Cryptocurrencies in Europe

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The general notion of cryptocurrencies in Europe denotes the processes of legislative regulation, distribution, circulation, and storage of cryptocurrencies in Europe. In April 2023, the EU Parliament passed the Markets in Crypto Act (MiCA) unified legal framework for crypto-assets within the European Union.

## Contents

* 1 The legality of cryptocurrencies in Europe
* 2 Cryptocurrency market
* 2.1 Germany
* 2.2 United Kingdom
* 2.3 Ukraine
* 2.4 The Netherlands
* 2.5 Estonia
* 2.6 France
* 2.7 Spain
* 2.8 Austria
* 2.9 Hungary
* 2.10 Denmark
* 2.11 Sweden
* 2.12 Czech Republic
* 2.13 Switzerland
* 2.14 Norway
* 2.15 Luxembourg
* 3 See also
* 4 Notes
* 5 References

## The legality of cryptocurrencies in Europe

There are some regulatory policy recommendations for EU states to follow in the course of cryptocurrency adoption and regulatory framework development that are given below in chronological order.

* In 2013, the European Banking Authority (EBA) issued a public warning about the possible risks of virtual currencies.[1]
* In 2014, The EBA issued a decision on virtual currencies, which included a list of more than 70 risks associated with its dissemination.[2]
* In 2016, the European Central Bank issued an analysis of virtual currency schemes, acknowledging the potential advantages of virtual currencies.[3]
* In 2017
* The European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) published a study in 2017 on the use of distributed ledger technology (DLT) in securities markets.[4]
* Also in the same year, ESMA released two statements on initial coin offerings (ICOs), one on investor risks and the other on the laws that apply to companies that participate in these offers. After that, the European Commission directed the EBA and ESMA to evaluate the applicability and appropriateness of the existing EU financial services regulatory framework to crypto assets.[5][6]
* In 2018
* The European Parliament released two reports about virtual currencies and central banks’ monetary policy.[7][8]
* The Financial Stability Board (FSB) released a study on the crypto asset market and its potential pathways for future financial stability concerns.[9]
* In 2019
* During the G7 meeting of July 2019 risks posed by global stablecoin projects were discussed.[10]
* FINMA, the Swiss financial authority, published a supplement to its ICO guidelines outlining how it treats so-called ‘stable coins’ under Swiss supervisory law.[11]
* In 2019, ECB highlighted the paper series with a discussion about stability in crypto-assets.[12]
* In 2020
* In September 2020, The European Commission has today adopted a new Digital Finance Package, including Digital Finance and Retail Payments Strategies, and legislative proposals on crypto-assets and digital resilience.[13]
* In 2020, the ECB released a report about stablecoins’ regulatory status.[14]
* In 2020, the European Commission proposed a pilot regime for market infrastructures that wish to try to trade and settle transactions in financial instruments in crypto-asset form.[15][16]
* In 2021
* In July 2021, The European Central Bank is launching a pilot project for the "digital euro". Also, it has officially launched a 2-year-long study on the creation of a Digital Euro and the various nuances that would involve.[17]
* In July 2021, the European Commission released a statement that would apply what is known as the travel rule to crypto transactions to make them more traceable.[18][19]
* In September 2021, European Securities and Markets Authority published a report on Trends, Risks and Vulnerabilities where crypto assets are considered a high-risked innovational financial technology.[20]
* On April 20, 2023, the EU Parliament passed the Markets in Crypto Act (MiCA), a unified legal framework to regulate crypto-assets in the European Union,[21] in order to mitigate money laundering and help reduce consumer risk by making providers liable for losses.[22]

## Cryptocurrency market

According to Chainalysis, Europe's growth was largely driven by so-called "whales[23]", large institutional investors shifting enormous sums of cryptocurrency.[24][lower-alpha 1] According to Chainalysis, Europe has the world's largest crypto economy, collecting $1 trillion in the previous year, or 25% of all crypto activity worldwide.[26]

Different countries have their own approach to cryptocurrencies legalization, distribution, and storage.

### Germany

Germany continues implementing crypto into the national regulation. First, they started with licensing crypto custody service providers and defining crypto assets as financial instruments.[27] Now private funds are allowed to keep 20% of their investments in crypto.[28]

In August 2020, the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Justice of Germany promulgated a bill to regulate electronic securities in the country (eWpG-E).[29]

### United Kingdom

Although the United Kingdom affirmed in 2020 that crypto assets are property, it has no cryptocurrency regulations and does not consider cryptocurrencies to be legal tender.[30][31] Mining of cryptocurrencies is permitted.[32]

In March 2022, the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA) declared that all cryptocurrency ATMs in the country were illegal and would need to be shut down. None of the ATM's operators had successfully registered with the agency. The FCA cited a failure to comply with know your customer laws (KYC), which track and prevent money laundering, as well as the high risk to customers, due to a lack of regulation and protection. At the time, Coin ATM Radar listed 81 such ATMs in the country.[33][34]

### Ukraine

In September 2021, the Parliament of Ukraine passed a law to legalize cryptocurrency. The law divided virtual currencies into secured and unsecured assets and establishes an obligation for crypto service providers to comply with anti-money laundering laws.[35]

In June 2025, the Verkhovna Rada registered Draft Bill No. 13356 to let the National Bank of Ukraine hold and trade virtual assets as reserve assets alongside gold and foreign currency. In September 2025, the Rada passed Bill No. 10225-d in first reading, creating a VASP regime and tax rules: profits are taxed at 18% PIT plus a 5% military levy on fiat conversions in the first year, while virtual-to-virtual exchanges and some low-value transactions are exempt. The proposal classifies virtual assets as asset-backed tokens, e-money tokens, or other virtual assets, and requires provider registration, KYC/AML measures, and annual reporting.[36]

### The Netherlands

In July 2020, The Dutch Central Bank (DNB) said the euro system's central bank digital currency (CBDC) should be more programmable than Bitcoin.[37][38]

### Estonia

Estonia published its AML Bill as early as 2018.[39] According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Estonia's tax policy is one of the most competitive in the world. There is no income tax in this jurisdiction, therefore funds received through ICOs are not subject to it, and Bitcoin and altcoins are not subject to VAT.[40][41] As of 2021, 55% of all crypto currency service providers in the world are registered in Estonia according to the Estonian Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) (Estonian: Rahapesu Andmebüroo (RAB)).[39] On 25 March 2024, the United States Treasury imposed sanctions against the Estonia-based Timur Evgenyevich Bukanov (Russian: Тимур Евгеньевич Буканов) associated Bitfingroup OÜ.[42]

### France

Government policy appears to be supportive of crypto, if it would be possible to regulate.[43] In March 2020, the Central Bank of France began to study the topic of CBDC, in May it sold securities for the digital euro, and in September 2020, France announced the launch of CBDC based on the Tezos blockchain.

### Spain

In Spain, there is no specific virtual currencies' legislation, except for the law approved in July 2021 on preventing and fighting tax evasion.[44]

### Austria

Investors were cautioned by the Financial Market Authority (FMA) that cryptocurrencies are risky and that FMA does not monitor or control virtual currencies, including bitcoin or any cryptocurrency trading platforms.[45][46]

### Hungary

In 2014, in a press release the central bank of Hungary, Magyar Nemzeti Bank (MNB), stated that Cryptocurrencies are "much riskier" than conventional forms of electronic payment, such credit cards.[47]

### Denmark

The Financial Supervisory Authority of Denmark declared in a statement that it will not regulate the use of bitcoin and that it is not a form of currency.[48]

The Financial Supervisory Authority (FSA) released a statement on 17 December 2013 that supporting the European Banking Authority 's warning. In 2017, FSA notified that it has no regulatory control over bitcoin transactions, hence it does not prevent anyone on the establishment of such business.[49]

In 2013, FSA's chief legal adviser stated that Denmark might consider changing existing financial regulation to include virtual currencies.[50]

### Sweden

The Swedish Tax Agency issued a preliminary decision on Value Added Tax (VAT) on bitcoins, declaring that trading bitcoins is not subject to Swedish VAT, but is instead subject to the Financial Supervisory Authority regulations and treated as a currency.[48]

Financial Supervisory Authority and the central bank in a statement publicly declared that bitcoin is legal but not an official form of payment or legal tender.[46]

### Czech Republic

Czech Republic Govt. stated that businesses and people who purchase, sell, store, manage, or mediate the acquisition or selling of virtual currencies or offer similar services are required to adhere to anti-money laundering regulations.[45]

For the purposes of accounting and taxes, Bitcoin is categorized as an intangible asset rather than as electronic money.[51]

### Switzerland

Swiss Govt declared that Bitcoin businesses in Switzerland are regulated by anti-money laundering laws and may need a banking license in certain situations.

On December 5, 2013, a proposal was submitted by 45 Swiss Parliament members concerning digital sustainability, which urged the Swiss government to evaluate the opportunities for utilization of bitcoin by the country's financial sector.[52]

In response to the parliament's recommendations, the Swiss Federal Council issued a report on virtual currencies in June 2014.[53]

### Norway

In December 2013, the Norwegian Tax Administration said that they did not classify bitcoin as currency but rather as an asset. Wealth tax is applied on profits. In business, use of bitcoin will be subject to tax sale tax.[54]

### Luxembourg

In Luxembourg, the first BitLicense was issued in October 2015.[55]

## See also

* Central bank digital currency

## Notes

1. ↑ As of June 24, 2023, Tether is the preferred blockchain for Yevgeny Prigozhin and his Wagner Group because Tether still supported the trading of Russian rubles across digital-asset exchanges.[25]

## References

1. ↑ "EBA Warning and Opinion on Virtual Currencies". https://www.centralbank.ie/consumer-hub/consumer-notices/eba-opinion-on-virtual-currencies.
2. ↑ "EBA Opinion on 'virtual currencies'". https://www.eba.europa.eu/sites/default/documents/files/documents/10180/657547/81409b94-4222-45d7-ba3b-7deb5863ab57/EBA-Op-2014-08 Opinion on Virtual Currencies.pdf?retry=1.
3. ↑ "Virtual currency schemes – a further analysis". https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/virtualcurrencyschemesen.pdf.
4. ↑ "Report on Distributed Ledger Technology Applied to Securities Markets". https://www.esma.europa.eu/document/report-distributed-ledger-technology-applied-securities-markets.
5. ↑ "ESMA highlights ICO risks for investors and firms". https://www.esma.europa.eu/press-news/esma-news/esma-highlights-ico-risks-investors-and-firms.
6. ↑ "REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on Markets in Crypto-assets, and amending Directive (EU) 2019/1937". https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52020PC0593&from=EN.
7. ↑ "Virtual currencies and central banks monetary policy: challenges ahead". https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/149900/CASE_FINAL publication.pdf.
8. ↑ "Virtual Currencies". https://www.europarl.europa.eu/cmsdata/149902/KIEL_FINAL publication.pdf.
9. ↑ "Crypto-asset markets: Potential channels for future financial stability implications". https://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/P101018.pdf.
10. ↑ Cœuré, Benoît (2019-07-18) (in en). Update from the Chair of the G7 working group on stablecoins. https://www.bis.org/cpmi/speeches/sp190718.htm.
11. ↑ FINMA, Eidgenössische Finanzmarktaufsicht. "FINMA publishes 'stable coin' guidelines" (in en). https://www.finma.ch:443/en/news/2019/09/20190911-mm-stable-coins/.
12. ↑ "Occasional Paper Series: In search for stability in crypto-assets: are stablecoins the solution?". https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scpops/ecb.op230~d57946be3b.en.pdf.
13. ↑ "Digital Finance Package: Commission sets out new, ambitious approach to encourage responsible innovation to benefit consumers and businesses". https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_1684.
14. ↑ "Occasional Paper Series Stablecoins: Implications for monetary policy, financial stability, market infrastructure and payments, and banking supervision in the euro area". https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/scpops/ecb.op247~fe3df92991.en.pdf.
15. ↑ "Procedure file". https://oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/printficheglobal.pdf?id=718278&l=en.
16. ↑ "Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council". https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/business_economy_euro/banking_and_finance/200924-presentation-proposal-crypto-assets-markets_en.pdf.
17. ↑ "European central bank officially announces 2-year-investigation to develop digital euro". https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/business/cryptocurrency/blockchain/european-central-bank-officially-announces-2-year-investigation-to-develop-digital-euro/articleshow/86029354.
18. ↑ Jones, Huw (2021-07-20). "EU to tighten rules on cryptoasset transfers" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/eu-tighten-rules-cryptoasset-transfers-2021-07-20/.
19. ↑ Bateman, Tom (2021-07-21). "The EU is making Bitcoin traceable, closing crypto loophole" (in en). https://www.euronews.com/next/2021/07/21/eu-will-make-bitcoin-traceable-and-ban-anonymous-crypto-wallets-in-anti-money-laundering-d.
20. ↑ "ESMA Report on Trends, Risks and Vulnerabilities". https://www.esma.europa.eu/sites/default/files/library/esma50-165-1842_trv2-2021.pdf.
21. ↑ Browne, Ryan (20 April 2023). "EU lawmakers approve world's first comprehensive framework for crypto regulation" (in en). https://www.cnbc.com/2023/04/20/eu-lawmakers-approve-worlds-first-comprehensive-crypto-regulation.html.
22. ↑ "EU passes world's first comprehensive crypto framework" (in en). 2023-04-21. https://fintechmagazine.com/articles/eu-approves-new-framework-for-crypto-regulations.
23. ↑ Wisdom, Crypto (2024-02-13). "What Is a Crypto Whale?". https://smartcryptowisdom.com/what-is-a-crypto-whale/.
24. ↑ Bateman, Tom (2021-09-29). "'Whales' make Europe the world's new cryptocurrency capital" (in en). https://www.euronews.com/next/2021/09/29/europe-is-now-the-world-s-cryptocurrency-capital.
25. ↑ Shen, Muyao (26 June 2023). "Russians Appeared to Seek Refuge in Crypto During Wagner Revolt". Bloomberg News. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-06-26/russians-appeared-to-seek-refuge-in-crypto-during-wagner-revolt.
26. ↑ "DeFi makes Western Europe the world's largest 'crypto economy'" (in en-US). 28 September 2021. https://finance.yahoo.com/news/de-fi-made-western-europe-the-worlds-largest-crypto-economy-170824285.html.
27. ↑ Kissler, Michael (July 2020). "Guidance on crypto assets and crypto custody under the recent amendment to the KWG.". Corporate Finance. https://research.owlit.de/document/f978da98-f883-37ab-92c7-df921c5651c3.
28. ↑ "Germany to Allow Institutional Funds to Hold up to 20% in Crypto" (in en). Bloomberg.com. 2021-07-30. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-07-30/germany-to-allow-institutional-funds-to-hold-up-to-20-in-crypto.
29. ↑ "Germany: Electronic Securities Act Enters into Force". https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2021-06-29/germany-electronic-securities-act-enters-into-force/.
30. ↑ "Crypto Regulations in the UK" (in en-US). https://complyadvantage.com/knowledgebase/crypto-regulations/cryptocurrency-regulations-uk-united-kingdom/.
31. ↑ "Central bank digital currencies" (in en). https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/research/digital-currencies.
32. ↑ "Blockchain & Cryptocurrency Laws and Regulations | United Kingdom | GLI" (in en). https://www.globallegalinsights.com/practice-areas/blockchain-laws-and-regulations/united-kingdom.
33. ↑ Moon, M. (11 March 2022). "UK's financial regulator orders shutdown of all Bitcoin ATMs". Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/uk-orders-bitcoin-atm-shutdown-125830919.html.
34. ↑ Titcomb, James (11 March 2022). "Bitcoin cashpoints forced to shut down after being declared illegal". The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2022/03/11/bitcoin-cashpoints-forced-shut-declared-illegal/.
35. ↑ "Parliament passes law to legalize cryptocurrency in Ukraine – KyivPost – Ukraine's Global Voice". 2021-09-08. https://www.kyivpost.com/technology/parliament-passes-law-to-legalize-cryptocurrency-in-ukraine.html.
36. ↑ Cheplyk, Roman (2025-10-20). "The Evolving Legal Status of Cryptocurrency in Ukraine (2021 – 2025)" (in en-US). https://good-time-invest.com/blog/the-evolving-legal-status-of-cryptocurrency-in-ukraine-2021-2025/.
37. ↑ "Dutch National Bank to lead way in digital euro development" (in en). 2020-05-21. https://www.finextra.com/newsarticle/35868/dutch-national-bank-to-lead-way-in-digital-euro-development.
38. ↑ "Blockchain & Cryptocurrency Laws and Regulations | Netherlands | GLI" (in en). https://www.globallegalinsights.com/practice-areas/blockchain-laws-and-regulations/Netherlands.
39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Laine, Martin; Kund, Oliver; Aljas, Riin; Vunš, Marta; Tuul, Marta; Roonemaa, Holger; Černiauskas, Šarūnas; Sepioło, Mariusz (4 October 2023). "TALES FROM THE CRYPTO: HOW THE BALTIC STATES BECAME THE HUB OF MONEY LAUNDERING AND FRAUD: International criminals used Estonia's deficient cryptocurrency regulation to turn the small country into a hub of financial crime where over a billion euros have been laundered or defrauded from victims. Now the same actors are relocating to other countries who repeat all the same mistakes". vsquare.org. https://vsquare.org/tales-from-the-crypto-money-laundering-fraud-sanctions-estonia-lithuania-russia/. Alternate archive in Russian
40. ↑ "Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing Prevention Act – Riigi Teataja". https://www.riigiteataja.ee/en/eli/517112017003/consolide.
41. ↑ Pomerleau, Kyle (2015-11-06). "Estonia's Growth-Oriented Tax Code" (in en-US). https://taxfoundation.org/estonia-s-growth-oriented-tax-code/.
42. ↑ "Treasury Designates Russian Companies Supporting Sanctions Evasion Through Virtual Asset Services and Technology Procurement". United States Department of the Treasury (treasury.gov). 25 March 2024. https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy2204.
43. ↑ "Blockchain & Cryptocurrency Laws and Regulations | France | GLI" (in en). https://www.globallegalinsights.com/practice-areas/blockchain-laws-and-regulations/france.
44. ↑ "Blockchain & Cryptocurrency Laws and Regulations | Spain | GLI" (in en). https://www.globallegalinsights.com/practice-areas/blockchain-laws-and-regulations/spain.
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Regulation of cryptocurrency around the world : Albania, Algeria, Angola, Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Azerbaijan, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium". https://www.loc.gov/item/2021687419/.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Cryptocurrency regulations by country". https://www.thomsonreuters.com/en-us/posts/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2022/04/Cryptos-Report-Compendium-2022.pdf.
47. ↑ "Sajtóközlemény: Az MNB kockázatosnak tartja a fizetésre használható virtuális eszközöket, például a Bitcoint". https://www.mnb.hu/archivum/Felugyelet/root/fooldal/topmenu/sajto/sajtokozlemenyek/bitcoin_kozl.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "Regulation of Bitcoin in selected jurisdictions". https://www.loc.gov/item/2014427360/.
49. ↑ "Advarsel mod virtuelle valutaer (bitcoin m.fl.)". 2013-12-17. http://www.finanstilsynet.dk/da/Nyhedscenter/Pressemeddelelser/2013/Advarsel-mod-virtuelle-valutaer-bitcom-mfl-2013.aspx.
50. ↑ "Bitcoins Spark Regulatory Crackdown as Denmark Drafts Rules – Businessweek". 2013-12-18. http://www.businessweek.com/news/2013-12-17/bitcoin-rules-drafted-in-denmark-as-regulator-warns-against-use.
51. ↑ Kucharova, Ivana; Pfeiferova, Daniela; Lőrinczova, Enikő. Specifics of Cryptocurrencies from an Accounting, Tax and Financial View in a Globalized Environment. https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/pdf/2021/03/shsconf_glob20_03014.pdf.
52. ↑ "Swiss Parliament". https://www.parlament.ch/en.
53. ↑ "Federal Council report on virtual currencies in response to the Schwaab (13.3687) and Weibel (13.4070) postulates". The Swiss Parliament. http://www.news.admin.ch/NSBSubscriber/message/attachments/35355.pdf.
54. ↑ "Bitcoins Fail Currency Test in Scandinavia's Richest Nation" (in en). Bloomberg.com. 2013-12-13. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-12-12/bitcoins-fail-real-money-test-in-scandinavia-s-wealthiest-nation.
55. ↑ "SnapSwap Granted License for EU Operations". http://www.chronicle.lu/category/business-1/13635-snapswap-granted-license-for-eu-operations.

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Cryptocurrencies

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|

Ethash-based|

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