 recession
* Carolina gold rush (1802–1825)
* Depression of 1807 (1807–1810)
* 1810s Alabama real estate bubble
* Alabama Fever
* 1812 recession
* Post-Napoleonic Depression (1815–1821)
* 1822–23 recession
* Panic of 1825
* Panic of 1826
* 1828–29 recession
* Georgia Gold Rush (1828–c. 1840)
* 1830s Chicago real estate bubble
* 1833–34 recession
* Panic of 1837 (1836–1838 and 1839–1843)
* U.S. state defaults in the 1840s
* Railway Mania (c. 1840–c. 1850)
* Plank Road Boom (1844–c. 1855)
* 1845–46 recession
* Panic of 1847 (1847–1848)
* California gold rush (1848–1855)
* British Columbia gold rushes
* Queen Charlottes Gold Rush, 1851
* Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, 1858
* Rock Creek Gold Rush, 1859
* Similkameen Gold Rush, 1860
* Stikine Gold Rush, 1861
* Cariboo Gold Rush, 1861–1867
* Wild Horse Creek Gold Rush, 1863–1870
* Leechtown Gold Rush, 1864–1865
* Big Bend Gold Rush, c. 1865
* Omineca Gold Rush, 1869
* Victorian gold rush (1851–c. 1870)
* New South Wales gold rush (1851–1880)
* Australian gold rushes (1851–1914)
* 1853–54 recession
* Panic of 1857 (1857–1858)
* Pike's Peak gold rush (1858–1861)
* Pennsylvania oil rush (1859–1891)
* 1860–61 recession
* Colorado River mining boom (1861–1864)
* Otago gold rush (1861–1864)
* U.S. Civil War economy (1861–1865)
* First Nova Scotia Gold Rush (1861–1874)
* West Coast Gold Rush (1864–1867)
* Panic of 1866 (1865–1867)
* Vermilion Lake gold rush (1865–1867)
* Kildonan Gold Rush (1869)
* Black Friday (1869–1870)

Gilded Age/
2nd Industrial Revolution
(1870–1914)|

* Coromandel Gold Rushes (c. 1870–c. 1890)
* Cassiar Gold Rush (c. 1870–c. 1890)
* Long Depression
* 1873–1879; Panic of 1873
* Black Hills gold rush (1874–1880)
* Colorado Silver Boom (1879–1893)
* Western Australian gold rushes (c. 1880–c. 1900)
* Indiana gas boom (c. 1880–1903)
* Ohio oil rush (c. 1880–c. 1930)
* Depression of 1882–1885
* Panic of 1884
* Cayoosh Gold Rush (1884)
* Witwatersrand Gold Rush (1886)
* 1887–88 recession
* Baring crisis (1890–1891)
* Cripple Creek Gold Rush (c. 1890–c. 1910)
* Panic of 1893 (1893–1897)
* Australian banking crisis of 1893
* Black Monday (1894)
* Panic of 1896
* Klondike Gold Rush (1896–1899)
* Second Nova Scotia Gold Rush (1896–1903)
* Kobuk River Stampede (1897–1899)
* Mount Baker gold rush (1897–c. 1925)
* 1899–1900 recession
* Nome Gold Rush (1899–1909)
* Fairbanks Gold Rush (c. 1900–c. 1930)
* Texas oil boom (1901–c. 1950)
* Panic of 1901 (1902–1904)
* Cobalt silver rush (1903–c. 1930)
* Panic of 1907 (1907–1908)
* Porcupine Gold Rush (1909–c. 1960)
* Panic of 1910–11 (1910–1912)
* Financial crisis of 1914 (1913–14)

World War home fronts/
Interwar period
(1914–1945)|

* World War I economy and home fronts
* Australia
* Canada
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Post–World War I recession (1918–1919)
* Recession of 1920–1921
* 1920s Florida land boom (c. 1920–1925)
* Roaring Twenties
* 1923–1924 recession
* 1926–1927 recession
* Great Depression
* 1929–1939; Wall Street crash of 1929
* Panic of 1930
* Great Contraction, 1929–1933
* Recession of 1937–1938
* Australia
* Canada
* India
* South Africa
* United Kingdom
* United States
* 1930s Kakamega Gold Rush
* Third Nova Scotia Gold Rush (1932–1942)
* World War II home front
* Australia
* Canada
* United Kingdom
* United States

Post–WWII expansion/
1970s stagflation
(1945–1982)|

* Great Compression
* 1945 recession
* Recession of 1949 (1948–1949)
* Hong Kong and Singapore Asian Tiger expansions (1950–1990)
* 1951 Canada recession
* Recession of 1953 (1953–1954)
* Recession of 1958 (1957–1958)
* Recession of 1960–1961
* Kennedy Slide of 1962
* Poseidon bubble (1969–1970)
* Recession of 1969–1970
* 1970s commodities boom
* 1973–1975 recession
* 1973–1974 stock market crash
* Secondary banking crisis of 1973–1975
* 1970s energy crisis
* 1973–1980; 1973 oil crisis
* 1979 oil crisis
* Steel crisis (1973–1982)
* 1976 sterling crisis
* Silver Thursday (1980)
* Early 1980s recession
* 1980–1982; United States

Computer Age/
Second Gilded Age
(1982–present)|

* Great Moderation (1982–2007)
* 1980s oil glut
* Black Saturday (1983)
* New Zealand property bubble (c. 1985–)
* Savings and loan crisis (1986–1995)
* Black Monday (1987)
* Friday the 13th mini-crash (1989)
* Early 1990s recession
* 1990–1991; Australia
* United States
* 1990 oil price shock
* Rhode Island banking crisis (1990–1992)
* 1991 Indian economic crisis
* 1990s United States boom (1991–2001)
* 1990s India economic boom
* Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe (1991–present)
* Black Wednesday (1992)
* 1994 bond market crisis
* 1994 Papua New Guinea financial crisis
* Dot-com bubble
* 1995–2004; Stock market downturn of 2002
* 1997 Asian financial crisis
* October 27, 1997, mini-crash
* Early 2000s recession
* 2001; 9/11 stock market crash
* 2000s commodities boom (2000–2014)
* United States housing bubble (2002–2006)
* Canadian property bubble (2002–)
* 2003 Myanmar banking crisis
* 2000s energy crisis (2003–2008)
* North Dakota oil boom (2006–2015)
* Uranium bubble of 2007
* Great Recession
* 2007–2009; Australia and New Zealand
* Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka
* British West Indies
* Canada
* South Africa
* United Kingdom
* United States
* 2008 financial crisis
* September
* October
* November
* December
* 2009
* Subprime mortgage crisis
* 2000s U.S. housing market correction
* U.S. bear market of 2007–2009
* 2007–2010 U.S. bank failures
* Corporate debt bubble (2008–)
* Blue Monday Crash 2009
* 2010 flash crash
* Malaysia Tiger Cub expansion (2010s)
* Australian property bubble (2010–)
* August 2011 stock markets fall
* Black Monday
* 2011 Bangladesh share market scam
* Cryptocurrency bubble (2011–)
* Puerto Rican government-debt crisis (2014–2022)
* 2015–2016 stock market selloff
* Brexit stock market crash (2016)
* 2017 Sri Lankan fuel crisis
* Ghana banking crisis (2017–2018)
* Sri Lankan economic crisis (2019–2024)
* COVID-19 recession
* 2020–2022; 2020 stock market crash
* financial market impact
* sectoral impacts
* shortages
* Canada
* India
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* United Kingdom
* United States
* 2020s commodities boom
* Global energy crisis
* 2021–2023; 2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis
* regional effects
* 2021–2023 global supply chain crisis
* 2021–2023 inflation surge
* Pakistani economic crisis (2021–2024)
* 2022 stock market decline
* 2022–2023 global food crises
* 2023 United Kingdom recession
* 2023 United States banking crisis
* 2025 stock market crash

Countries and sectors|

* Australia
* rail transport
* slavery
* whaling/Western Australia
* Canada
* agriculture
* currencies
* early banking system
* list of recessions
* petroleum industry
* rail transport
* slavery
* technological and industrial
* whaling/Pacific Northwest
* Ghana
* India
* agriculture
* Company rule
* maritime
* British Raj
* Deindustrialisation
* salt tax
* slavery
* Malaysia
* New Zealand
* whaling
* Nigeria
* slavery
* Pakistan
* maritime
* rail transport
* South Africa
* slavery
* whaling
* Uganda
* United Kingdom
* Agricultural Revolution
* Atlantic slave trade
* banking
* British Empire
* English fiscal system
* Interwar unemployment and poverty
* list of recessions
* maritime/England/Scotland
* Middle Ages England/agriculture
* national debt
* Scotland/agriculture/Middle Ages
* rail transport/pre–1830/1830–1922/1923–1947/1948–1994/1995–present
* slavery
* trade unions
* Victorian era
* Wales
* whaling/Scotland
* United States
* agriculture
* banking/colonial-era credit/cooperatives/investment banking/wildcat banking
* business
* central banking
* coal mining
* indentured servitude
* iron and steel industry
* labor
* list of economic expansions
* list of recessions
* lumber industry
* maritime/colonial-era/1776–1799/1800–1899/1900–1999/2000–present
* monetary policy
* poverty
* petroleum industry/oil shale
* public debt
* rail transportation
* slavery/colonial-era slavery/forced labor/slave trade/slave markets
* tariffs
* taxation
* technological and industrial
* United States dollar
* whaling
* Zimbabwe

Business cycle topics|

* Aggregate demand/Supply
* Effective demand
* General glut
* Model
* Overproduction
* Paradox of thrift
* Price-and-wage stickiness
* Underconsumption
* Inflation and unemployment
* Chronic
* Classical dichotomy
* Debasement
* Debt monetization
* Demand-pull/cost-push/built-in inflation
* Deflation
* Disinflation
* Full employment
* Hyperinflation
* Money supply/demand
* NAIRU
* Natural rate of unemployment
* Neutrality of money
* Phillips curve
* Price level
* Real and nominal value
* Sahm rule
* Velocity of money
* Expansion
* Miracle
* Recovery
* Stagnation
* Interest rate
* Nominal interest rate
* Real interest rate
* Yield curve/Inverted
* Recession
* Balance sheet
* Depression
* Global
* Rolling
* Shapes
* Stagflation
* Shock
* Demand
* Supply

Credit cycle topics|

* Financial bubble
* Commodity booms/diamond rush/gold rush/oil boom
* Real-estate bubble/housing bubble/boomtown/ghost town
* Speculation
* Stock market bubble
* Financial crisis
* Bank run/bank failure
* Commodity price shocks
* Credit crunch
* Currency crisis
* Debt crisis
* Energy crisis
* Liquidity crisis/accounting/capital/funding/market
* Minsky moment/leverage cycle
* Stock market crash/Flash crash
* Social contagion
* Financial contagion
* Irrational exuberance
* Market trend
* Proposed bubbles
* AI bubble/AI boom/Fourth Industrial Revolution/Imagination Age
* Carbon bubble/Age of Oil/Peak oil
* Everything bubble
* Green bubble
* Social media stock bubble
* Unicorn bubble
* U.S. higher education bubble

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic inflation. Read more

|

Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Finance:Chronic_inflation&oldid=4113845"
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template